Philosophy 101 OU
Utilitarianism
"greatest happiness principle" what gives the most 'utility'/happiness.creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure
natural law ethics
"i do what i am supposed to do, according to nature"
Hard Determinism
(aka incompatibilism) free will is an illusion and none of our actions are free
ethical relativism
(p.13) when some people do not believe that morality boils down to religion but rather it is merely a function of what a particular society believes. Thus the only ethical standard for judging an action is the moral system in which the act occurs. -disagreement in opinion doe snot mean that all opinions are equally correct.ethical relativism has unsatisfactory implications: #1-it undermines any moral criticism of the practices of other societies as long as their action conform to their own standards #2-for the ethical relativist there is not such thing as ethical progress. moralities cannot get better or worse #3-people cannot criticize principles or practices accepted by their own society, people can be censured for not living up to their society's moral code. the moral code itself cannot be judged. thus social reformers are only being immoral by pointing out injustices ( slavery) . not until majority of people start to think this too, minorities can never be right on moral matters.
conscience
(p.16)motivation deriving logically from ethical or moral principles that govern a person's thoughts and actions ( ex. when doing bad the feeling of guilt is similar to our parent's scolding ).following you conscience is not right at all !
morality in a narrow sense
(p.19) Concerns the principles that do or should regulate people's conduct and relationship with others, ( can be debated)
organizational norms
(p.21) Unwritten guidelines or expectations that prescribe the kinds of behavior employees should adopt in particular situations and regulate the way they behave toward each other.Also the acceptance whether explicit or implicit is always there as a business counts can operate when its workers are together.
groupthink
(p.22)the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.
bystander apathy
(p.24)People are less likely to help someone if they see other people who are in an equally good position to help.
diffusion of responsibility
(p.24)giving help is no more their responsibility than anyone else's -in larger groups people assume someone else will take care of the problem
counterexample
(p.25)an example which is consistent with the example but is inconsistent with its conclusion
argument
(p.25)group of statements one of which is (called a conclusion) claimed to follow from the others (premises)
sound arguments
(p.25)have true premises and valid reasoning
defensible moral judgements
(p.26) If a moral judgement or a conclusion is defensible, then it must be supportable by a defensible moral standard, with relevant facts.
constitutional law
(p.8)Law based on the constitution and supreme court decisions( doe snot enforce laws but has greatest power on array of issues some of which are ethics)
determinism
(philosophy) a philosophical theory holding that all events are inevitable consequences of antecedent sufficient causes
empiricism
(philosophy) the doctrine that knowledge derives from experience
rationalism
(philosophy) the doctrine that knowledge is acquired by reason without resort to experience
pragmatism
(philosophy) the doctrine that practical consequences are the criteria of knowledge and meaning and value
realism
(philosophy) the philosophical doctrine that physical object continue to exist when not perceived
idealism
(philosophy) the philosophical theory that ideas are the only reality
materialism
(philosophy) the philosophical theory that matter is the only reality
Tillich
* Theologian who advocated Christian Existentialism * Ultimate concern or commitment
Logos Word
, Meaning, Intelligence, Reason, Mind, and God.
The Great Circle of Being.... 2 types of truth.... How we gain knowledge
-God is the alpha and omega- beginning and end. -Born: self aware. Person = embodied spirit. -Aware: can act. Can cause reaction. -Observe: self and world. -Create ideas. -Share ideas with others. -Verify ideas and create facts. -Accumulate facts and knowledge. -Reach limit of reason ****Truths of Reason: come from observation of patterns, order/designs in the world. Truths of reason teach us "that" 1st cause exists. ********Truths of Faith: religious texts, teachings, mystical experiences. Truths of faith teach us "what" the 1st cause is. -Leap of Faith- use Free will to adopt a belief system. -Live according to belief systems rules to reach salvation.
Who is Aristotle?
-Most influential person on Earth -Born in Stagira Thrace -Attended Plato's Academy (368-348) -Opened Lyceum (2nd school that existed) -Father of Logic -Biologist -Wrote books on Astronomy -Alarm clock concept inventor -had problems w/ Plato's "Form"
Who is Aristotle?
-Most influential person on Earth -Born in Stagira Thrace -Attended Plato's Academy (368-348) -Opened Lyceum (2nd school that existed) -Father of Logic -Biologist -Wrote books on Astronomy -Alarm clock concept inventor -had problems w/ Plato's "Form"
Who are the Pluralists?
1. Empedocles 2. Anaxagoras 3. Democrities
patterns of defense and challenge
1. Evaluating the factual claims- 2.challenging the moral standard 3. Defending the moral standard 4.Revising and modifying the argument
3 types of ideas
1. Innate- born with. (3) -I exist -God exists -Mathematical notions 2. Adventitious- the world. 3. Fictitious- created with imagination.
What are 4 Chief/Platonic Virtues?
1. Justice 2. Wisdom 3. Courage 4. Temperance
(Plato) 3 States of Thoughts
1. Knowledge -> (mind) -> Being/is/Forms/Reality 2. Ignorance -> ( ) -> Non-Being/Nothing/Doesn't Exist 3. Opinion -> (Senses) -> Becoming/Change/Natural World (our world)/Sensible Objs.
Who were the 3 ppl that brought charges against Socrates?
1. Meletus - poet (leader) 2. Anytus - craftsman 3. Lycon - Sophist
5 Traditional Branches of Philosophy
1. Metaphysics 2. Epistemology 3. Aesthetics 4. Ethics 5. Logic
What are the 4 self-denial of the Pathagorean Way of Life?
1. No Drinking 2. No Sex 3. No Meat 4. No non-pathagorean friends
What are the 4 self-denial of the Pathagorean Way of Life?
1. No Drinking 2. No Sex 3. No Meat 4. No non-pathagorean friends
What was Thales famous for?
1. Olive Press 2. Earth was a flat disc 3. Big Bear (North Star) 4. Ht. of pyramid
What was Socrates' argument about his intention to harm those around him?
2 types of harm: 1. Intentional - will get harm in return 2. unintentional - shouldn't be convicted of crime... should get warning before conviction of crime
Tribunal (size)
501 people
the categorical imperative
:universal law or act which you put on that maxim which you can at the same time will it as a universal law, its about logic and reason not emotion :humanity- always treat persons as a means but as an ends to a means, moral dignity
Categorical Imperative
A rule that tells you what you ought to do no matter what. ex: you ought to avoid murdering people no matter what.
What did J.S. Mill believe?
Act so as to produce the greatest good for the greatest #; GOOD is a measure of happiness
Bigotry (fourth characteristic of)
Bigots join a community--mediocrity.
divine command theory
Divine Command Theory (DCT) - what's moral is whatever God (or some divine being) commands us to do.
Cartesian Method
Doubt!!
The Milesians
Everything in the world is reducible to one kind of stuff.
Causeality
Everything is cause/effect
The Stoics
Everything is determined by fate, so learn to go with the flow!
Aristotle
Greek philosopher. A pupil of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, he profoundly influenced Western thought. In his philosophical system, which led him to criticize what he saw as Plato's metaphysical excesses, theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the essential method of inquiry.
Metaphysics (etymology)
Greek words "meta physika" or "beyond nature".
15. What is one reason someone might think utilitarianism ignores the importance of higher-order pursuits (like learning philosophy, composing classical music, etc)? Why does Mill think that it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied (463)? How does Mill defend the need for higher-order pursuits?
Higher-order pursuits don't always lead to the greatest utility. While it might increase the utility of the one person learning classical music, giving time to charity would increase the utility of several people and therefore be more beneficial. Mill believes this because humans have a larger possible utility so while a pig might bet 2 utilies from being satisfied, a human would have three utilies when dissatisfied. While higher-order pursuits might not pay off in the short run, the person who learns classical music can then use that skill to raise money for charity through holding a concert, therefore increasing utility in the long run.
Who was the author of "Iliad/Odessey"?
Homer
Dilemma of human freedom
If determinism is true (every event has a cause), we are not free or responsible for our actions because they are not the result of FREE choice
Crito # 1
If you are executed, people will blame your friends.
Yin
In Ancient Chinese metaphysics, weak, negative, dark, and destructive natural force or principle; Earth; linked with yang.
Skepticism
In philosophy, an ancient school that stressed the uncertainty of our beliefs in order to oppose dogmatism
I know that _____ loves me.
