PHIL1020 -- Chapter 3 Terms

Types of Bad Arguments

- Begging the question: p is true because p is true - Equivocation: a fetus is a human -- a human deserves life -- a fetus has the right to live - Appeal to Authority: listening to bad intel - Slippery Slope if you do this, these are the consequences - Faulty Analogy trying to compare two things aren't true - Appeal to Ignorance absence of evidence - Straw Man we should relax the laws on weed -- no, we cannot fall to being a lazy society - Hasty Generalisation (inductive reasoning) about 20 arrests have been made in just a week -- why are all black people thugs - Appeal to the Person (ad hominem) Tupac Shakur emphasized on world peace, but who would wanna listen to a thug?

Argument

A group of statements, one of which is supposed to be supported by the rest. When at least one statement attempts to provide reasons for believing another statement -- you have an argument!

Moral Statement

A statement affirming that an action is right or wrong or that a person is good or bad. Examples: - Capital punishment is wrong. - Jena should not have lied. - You ought to treat him as he treated you. - Tania is a good person. - Cruelty to animals is immoral.

Cogent

A strong argument with true premises.

Syllogism

A three-statement deductive argument.

Hypothetical Syllogism

A valid argument form -- if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Example: - If Maria walks to work, then she will be late. - If she is late, she will be fired. - Therefore, is Maria walks to work, she will be fired. If p, then q If q, then r Therefore, if p, then r

Sound

A valid argument with true premises.

Modus ponens

Affirming the antecedent Example: - If Maria walks to work, then she will be late. *** This form is always valid: if the premises are true, the conclusion has to be true ***

Conditional (Hypothetical)

An argument that has at least one conditional premise - a premise in an if-then pattern. The two parts of a conditional premise is the antecedent (if) and the consequent (then). If p, then q.

Statement (Claim)

An assertion that something is or is not the case; it is either true or false. Examples: - The ship sailed on the wind-tossed sea. - I feel tired and listless. - Murder is wrong. - 5 + 5 = 10 - A circle is not a square. Not Examples: - Why is Anna laughing? - Is abortion immoral? - Hand me the screwdriver. - Don't speak to me. Imperative & Interrogative sentences basically...

Deductive Arguments

Arguments that give logical conclusive support to their conclusions. (The conclusion must be true) Examples: - All men are mortal. - Socrates is a man. - Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Inductive Arguments

Arguments that offer only probable support to the conclusion. (The conclusion is probably true) Examples: - Almost all men at this college high SAT scores. - Therefore, Julio (a male student at the college) probably has a high SAT score.

Modus tollens

Denying the consequent Example 1: - If Maria walks to work, then she will be late. - She will not be late. - Therefore, she will not walk to work. If p, then q Not q Therefore, not p *** This form is always valid: no matter what statements you choose *** Example 2.1: Denying the antecedent - If Maria walks to work, then she will be late. - She will not walk to work. - Therefore, she will not be late. If p, then q Not p Therefore, not q Example 2.2: Affirming the consequent - If Mara walks to work, then she will be late. - She will be late. - Therefore, she will walk to work. If p, then q q Therefore, p *** These two forms are ALWAYS invalid: no matter what statements you choose ***

Invalid

Invalid arguments may/can contain true/false premises and a false conclusion.

Counterexample Method

It is impossible for a valid argument to have true premises and a false conclusion. Example: If capital punishment deters crime, then the number of death row inmates will decrease over time. But capital punishment does not deter crime. Therefore, the number of death row inmates will not decrease over time. TWIN ARGUMENT: If lizards are mammals, then they have legs. But they are not mammals. Therefore, they do not have legs. ***THEY BOTH HAVE TRUE PREMISES AND FALSE CONCLUSIONS***

Indicator Words

Terms that often appear in arguments and signal that a premise or conclusion may be nearby. Examples: - The word 'therefore' indicates that the conclusion follows. - The word 'because' signals the beginning of a premise.

Critical Reasoning

The careful, systematic evaluation of statements or claims.

Argumentation

The presentation of an argument (DON'T GET THIS CONFUSED W/ PERSUASION).

Conclusion

The statement being supported.

Premises

The supporting statements in an argument. - Dependent premises give little or no support on its own and requires assistance of at least one other premise. - Independent premises supports a conclusion without relying on any other premises.

Nonmoral Statement

They assert that a state of affairs is actual (true or false) but do not assign a moral value to it. Examples: - Many people think that capital punishment is wrong. - Jena did not lie. - You treated him as he treated you. - Tania tries to be a good person. - Animals are treated cruelly.

Valid

Valid arguments are only valid if the premises are true, then the conclusion absolutely has to be true.