Intuitive Truth. (Spoken word, written word, understanding, inner need, experiences, intuition.)
Philosophy
Investigation of the nature, causes, or principles of reality, knowledge, or values based on logical reasoning.
Rachels Praises Relativism
It rightly consults us to not simply assume that our moral is correct, to keep an open mind- own practices may be improved
The Muslim Jihad
Jihada
Tabula Rasa
John Locke Blank State
common law
Judge-made law that originated in England from decisions shaped according to prevailing custom. Decisions were applied to similar situations and gradually became common to the nation.
Theism
Judging that there is a God.
11. Suppose Oswald is free with respect to shooting Kennedy in 1963. How would a libertarian explain this freedom? How would a compatibilist explain it?
Libertarian: Oswald is free if he had the genuinely open options of choosing to shoot JFK and to not shoot him. Compatibilist: Oswald is free if he was able to do what he wanted to do, his will was not impeded. Does not have to actually have the open options of choosing to and not to shoot JFK.
Frui
Love we have for something because it is itself good
Sermon on the Mount
Love, forgive, and pray for your enemies.
Syllogism
Major premise; minor premise; and conclusion.
Alienation
Man doesn't believe he created religion
Modest skepticism
No more than critical thinking. You should demand evidence before you believe a claim, buy a product, join a religion, or vote for a candidate. And when you are offered reasons, you should scrutinize those reasons closely and consider opposing points of view. Make sure that the premises of the arguments you're considering really do support their conclusions, and that the premises themselves are acceptable ones.
What did Anaxagoras created?
Nous (mind) - /q thing is made /c intentions -Nous created /q thing Seeds replaced Elements Nous replaced minds
Who is Heraclitis?
Philosopher after Pathagoras. AKA: Heraclitis the Dork AKA: an "abusive grouch" -Natural Philosopher. -1st to criticize other philosophers
Who is Heraclitis?
Philosopher after Pathagoras. AKA: Heraclitis the Dork AKA: an "abusive grouch" -Natural Philosopher. -1st to criticize other philosophers
Anselm
Philosophical reasoning can help Christians better understand their faith.
Justin Martyr
Philosophy is good and Christianity is the best philosophy.
During the Classical Age, what was derived from the concept of "Time"?
Philosophy: 1. 2nd order qx - qxs about qxs. 2. Intrinsic value put on knowledge - wanted to learn just b/c.
Democritus
Pluralist Natural Philosopher
Democritus
Pluralist Natural Philosopher
Who is Anaxagoras?
Pluralist Natural Philosopher
Who is Empedocles?
Pluralist Natural Philosopher
Who is Meletus?
Poet who tried Socrates & got his death sentence
What is the chain of power in the roman catholic church.
Pope Cardinals Arch-Bishops Bishops Priests
Altruism
Right is doing good for others.
David Hume
Science proves causality science doesnt exist. sense experience
Astronomy
Scientific Stufy of the Stars.
Luther
Scripture alone is the Word of God-- so we can do just fine without Aristotle!
Methodism
Start with some method you're sure is reliable and then use it to distinguish between the true and the false.
Ethics
Study of Morality. Right vs. Wrong/ Objective vs. Subjective
Metaphysics
Study of reality. ie- chair vs. atom
Axiology
Study of values.
Material Cause
Stuff/Matter --> what something is made of - things retains quality of its stuff/matter
Internal Proposition
Subject statement.
Unhealthy Responses to Absurdity
Suicide (hopelessness, loneliness), alcoholism/drug abuse, violence, mental illness, T.V./virtual reality, sleep.
Ethical egoism
The moral theory that everyone should always act in his or her own self-interest.
Psychological criterion
The proposal that the closest psychological continuer relation connects a person moment-to-moment across their entire life and thus solves the puzzle of personal identity.
Other minds problem
The puzzle of how it is possible to know the mental states of another person based upon their behavior, a particularly acute problem for substance dualists.
political philosophy
The study of the nature, origin, and purpose of government
Definition of Philosophy
The study of the ultimate nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, especially when considered as an academic discipline. A lifelong pilgrimage.
Bundle theory
The view that you are nothing more than a loosely unified confederation of interests, motivations, beliefs, sensations, and emotions. Genuine personal identity over time is a fiction and an act of the imagination; we identify persons over time out of custom, without a more profound or defensible philosophical reason.
Anthropormorphism (relationship to Holy War)
Their enemies are God's enemies, because they are chosen.
What book did Hesiod write?
Theogony
Nagel's Bat
Theory (criticism of reductive materialism); He argues that consciousness is essential to a subjective character; a what it is like aspect? What is it like to be a bat?
What did Gorgias believe in?
There is no truth - it's just an illusion "go out & get yours" - doesn't care who's right /wrong, just as long as he gets $; doesn't believe in truths, right/wrongs ==> every man for himself
What did Gorgias believe in?
There is no truth - it's just an illusion "go out & get yours" - doesn't care who's right /wrong, just as long as he gets $; doesn't believe in truths, right/wrongs ==> every man for himself
What did Anaxagoras believe?
Things are made of smaller compounds ==> seeds ie- all things derived from seeds; each seeds are composed of opposites & vortex; seeds will last forever
Muavaise Foi (Goals)
To escape, not to demand too much of ourselves--bigotry.
Metaphysics
Ultimate reality: Free will, mind and body, supernatural existence, nature of being the philosophical study of being and knowing
Who is Chaerephon?
Wealthy friend of Socrates that went to Delphie Oracle (Apollo God) to ask qx: Is anyone wiser than Socrates?
13. Nagel believes in four kinds of moral luck. What is moral luck? Explain two examples of moral luck and provide examples.
When a significant aspect of what an agent does is beyond his control, yet we continue to treat him as morally responsible (or as an object of moral judgment) Constitutive Luck- We are often evaluated for what kind of people we are, But our characters are determined by factors outside of our control. ex: extroverts get more moral credit (friendly etc) Circumstantial Luck- We are often evaluated for rising to occasions, displaying heroism, generosity, cowardice, avarice etc. But the circumstances we are put in are determined by factors outside of our control. ex: Sully landed the plane in New York-not many people get the chance to do it-others could have done it but never get the chance
Categorical imperative (version 1)
You should act only according to those principles of action that you could will to be a universal law of nature.
Categorical imperative (version 2)
You should treat other people as ends in themselves and never merely as means to your own ends.
What do Pathagoreans believe would happen if you don't get to heaven?
Your soul gets reincarnated.
Libertarian free will
Your will is free just in case you can choose to perform one action instead of another.
Things/objects in natural world (our world) are held in common when they share what?
a common name.
ethical egoism
a consequentialist theory that states that actions are right if they maximize self interest
mere belief
a conviction is true that something is true for which the only evidence is the conviction itself. "validates itself"
Heraclitus
a presocratic Greek philosopher who said that fire is the origin of all things and that permanence is an illusion as all things are in perpetual flux (circa 500 BC)
ontological argument
a priori argument for the existence of god stating that the very concept or definition of god automatically entails that god exists; because of the special nature of the concept, there is no way that god could fail to exist
Unsoundness
an argument that is valid but one or more of its premises are false ex:
Soundness
an argument where it is valid and its premises are true ex:
valid argument
an argument whose premises logically entail its conclusion
Valid argument
argument in which the reasons support the conclusions so that the conclusion follows from the reasons offered
moral arguments
arguments which can be defines as simply as arguments whose conclusions are moral judgements.moves through a moral standard , through one or more factual judgements , to a moral judgement.
Weak Argument
at least one premise is false
3 values of society that socialism is better in
autonomy, democracy, equality
Metacognition
awareness or analysis of one's own thinking or learning processes.
Critical interpretation (of a text)
breaking down things the creators didn't even know were there
maximizing utility
bringing about the greatest ratio of pleasure possible
relations of ideas
claim is necessarily true, a priori - sought by reflection, bachelors example
Self-Defeating Claim
claim proves to be false b/c of a contradiction in the claim
Self-Defeating Claim
claim proves to be false b/c they req. the truth of a contradiction in the claim
categorical imperative
commands that are binding on all rational agents regardless of specific goals person is pursuing
Social and Political
communities. (ideal government, ruler's right to rule)
compatibilism
compromise between free will and determinism that says the two can coexist
Problem of Evil
conceptual difficulty in asserting God created evil
REVISEProblem of KnowledgeREVISE
conceptual difficulty in asserting that we possess knowledge if knowledge requires the impossibility of believing falsely
morality
concern with the distinction between good and evil or right and wrong
Always treat humanity...as an end and never as a means only EX
coping
proportional retributivism
crime is proportional to punishment, gives us a way to determine which how to punish a certain crime and we set the limit for the upper limit of punishment
Where is the central of the orthodox church at?
decentralized.
Valid Argument
deductive argument in which it is impossible for the premise to be true and the conclusion to be false
Big Constructive Dilemma
deductive argument type: "Either P or Q; if P, then R; if Q, then S; therefore, either R or S"
Disjunctive Syllogism
deductive argument type: "Either P or Q; not P, therefore Q"
Modus Tollens
deductive argument type: "If P, then Q; Not Q, thus not P"
Modus Ponens
deductive argument type: "If P, then Q; P, thus Q"
functional argument
defines the essence of humans according to Aristotle. (person's function/telos/purpose gives them their virtue)
pyrrhonian skepticism
don't go beyond how things appear to you to how they really are accept this conclusion, no beliefs are justified
skepticism
doubt about the truth of something
Obelisk
egyptian mythology named after God of earth and sky penis penetrating the mother sky
atman
essential self
Testimony
evidence obtained from the reports of others ex: hearing about what happened in class
numinous
evincing the presence of a deity
Metaphysics
existence and essence. (minds, souls, physical or beyond)
circular reasoning
fallacy. Occurs when an arguer creates an illusion that premises provide adequate support for the conclusion by leaving out a questionable premise.
false dichotomy or false dilemma
fallacy. Occurs when an arguer presents two alternatives as if they exhaust all the possible options. * Two names for this fallacy (name both& separate by or; in alphabetical order)
Double Standard or Special Pleading
fallacy. a form of bogus argument where a position in a dispute introduces favorable details or excludes unfavorable details by alleging a need to apply additional considerations without proper criticism of these considerations * Two names (alphabetical order, separate by or)
appeal to tradition
fallacy. a thesis is deemed correct on the basis that if correlates with some past or present tradition
denying the antecedent
fallacy. an invalid argument form of modus tollens: ' If P, then Q; not P; thus, not Q
appeal to emotion
fallacy. arguer attempts to support a conclusion by merely evoking some emotion in the reader or audience
false dilemma
fallacy. concluding something based upon premises that include only 2 options, when in fact there are 3 or more
appeal to consequence
fallacy. is an argument that concludes a premise to be either true or false based on whether the premise leads to desirable or undesirable consequences
weak analogy
fallacy. many arguments rely on an analogy between two or more objects, ideas, or situations and if the two things that are being compared aren't really alike in the relevant respects
complex question
fallacy. occurs when a question is asked in such a way as to presuppose the truth of some conclusion already contained in the question itself. Ex) How long have you been cheating on your wife, Chris?
appeal to the people
fallacy. occurs when an arguer attempts to persuade the audience to accept a conclusion because of the desire to be loved, admired, valued, recognized or accepted by others. (Known as: Bandwagon, Appeal to Vanity, Appeal to Snobbery)
appeal to accident
fallacy. occurs when general rule is applied to a specific case it was not intended to cover
amphiboly
fallacy. occurs when the awkward or loose phrasing of a sentence lends itself to uncertain or questionable interpretation.
missing the point
fallacy. occurs when the premises of an argument support one particular conclusion, but then a different conclusion often vaguely related to the correct conclusion is drawn
division
fallacy. opposite of composition; when the conclusion of an argument depends on the erroneous transference of an attribute of the whole onto its parts.
composition
fallacy. opposite of division; occurs when the conclusion of an arg. depends on the erroneous transfer of property attributed to the parts of something onto the whole.
hasty generalization
fallacy. person fallaciously or deceitfully draws a conclusion about a whole group based on premises of a small sample of the group
poisoning the well
fallacy. rhetorical device where adverse information about a target is pre-emptively presented to an audience, with the intention of discrediting or ridiculing everything that the target person is about to say
ad hominem
fallacy. someone concludes a persons claims are false or not worth listening to because of premises that concern or attack on the actions, personality, or ideology of the person putting forward the claim; discrediting the arg. by discrediting the person
red herring
fallacy. someone uses claims & arguments that has nothing to do with the issue at hand in order to get someone to draw a conclusion they believe
appeal to ignorance
fallacy. that a premise is true simply on the basis it has not been proved false OR that it is false simple because it has not been proven true
straw man
fallacy. type of argument based on misrepresentation of an opponent's position
appeal to negative proof
fallacy. version of ignorance fallacy; occurs when on arguer asserts claim is true UNTIL it is refuted or disproven
guilty by association
fallacy. when arguer concludes that one person is guilty in virtue of some relationship irrelevant to the truth of the conclusion
appeal to force
fallacy. when arguer poses a conclusion, another person tells them that harm will come to them if they do not accept the conclusion
slippery slope
fallacy. when one inappropriately concludes that some further chain of events, ideas or beliefs will follow from some initial event, idea or belief
genetic fallacy
fallacy. where a conclusion is suggested based solely on someone's or thing's ORIGIN rather than its current meaning or context
dilemma of human freedom
fallacy.the big constructive dilemma arg. to the effect that we are not FREE and responsible whether determinism is true or false
Knowledge by Acquaintance
familiarity (Type of Knowledge)
Fallacy
faulty reasoning that incorrectly draws a conclusion.
Fallacy
faulty reasoning that incorrectly draws a conclusion. error in argument, error in reasoning, false belief, case of any previos errors rhetorical techniques"
What is Hedonism?
happiness of an animal --> not what Mills considered to be true happiness.
Hedonism
happiness=pleasure: the highest good
Kant's Definition of a Person
has capacity to use reason ex:
Qualia
is the subjective, qualitative character of an experience ex: the itchy feeling an itch, the painfulness of a pain, the sweet, chocolatey flavor of chocolate ice cream, looking at a sunset (it is like something)
Epiphenomenalism
is the view that mental states (ex: pain) are caused by physical processes in the brain, but do not themselves cause any physical events ex:
paternalistic laws
laws that prevent you form hurting yourself - thats an individuals decision such as a seatbelt law, mill says the state should not get involved. but he promotes laws that only prevent harm to others
nonconsequentialist theory
morality depends on other factors than consequences
consequentialist theory
morally good actions are ones that produce more good than bad consequences
wuwei
non action
By Arm
non-violent effort to correct an injustice
matters of fact
not a priori, not necessarily true, negations not contradictory contingent, conceivable that they are false; not necessary, not knowable solely by reflection
Non-Empirical
not based on evidence; faith based; doesn't rely on data
The principle of sufficient reason
nothing happens without a reason
problems with moderate foundationalism
o Perceptual experiences may not be beliefs because senses can differ from knowledge • Mueller Lyer illusion • Problem 2 o Moderate foundationalism is incompatible with conformational holism o A single theory or hypothesis always depends on other theories and hypotheses • Ex) its 12:00 because my phone says it is How reliable is my phone?
Respect
re- again spectate - look at Respecting something is looking at it again and again and breaking it down. E.g. teens don't respect what parents cook for them when it's made with love.
According to Parmenidea, ___ cannot be apprehended by the senses. ___ and ___ are only appearances they are not real.
reality, change, variety
inductive reasoning
reasoning from detailed facts to general principles
Supernatural
religion, mythology
Newton
replaces aristotle's philosophy. Has impact on Hume
li
ritual
self-actualization
self fulfillment the realization of all ones potential and desire to become creative in the full sense if the world.
Mill
should treat all equally well and should be organized for public good
two types of ideas
simple ideas-directly corresponds to impressions. complex ideas-indirectly corresponds to impressions.
Psyche
soul
Radical dualist:
soul and body are entirely different.
Sorites argument
starts with two assumptions: 1. S is a series of members ordered by how much they have a certain property. P. Ex: S1....Sn are individuals lined up based on how much hair they have, from baldest to hairiest 2. Every adjacent pair in S is very similar, so if one had the property P, then it's neighbor does too. ex: if S3 is bald, then S4 is too. A sorites argument uses assumptions 1 and 2 to argue that every single member of a series S has a property P. ex:
moral standards
t(p.6) # 1 They concern behavior that is of serious consequence to human welfare that can promptly injure or benefit people. #2They take priority over other standards, including self-interest # 3Their soundness depends on the adequasy of the reasons that support or justify them-Laws are made by legislators, while morals are made by such bodies and they depend on the argument that supports them.
aesthetics
the branch of philosophy dealing with beauty and taste
aesthetics
the branch of philosophy dealing with beauty and taste (emphasizing the evaluative criteria that are applied to art)
conceptualism
the doctrine that the application of a general term to various objects indicates the existence of a mental entity that mediates the application
Religious Skepticism
the doubt or denial of religious claims
Presocratics
the earliest western philosophers; also called proto-scientiest because they transformed mythology into rational inquiry about nature and the cosmos.
Rational discourse
the interplay of carefully argued ideas; the use of reason to order, clarify, and identify reality and truth according to agreed-upon standards of verification -presocratic
libertarianism
the metaphysical view that humans have free will in spite of any past events; this is the theory of Sartre and Richard Taylor
Benedicitines
the monastery that was high politically, that was rich, and Aquinas went there
ethics
the philosophical study of moral values and rules
idealism
the philosophical theory that ideas are the only reality
ethical relativism
the position that moral positions vary from individual to individual, from culture to culture; it denies the existence of universal, objective moral principles
correspondence theory
the view contending that truth is an agreement between the proposition and a fact
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
Phronesis
the virtue of practical wisdom- knowing what to do in particular situations. For most virtue ethicists, phronesis is a virtue you have after years of life experience and appropriate moral education. ex:
Functionalism
theory that mental states are best interpreted as casual relation between a persons environment, various internal processes and overt behavior
Relativism
there are no truths in a universal sense; truth=relative (this is a self-defeating claim)
Berkeley
to be is to be percieved, sensory experience is the only source of true knowledge but acknowledged perceptual limitations, esse es percipi
Causality
to gauge probability which leads to margin of error.
DELETETruthinessDELETE
to think with the gut is to accept something's truthiness as evidence that it is
Truthiness
to think with the gut is to accept something's truthiness as evidence that it is
sometimes relativism is advocated as a form of ____
tolerance.
Historical Philosophy
traced history to its first use, doesn't give us an intension, and is the history of philosophy.
UNP continued
• Anytime we use induction we appeal to the uniformity of nature principle because there is no inductive argument whose conclusion will follow from the premises without it.
The characteristics of the Forms
• Stable, logic and reason, knowledge by all, unchanging, universal Forms cause existence of particular things. Forms are standards by which we judge particular s
The relationship of Substance, Form, and Matter (i.e., "thisness" and "whatness")
• Substance-Concrete things universal characteristics and particulars • Form-the what, essential properties, universalizing • Matter-The this, particularizing, accidental properties
The unifying substance of all things according to Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes
• Thales-water • Anaximander-apeiron • Anaximenes-air proven scientifically
12. What is the free will defense to the problem of evil?
•P1) True: God can prevent any particular evil (he can sometimes intervene to stop us from what is wrong) •P2) True: God wants the world to be as good as possible-which includes having free creatures. •BUT, it is not possible for God to create free creatures and guarantee that they will always do what is best •Therefore the premises are true, but the conclusion doesn't follow by necessity
19. Why does Peter Singer think that most of the time, giving money to charity is not supererogatory? Explain Singer's charity argument.
•Suffering and death from lack of food, shelter, and medical care are bad •If it is in our power to prevent something bad from happening, without thereby sacrificing anything of comparable moral important, we ought, morally, to do it •It is in our power to prevent suffering and death from lack of food, shelter, and medical care without sacrificing anything of comparable moral importance - namely by giving to charity rather than purchasing luxury goods •C) We are morally obligated to give to charity rather than purchase luxury goods
subjective idealism
○ Both primary and secondary qualities are mind-dependent: the existence of both the object and its qualities is dependent on perception.
Mind-body problem
A problem for substance dualism about how it is possible for mental and physical substances to causally interact.
Passive Pleasures (Examples)
Good health, friendship.
Accused
Socrates
Gorgias
Sophist
Three Positions Concerning the Origin of the Universe
Supernatural, Natural, Cosmological Agnosticism
Problem of evil
The argument that there is no God because worldly suffering is incompatible with the attributes of God.
Logic
The art and science of correct reasoning.
Virtue ethics
The moral theory that the good life consists in cultivating and having a virtuous character.
Problem of difference
The problem of explaining what makes you different from other people.
Supererogation
The property of a good action that is greater than what duty requires.
relative vs. absolute poverty
absolute: below $1.25 a day vs. comparing yourself to bill gates
apeiron
according to Anaximander, the first principle from which all existing things develop; a vast Definite-Indefinite
Difference between ideal and archetype?
an archetype doesn't need to be good or perfect
Invalid argument
an argument in which the reasons do not support the conclusion so that the conclusion does not follow from the reasons offered
Methodism in Epistemology
We cannot know whether we know something if we don't know how we know ex: Descartes argument on evil demons
Epistemic principle
We know that if any ordinary claim about the world is true, then no skeptical possibility is true.
Socrates
We should pursue truth and clarity through rational inquiry and dialogue.
existential quantifier
a logical quantifier of a proposition that asserts the existence of at least one thing for which the proposition is true
reason is
a matter of abiding by general rules or principles ex: "one should not lie...it must apply to all cases"
Problem of Knowledge
conceptual difficulty in asserting that we possess knowledge if knowledge requires the impossibility of believing falsely
Determinism Problem
conceptual difficulty of explaining how we act freely given standard accounts of causation
____ still out number ____ philosophers
men, women
logic
the branch of philosophy that analyzes inference
Logic
the branch of philosophy that seeks to establish the rules of correct reasoning, clear understanding and valid arguments
agnosticism
the disbelief in any claims of ultimate knowledge
pantheism
the doctrine or belief that God is the universe and its phenomena (taken or conceived of as a whole) or the doctrine that regards the universe as a manifestation of God
dualism
the doctrine that reality consists of two basic opposing elements, often taken to be mind and matter (or mind and body), or good and evil
essence/ousia
the set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity
Ontology
the study of "being."
Aesthetics
the study of beauty, art, and taste
What are Aristotle's 4 Causes?
1. Material Cause 2. Formal Cause 3. Efficient Cause 4. Final Cause
Sophism
A deceptive but false argument
A sound argument
A valid argument plus true premises
Problem (definition)
An experience I can separate from myself.
Metaphysics
Asks the question "What is there?"
skeptic
Belief that any claim to knowledge must be personally verified by their own sensory experience.
Heraclitus
Change is fundamental to reality.
Rationalizing
Conclusion yield premises.
Who is Jeremy Bentham?
God Father/inventor of Utilitarianism
Epistemology
Is there a reliable way to acquire knowledge of the truth to eliminate false beliefs?
Rational
Knowledge/Reason
Natural Evil
Natural disasters (acts of God).
What is Zeno famous for?
Paradox of the Stadium
Who opened the 1st school?
Plato
Crito # 2
Since you have been unjustly condemned, if you remain to be executed, then you agree to an unjust act.
De cive
State
Natural Theology
The study of God through ordinary experiences and philosophical argument. EX: Anselm's ontological argument, argues that God exists in understanding and reality based on the premise that there is no greater conceivable being than God.
Rationalism
The theory that the exercise of reason, rather than experience, authority, or spiritual revelation, provides the primary basis for knowledge.
Monism
The view in metaphysics that reality is a unified whole and all existing things can be ascribed to or described by a single concept or system
Open Theism
The view that God's omniscience does not require that he knows every future state of the world. EX: allows libertarian free will, doesn't know who will win the USC game.
Utilitarianism
The view that the morally right action is the action that produces the most good
Dualism
The view that the world consists of or is explicable as two fundamental entities, such as mind and matter
epistemological issues
Type of Issue; Relationship between religious faith and philosophical reason/science
Where is the central of the roman catholic church at?
Vatican City.
The wheel
We can't know whether a belief is true unless we have some method to tell if it is true, but we can't know whether the method is a good one unless we already know if it produces true beliefs. Each is logically prior to the other. Therefore we can't know either thing and knowledge is impossible.
Secondary Quality Ideas
What something look, tastes, smells, feels, and sounds like; not accurate reflections of properties or inherent features of an object
Astrology
What stars mean. Horoscope.
Spiritual Dimension
What the person conducting the ritual experiences.
Consequent
Whatever comes after the symbol
Moral Perfection
Whatever the correct moral standard is, God never violates it. EX: argument for evil. Killing is bad, hypothetically God never kills or allows anyone to be killed
Transhumanism
When humans are aided by artificial means.
Moral Evil
You know its wrong but you do it anyway
Descartes
[Criticism to Hallucination argument] He believes he can't be deceived about his own existence
Plantiga
[Reformulated version of Anselm's argument] They cannot establish their conclusion, but since it is ration to accept the premise then its ration to accept the conclusion. (there is a possible world in which there is a maximally perfect being, thus there is a maximally perfect being)
Imperfect Duties
a duty that can be carried out in multiple ways ex: You have an imperfect duty to give to charity, can give 5% of income or donate kidney
Necessitation Conception of Law of Nature
a law of nature is a necessary regularity ex:water will boil at 100 C and 70 PSI
Virtue
a morally valuable personality trait. They come in degrees. How it is displayed often depends on particular circumstances ex: courage
Non-Moral Virtue
a personality trait or habit that promotes something other than a moral good ex: being a good chef
anaximenes
a presocratic Greek philosopher and associate of Anaximander who believed that all things are made of air in different degrees of density (6th century BC)
Thales
a presocratic Greek philosopher and astronomer (who predicted an eclipse in 585 BC) who was said by Aristotle to be the founder of physical science
Maxim
a rule that tells us how to act ex:
functionalism
a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
Statement
a sentence that is either true or false
Augustine's definition of a person:
a soul in a body.
Difference between Stereotype and archetype?
a stereotype is a simplistic distortion of someone and an archetype is a powerful representation of a fundamental response to universal experiences.
religion
a strong belief in a supernatural power or powers that control human destiny
The Categorical Imperative is
a test of/for proposed moral principles
reductionism
a theory that all complex systems can be completely understood in terms of their components
Miracle (Hume's Definition)
a violation of the laws of nature ex:
Qualities all humans share:
active use reason social communicate seek knowledge curious naturally seek God/ultimate reality connection
Time-Bias
an agent that prefers one event/experience to another because of when it occurs. ex: we value experiences in our future much more than experiences in our past. ex: the dentist
Question-Begging Argument
an argument that hasn't proven anything, aka the conclusion equals one of the premises ex:
accident
an attribute which may or may not belong to a subject, without affecting its essence.
hedonism
an ethical system that evaluates the pursuit of pleasure as the highest good
Theodicy
if god is all good and powerful, why does evil exist
Validity
if the premises are true then the conclusion is true ex:
Invalidity
if the premises are true then the conclusion isn't necessarily true ex:
Nous
mind
a maxim must not be acted upon if it produces
oContradiction in conception - cannot act upon it no matter what oAll paintings are forgeries because their has to be an original painting oContradiction in the will - can't imagine a world in which the maxim is universalized, you can't will such a world into existence
Extension
object(s) that the word applies to.
Mujihad
one fighting evil
Logician
one who practices logic.
Utilitarian
someone who believes that the value of a thing depends on its utility behavior should be max. pleasure is inherently good and pain is inherently bad.
rationalist
someone who emphasizes observable facts and excludes metaphysical speculation about origins or ultimate causes
Incontinence
someone who know what the morally right action (what the virtuous person would do), but does not have the settled habit to choose it and doesn't perform it. ex:
Puralism
the belief that there exsist many realities or substances
Dominicans
the religious group who gave up everything and lived in poverty for god and thomas went to them after the benedictines
anthropomorphism
the representation of objects (especially a god) as having human form or traits
Logos
the rule according to which all things are accomplished and the law which is found in all things.
Etymological
the study of history and origin of words.
psychological egoism
the theory that people always act in their own self interest, whether they know it or not
10. What is the difference between a theodicy and a mere defense? Give examples.
theodicy and a mere defense? Theodicy: an explanation for why God permits evils. A theodicy attempts to show that the argument from evil is unsound by arguing that one or more premises is false. Has presumptions. EX: Augustinian theodicy: evil is not created by God, but is instead a corruption of goodness. Defense: a live hypothesis for why God might permit evils, which cannot be ruled out. A defense attempts to show that, for all we know about God and His ways, there is a reason for evils and so the argument from evil does not justify atheism. Does not have presumptions. EX: free will defense.
4 relations that ground Cause & Effect
• Contiguity-Spacially connected • Priority in time • Constant conjunction-2 events are always conjoined. • Necessary connection-cause and effect Hume says this is worthless.
Xenophanes' definition of knowledge
• Justified True belief
Dogma
A decided belief by a group (i.e. church)
Philos
friendship
Intension
general property or criteria an object needs to meet to be in the extension.
Gift
give someone something out of love, and that is what a real gift is
Analogia Fide
god has taught us how to speak truthfully about him through how he acts in history and reveals himself
Premise
"Because" (reason, evidence).
Individual Egoism
"I alone exist."
"Cogito Ergo Sum"
"I think therefore I am." *The cogito
Universal Egoism
"I'll scratch your back; you scratch mine."
What did Anaximenes introduce?
"Soul" - inner air of the body
tao
"The Way" In Chinese philosophy. It is the single unified source where all life in the universe originated
Logic Study of Reason
- principles used to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning.
Who is Immur Kant?
-Moral Realist (morality = objective & based on facts) -Non-consequentialist -Religious/pious/brilliant -dedicated /q thing to God & did /q thing for God -Goal: proe morality is NOT dependent on anything & valid for ALL persons & ALL cases
Who is Immur Kant?
-Moral Realist (morality = objective & based on facts) -Non-consequentialist -Religious/pious/brilliant -dedicated /q hing to God & did /q thing for God -Goal: proe morality is NOT dependent on anything & valid for ALL persons & ALL cases
Means of Production
How you're able to produce (owners)
6. What are the three defining features of a choice to be a theist, according to James?
1) Living option: one you are genuinely open to accepting or rejecting. Dead option EX: choosing whether to be king of England 2) A forced option: one where you must choose and where each option excludes the other. Either you become a Christian or you don't. Unforced option EX: choosing whether to have a pear or an apple. Could choose both. Could refrain. 3) Momentous option: one with consequences that genuinely matter. EX: the existence of God.
21. What are reasons we might be interested in a criterion of numerical identity over time? List two and explain them.
1) Understanding issues at the start of life, like whether abortion kills cells or kills a person. 2) Understanding issues at the end of life, like when life ends, whether life after death is possible.
What did Mill categorize the 2 types of happiness to be?
1. Hedonism 2. Eudaimonism
What are the 2 forms of Utility?
1. Act Utilitarianism 2. Rule Utilitariansim
when did individuals begin to question the church?
1000 CE
The great Schism
1054, East separates from the West.
De homine
Human
Other Humans
Human Relationships
What is Kant famous for?
2 books regarding Morality: 1. Categorical Imperative - DEONTOLOGY
What is Kant famous for?
2 books regarding Morality: 1. Categorical Imperative - DEONTOLOGY
Martin Luther
95 Theses.
P # 5
Needs of many are not met by few.
Mere Belief
A conviction that something is true for which the only evidence is the sincerity of the believer.
I-You
Acquaintances
Omnipotent
All powerful
Chinese room argument
An argument against the Turing test (and functionalism) that contends that computers are merely syntax-manipulating devices and have no grasp of semantics and the meaning of what they do.
Symbol (Definition)
An empirical dada that has sacred meaning.
Enthymemes
Arguments with unstated premise or conclusion
Parmenides
Believed that the world was a single unchanging, unmoving object whose order could be known through human reason, pre-socratic
Risk positive principle
Better off to add more errors rather than miss out on some truths.
Risk averse principle
Better off to miss out on some truths rather than add more errors.
Bigotry (first characteristic of)
Bigotry is not an opinion; it is a passion.
Bigotry (third characteristic of)
Bigots join a chorus--cowards.
Soma
Body
Demonstrative Knowledge
Certain knowledge, but not innate knowledge
What is considered to be the best form of Utility?
Combination - follow Rule until it's no good & then break rule to produce most good for most ppl.
The Crito
Conversation between Crito and Socrates written by Plato discussing justice and injustice.
Alternative to Guilt
Death
Sophist
EX: In Athenian society, sophists were paid to teach the children of wealthy nobles skills in argument and rhetoric. The goal of sophistry is to win arguments for your side of a given debate using tricks from language and convincing argument forms.
What are "mini ones"?
Earth, Air, Fire, Water ==> elements mix together to make /q thing.
What are "mini ones"?
Earth, Air, Fire, Water ==> elements mix together to make /q thing.
Epicurus
Ethical goodness is a matter of qualitative individual human pleasure.
Ethics (Etymology)
Ethos (Value, standard, habit, custom.)
What is the Theory of Fire & Flux?
Fire is the source of constant change & Flux is the constant changing ==> /q thing is in a constant stage of change/flux - things change through a battle of opposition
What did Heraclitis believed /q thing was made of?
Fire.
Justice Required
Friends help, enemies harm.
Righteousness Required
Friends help, enemies love, forgive, pray.
Philosophy
From Greek roots meaning "The love of wisdom."
Clement
Greek philosophy is Christianity's ally.
Tertullian
Greek philosophy is no match for Scripture and apostolic tradition.
Who was the 1st to criticize other philosophers?
Heraclitis
Examples and Kinds of Correlations and Cause-Effect
Herp
The Hebrew Herem
Holy War
P # 1
Humans are polis animals.
Cause-Effect
If X occurs, then Y follows.
Means/Ends Distinction
If something is a means, then it has value only relative to something else. If something is an ends it has value in and of itself. EX: a shovel is valuable only insofar as it helps you dig a hole. EX: a child is valuable no matter what.
Libertariansim
If the Universe is completely determined the there is no free will. There is no free will Therefore, the Universe is not completely determined.
A valid argument
If the premises were true then the conclusion follows necessarily
Perception
Impressions-direct sensations Ideas-faint copies of impressions.
Yang
In Ancient Chinese metaphysics strong, positive, light, and constructive nature force or principle; Heaven; linked with yin.
Active Egoistic Hedonism
Individual has moral priority, active pleasures are most important, present.
Passive Egoistic Hedonism
Individual has moral priority, passive pleasures are most important.
Matter
Inductive
Intuitive Knowledge
Innate ideas
What is a "2 world view "?
Intelligible World (Perfect) vs. Sensible World (World we live in)
Active Pleasures (Characteristics)
Intense, short duration.
What is Sadism a distortion of?
Intimacy
Human Relationships (characteristics)
Intimacy, Community
Quran
Islam's Bible.
Noumena
Limited to
Other Humans as a Source of...
Meaning, Value, and Purpose
Relativism
Most of the history of Philosophy is an attempt to defeat ---------
Moral evils
Murder, war, rape, torture, theft, deception, assault, etc. To be contrasted with natural evils.
Origen
Neoplatonism can help us understand and defend Christian doctrines.
The Skeptics
No one knows anything for sure, so just do what works.
The Philosopher's Virtues
Patience.
Earth was a flat disc
Ppl believed Earth was flat but Thales 1st to predict Earth=round.
Utilitarianism
Practitioners: Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, Henry Sidgwick
Big Plan Theodicy
Predestination (John Calvin)
Religion
Re- redo/retry ligo - ligament Relink to the past Return to church to hear about stories
Rule #1
Read and listen carefully.
What is Parmenides main concern?
Reality - What must reality be like?
The foundation for Morality is
Reason
Rachels on Ethical Relativism
Rejects. Invalid. Claims it fails to prove that there are no objective moral values
John Locke
Representational realist, believed we were born with a blank slate (tabula rasa) acquiring knowledge from observations of the world
Inductive Logic
Specific to general.
Gratitude
St Augustine says we should shape our lives by gratitude because they are gifts
Stewardship
Taking care of something that belongs to someone else, we are stewards for god
Geocentrism
Taught by the church, earth is the center of the universe?
Healthy Laughter
Teaching laughter (accident, amphiboly, ad Baculum), gallows humor laughter, laughter of friendship and love, laughter of joy and wonder, absurd laughter, self-laughter.
The Cardinal Virtues
Temperance, Courage, Wisdom, and Justice.
Personal Egoism
Territorial.
Who is the "Father of Philosophy"?
Thales of Miletus.
Anatta
The Buddhist view that there is no substantial self.
Philosophy
The academic discipline comprising: logic, ethics, aesthetics, metaphysics, epistemology, ontology, cosmology
Theoretical Knowledge
The accurate compilation and assessment of factual and systematic relationship.
Quality of pleasure
The density of pleasure per unit of delivery.
Descriptive relativism
The descriptive thesis that beliefs about morality and the values people possess vary across cultures divided by times and places.
Soul criterion
The proposal that an incorruptible, immaterial soul solves the puzzle of personal identity.
Physical criterion
The proposal that the closest physical continuer relation connects a person moment-to-moment across their entire life and thus solves the puzzle of personal identity.
Entelechy
The purpose is within itself
In a 2 world view, what is considered to be a "Sensible World"?
The world we live in.
Necessary Truth
Truth in all possible world - outer space/ heaven & earth. ie- Object canNOT be red & green @ the same time.
What did Anaxagoras believe?
Things are made of smaller compounds ==> seeds ie- all things derived from seeds; each seeds are composed of opposites & vortex; seeds will last forever
cosmological argument
Thomas Aquinas, everything was caused by the previous, at some point there has to be an infinite thing (God) that caused everything.
Te
Traditionally, morally neutral virture; potency, the power to affect others without using physical force; expanded by Confucius to mean the capacity to act according to Tao and to bring others to Tao.
What is the Apology?
Trial of Socrates that ended up in the death sentence of Socrates
Design
When we encounter designedness, there is a designer
Descartes
Wrote Discourse on Method. Believed in Cartesian Dualism where the body can be doubted, but the mind can't so the two must be radically different. Used deductive reasoning (reasoning through previously know facts) to come to conclusions.
Correlation
X, and Y.
Principle of alternate possibilities
You are morally responsible for an action x only if at the time you did x, there was alternate possible action y that you could have done instead.
Sartre
You are what you are, you should not be influenced by others. "I am, therefore I think." A person is what a person chooses to be; religion or guidance is not a part of that. Existence precedes essence. Every individual is unique. No one confirms existence except ourselves. These were the beliefs of:
Threshold
a crossing area doorway
atheism
a lack of belief in the existence of God or gods
categorical imperative
a rule that is considered universal law binding on everyone and requiring action
Perspective Relativism
affirms that it is wrong to judge other cultures on that their moral values are different than our own
Omnibelevolent
all Good.
conceptual relativist view
all observations are influenced by our values, beliefs, etc.
Zeno
ancient Greek philosopher who formulated paradoxes that defended the belief that motion and change are illusory (circa 495-430 BC) (Xeno)
Conjunction
and - P and Q
Statements
any sentence that is either True/False
moral question
are different then other questions. when we ask amoral question or make a moral judgement, we appeal to moral standards
Leucippus and Democritus
argued that there are actually many "ones," (atoms).
Inductive argument
argument from where one reasons from premises that are known or assumed to be true to a conclusion that is supported by premises but does not necessarily follow them
meta-ethics
attempts to assign meanings to the abstract language of moral philosophy
Body is _____, soul is _______. Augustine was a ___________ ________.
bad, important radical dualist
realist view
based on correspondence theory, theory is true if everything correspond to real things
instrumentalist view
based on pragmatic theory of truth, a theory is true if it makes accurate predictions
foundationalism
basic beliefs: justified: supported by reasons but the reasons themselves are not beliefs noninferential Nonbasic beliefs: justified: supported by reasons, the reason are beliefs inferential justification
theism
belief in god
infinitism
beliefs are justified by infinite chains of reasons
mellow relativism
believing whatever you want.
Transcendant
beyond the self
tabula rasa
blank slate (Latin)
Descartes definition of a body...
body- concatenation of members. *Bound by shape *Enclosed in a place *Filling space excluding other bodies *Moves. Self-motion. (Sensing-thinking. Not nature of a body.)
Aquinas' notion/definiton of a person:
both body and soul are important. -A person is unique and individual *Each person is an "embodied spirit" -Body is the temple of the soul. Body soul union.
metaphysics
branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of existence
Sentience
can feel pleasure and pain ex: animals
problems with deterrence
can punish the innocent, only looking to the future they may have not done something wrong in the past brutal punishment - cutting off hands for stealing
Ineffable
cannot be adequately defined, measured, described, or explained
empedocles
concluded that reality must be "completely full." reality is a plenum without any gaps. Greek philosopher who taught that all matter is composed of particles of fire and water and air and earth (fifth century BC)
Abduction
conclusion explains why premise is true
particular
concrete entities existing in space and time, as opposed to abstractions
Reasoning
constructing arguments
Augustine's ideas lasted until ________. Augustine's basic ideas:
dark ages (300-1200s) -God created the world and its plan. -Hardships of this life are to be endured. *Happiness comes after death for those who gain salvation.
Absurdity (example)
death of a loved one, Sisyphus
wei
deliberate effort
a priori
derived by logic, without observed facts
inductive reasoning
deriving general principles from particular facts or instances ("Every cat I have ever seen has four legs; cats are four-legged animals").
The Relationships between Science and Ethics
derp.
niskamakarma
desirless action
normative ethics
determines what people ought to do and defines moral duties
why punish
deterrence - forward looking, prevention Retributivist - backwards looking to the past they did something wrong and should be punished
Ockham's Razor
dictum that when choosing among two competing hypothesis that explain some phenomenon equally well the simplest of the two is preferable
atheism
disbelief in god
suicide
distruction
Perfect Duties
duties that can be carried out in exactly one way ex: you have a perfect duty not to commit murder
Dharma
duty
Strong Argument
each premise is true
anatman
ego
moderate foundationalism
endorses the hypothetical mode, belief 1 is justified by belief two if belief two is not a belief, but an experience 3 kinds of basic beliefs: perception, memory, introspective the reasons are appearances/ experiences o Justified beliefs are fallible o Allows for deductive and inductive justification
Epistemology (Etymology)
episteme logos
foundationalism
epistemological view that all knowledge ultimately rests upon a firm base of self evident truths/axioms
equivocation
fallacy. misleading use of a term with more than one meaning or sense
Deduction
guaranteed conclusion
What is Eudaimonism?
happiness based on wisdom --> happiness of a person (what Mills considers to be true happiness)
deontology
holds that actions must be judged by their motives and means as well as their results
karma
intentional actions (positive/negative outcomes)
Argument
is a two part system made up of -premise statements -conclusion statement.
Akrasia
is a weakness of will. It happens when an agent knows what is right (what the virtuous person would do), but cannot bring himself to actually do what is right. ex:
Institutional Philosophy
is an explicit institution, is broken into sub classes, and ses how it defines itself.
Logic
is the study of making, understanding, and evaluating arguments.
Hylas (hyle)
matter
Mythos
means stories we tell stories to make sense of life we can't live without stories because we couldn't exist without them
rule utilitarianism
measure ethical actions according to general rule/maxim, not consequences of actions
wuyu
non desire
What do Pathagoreans believe would happen if you don't get to heaven?
our soul gets reincarnated.
act utilitarianism
outlines a method of ethical thinking in which the situation itself determines whether the act is morally right or wrong
Kant
overall intention matters (good will)
By Sword
peace, non-combatants are not to be harmed, food is not to be destroyed, and POWs are to be humanely treated
Acting from Motive of Duty
performed because it is their duty ex: shopkeeper helps someone because it is his duty to
Acting in Accord with Duty
performed because it pleases the person to perform the duty ex: shopkeeper helps someone because it will get him more business
Socrates
philosopher who believed in an absolute right or wrong; asked students pointed questions to make them use their reason, later became Socratic method
Unhealthy
physically or psychologically harmful
I-It
possessions, sold, bought
Efficient Causality
proof that god exists, everything that exists in reality has been made by some agency
According to Ethical Relativism, what is morality considered to be?
relative/subjective
Scientific Explanation
science will eventually be able to explain everything
Natural
science,
Eros
sensual love
Mind=
soul
By Heart
struggle against sin and temptation
Epistemology
studies the nature limits and sources of knowledge
Metaphysics (definition)
study of beings as being (beyond what occupies space and time)
mill
swine
Determinism
that every event has a cause
a priori
that which is known independent of or before sense experience
a posteriori
that which is known only subsequent to sense experience
Philosophy
the love of wisdom philo = love sophia = wisdom e.g. Philadelphia translates to the city of brotherly love.
Atomism
the materialistic view that the universe consists entirely of empty space and ultimately simple entities that combine to form objects.
epistemology
the philosophical theory of knowledge
Explanadum
thing or things to be explained
Axiology
value. (right from wrong, ugly, pretty, smelly)
Mind-body Problem
various theories attempting to articulate and defend the relationship between mind and body
Empirical
verifiable by observation (have evidence)
Perspectivism
we see things differently. Different thoughts, interpretations and ways to do things.
Will
we sin when it is disordered
Nonbeing
what evil refers to
Meta-Physics
what ultimately exists
bodhisattva
when you are awakened and help others
Freud
who thought that: as membersof social groups, we must control our sexual and aggressive impulses, not just act them out. but sometimes the ego fears losing control of this inner war b/w demands of the id and superego, and the result is a dark cloud of unfocused anxiety, which leaves us feeling unsettled but unsure why.
self
your consciousness of your own identity
Turing test
A thing has a mind if you can talk with it as sensibly as you can a human being.
Franfurt's Willing Addict Argument
Argument; He states that one can act freely, but still not have free will; if the addiction were to weaken, the person would reinstate it to renew its intensity. Does the addict have free will?
Logos
rational systems; fact and evidence
bethum
pushpin
arhat
reach spiritual freedom but do not help anyone else
Property Dualism
theory that humans are material substances; the brain can be understood to have both physical and non-physical characteristics
ethical objectivism
there are cross-culture of universally binding moral judgements and standards
Human universals
Characteristics present in every human society that has so far been identified and studied.
The Nature of Scientific Explanations
Characteristics: Natural, empirical, debatable, unobservable, mathematical.
Kinds of Ethical Theories:
Consequentialist (Three Kinds of Hedonism), Non-consequentialist (Stoicism).
Iranaeus
Evil is a necessary condition for human moral development.
Calvin
God's existence and nature are evident from creation, but because we have fallen wills and intellects, we sinfully suppress our natural knowledge of God.
What did Protagoras believe in?
Man is the indicator of what is wrong/right--> all truths comes from oneself; we all have our own truth ie- Truth is all elative/subjective
State of Nature
Man's reasonable enough to handle his own
Anthropormorphism (example)
Manifest Destiny
What did Anaxagoras created?
Nous (mind) - /q thing is made /c intentions - Nous created /q thing Seeds replaced Elements Nous replaced minds
What did Pathagoras believed /q thing was made of?
Numbers ==> Ideas ie- ideas are real thus #s are said to be real
What did Pathagoras believed /q thing was made of?
Numbers ==> Ideas ie- ideas are real thus #s are said to be real
Jihad
the battle against evil
Rationalism
Plato, dualism, psyche, reason over sense experience.
Epistemology
Pure reason
Acting out of Duty
Purely moral motive Deserve moral praise
Anthropos (human nature)
Social Sciences: Political Science, Sociology/Anthropology, Psychology, perhaps Ethics, Religion, and Art.
Etiquette
The forms of behavior of polite society
existentialism
The idea that human beings simply exist, have no higher purpose, and must exist and choose their actions for themselves. Existentialism mainly influenced by Nietzsche. Existentialism sustain popularity in Germany with Martin Heidegger and Karl Jaspers who appealed to university students.
noble savage
The idea that primitive human beings are naturally good and that whatever evil they develop is the product of the corrupting action of civilization.
Materialism
The only thing that exists is matter or energy
egoism
n. The theory that places man's chief good in the completeness of self.
morality in a broad sense
(p.19)meaning not only just the principles of conduct we embrace but also the values, ideals and aspirations that shape our lives.
Aristotle
(p.20) there is more to living a morally good life, that being a good business person. We should achieve excellence also as human beings
conformity and Solomon Asch
(p.21)how easy it is for a person to behave as one around them
Problems of Categorical Imperatives
-fails to provide guidance -kant inadvertently appeals to consequences -moral duties to animals- kant denies
Loving Saint
...
Rational Saint
...
What were Parmenides' objections to Heraclitis?
1. Change leads to unknowability --> if /q thing is constantly changing then nothing is known. 2. Heraclitis breaks the "principle of non-contradiction" --> something can't be & not be in the same respect & @ the same time . ie- I can't be in Europe & China at the same time.
Hallucination Argument
Argument; If we possess knowledge of the external world, then we must be able to rule out the possibility of systematic hallucination (the matrix hypothesis) Thus, we can't possess knowledge of the external world. [supports epistemological skepticism]
Albertus Magnus
Augustine and him try to recover aristotles philosophy
Degrees of Good
Augustine, God Archangel Angels Saints Human Sinners Demons Arch-Demons Devil
Deontologist
Duty
Locke
English empiricist philosopher who believed that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience (1632-1704)
The Atomists
Everything is reducible to the interaction of material particles.
Hume
Everything we know must be derived from sense experience, which means we don't know nearly as much as we thought we knew.
Paradigm
Example/model
Empirical
Experience
Critical Realism
Experience resembles reality
Theodicy
Explanation of Natural Evil
Contradiction
False under all conditions
What is Theogony about?
Family tree of the Gods.
Descartes first true idea
I exist. "Cogito ergo sum." I think therefore I am. -Being conscious of thinking.
Cogito ergo sum
I think therefor I am, even if the hypothesis are correct, I know I am thinking and therefor exist as a thinking being because I have to think in order to be deceived
Cogito Ergo Sum
I think, therefore I am
Idealism
Ideas are real (mind).
Monotheistic Religions
Islam, Christianity (largest), and Judaism
P # 4
It is never just to return one injustice with another.
Tabula rasa
Latin for "blank slate." John Locke thought that when we are born our minds are a tabula rasa, upon which experience writes.
Summum bonum
Latin for "the highest good"
Uti
Love we have for other things because they give us other things
Epoche
Stop
Social and political philosophy
Study of questions about government, social issues; sovereignty, the exercise of power, ethnicity, etc.
Metaphysics
Study of reality
Metaphysics
Study of reality. ie- chair vs. atom
The Vulgate
The Latin translation of the bible.
Monism
The doctrine that mind and matter are formed from, or reducible to, the same ultimate substance or principle of being
Egoism
The end justifies the means
Modes of Production
The way you produce (factory)
Self-Defeating Theory
an ethical theory is self-defeating if intentionally following the theory frustrates the aim of the theory ex: utilitarianism
insincere promises
no structure to "promise"
Evolution
proves that design is wrong because the simpliest answer is ususlly the best and evolution says things change slowly over time.
noetic
provides insight into depths of truth illuminations and revalations
hypothetical imperative
prudent commands for attaining some goal that a person may desire to obtain
universal
repeatable or recurrent entities that can be instantiated or exemplified by many particular things
Philosophy
rigorous and systematic investigation into those questions that we normally take for granted.
Copernicus
said the world revolved around the sun.
antirealism
the world or worlds we inhabit are completely dependent on how they are described, perceived, and thought about.
What did Thrasymachus believe in?
"Justice is in the interest of the stronger party" - those w/ $ & power will always have justice; looke @ ppl in charge to know where right/wrong comes from ==> Might makes right.
What does "Temperance" mean?
"None too much" - can do whatever you want to do as long as not too much --> too much of a good thing becomes bad.
our environment dictates our morals
(p.11)yet the philosopher asks not how we came about our morals but whether they are justified
Albert Carr
(p.15)business relativism theory analogy to poker
richard Brandt
(p.16)Accepting a moral principal is not purely an intellectual act like accepting a scientific hypothesis. rather it also involves the desire to follow this principle and feel guilty when not.
moral judgements should be based on facts
(p.29)
requirements for moral judgements
(p.29-30)1-logical 2-based on facts 3-based on sound or defensible moral principles
Business ethics
(p.5), principles and standards that determine acceptable conduct in business. Cicero Example
Business , business people
(p.6) any organization who whose objective is to provide goods or services for profit. Businesspeople are those who participate in the planning and organizing or directing the work of business
administrative regulations
(p.8)Rules made by state and federal administrative agencies.( boards set up by legislatures
What were Parmenides' 2 ways of u/standing the world?
1. Sense - can be deceiving ie- water sticks in water bends. 2. Reason - will be right /q time; will not change w/ time ie- 2+2=4
What were Parmenides' 2 ways of u/standing the world?
1. Sense - can be deceiving ie- water sticks in water bends. 2. Reason - will be right /q time; will not change w/ time ie- 2+2=4
What was Socrates' interpretation of Death?
1. a dreamless night; even the King of Persia would envy 2. go to another place where you can go to seek the "truth"
What was Socrates' interpretation of Death?
1. a dreamless night; even the King of Persia would envy 2. go to another place where you can go to seek the "truth"
Who is Plato?
Famous student of Socrates. -Young & wealthy/powerful -opened 1st school (The Academy) -wrote 36 dialogues & 13 letters -interested in definition but wanted to find connection b/n morality & reality
The Four Emotions
Fear, Anger, Guilt, and Shame.
What is Aristotle's perception of the Form?
Form is in the object itself... if object is taken away, the Form doesn't exist
Four Noble Truths
Foundation of Buddha's teaching: 1. To exist is to suffer. 2. Self-centeredness is the chief cause of human suffering. 3. The cause of suffering can be understood and rooted out. 4. Suffering can be alleviated by the fellowing the Eightfold Path.
What was the church of the east called?
Orthodox Church.
Metaphysics
Study of Reality.
Plato
The objects of sense experience are not the ultimate reality; they are merely imperfect copies of the perfect, paradigmatic, abstract, transcendent Forms.
Natural theology
The philosophical tradition of using reason to evaluate claims of the divine.
Particularism in Epistemology
We can know something without knowing how we know it ex: Moore's argument on having hands
Disutility
a measure of pain ex:
Utility
a measure of pleasure or happiness. we can compare the utility of different sentient creatures over time ex:
philosophical archetype
a philosopher who represents an original or influential point of view in a way that significantly affects philosophers and non-philosophers
phenomenology
a philosophical doctrine proposed by Edmund Husserl based on the study of human experience in which considerations of objective reality are not taken into account
Types of Evil
Moral Evil and Natural Evil
Forms
Nature of reality
Agent causation
The view that any willful agent can spontaneously begin a new chain of causation in the world, one that has no causal history prior to the act of willing.
Circular Theory
a theory that assumes what it is required to explain (Similar to a question-begging argument). ex:
According to Descartes "I" =
a thinking thing.
syllogism
a three-part deductive argument in which a conclusion is based on a major premise and a minor premise ("All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal.")
2. What is one argument for skepticism in the Meditations?
Dreaming Argument: 1. If I know something I know my senses have not deceived me (qualifier needed to rid 'Descartes got lucky' argument) 2. When I sleep my senses deceive me 3.I cannot know whether I am sleeping or awake 4. So I do not know my senses are deceiving me C. I cannot know anything empirical
Divine
Duties instead of rights
Objective
Fact. ie- It is beautiful.
Objective
Fact. ie- It is beautiful.
Fides Quaerens Intellectum
Faith seeking after understanding, quote that changed Augustine
James
Faith without works is dead.
Craig's Fine-Tuning Design Argument
Fine-tuning of the initial condition of the universe is due to design; science has shown that intelligent life could not exist in our universe apart from an extremely precise set of initial conditions that are unlikely to have occurred by chance.
Consequentialist
Focus on consequence, not act Motive -----> Act -----> CONSEQUENCE
Mythology
Folklore, traditions and beliefs of a people to explain what is mystery
Rule Utilitariansim
Follows rules that produce the most good & act on them
Active Pleasures (Examples)
Food, sex.
Fortuna
Fortune
Induction
If in all previous observed cases, a statement holds true, then it will continue to hold true in all observed cases and all future observed cases ex: emeralds are found to be green
Hard Determinist
If the Universe is completely determined then there is no free will. The universe is completely determined. Therefore there is no free will.
Proper Form Test
If the premises were true they would provide sufficient support for the conclusion of the argument.
Rachels' Argument
If there are no moral standards then: 1.There can be no basis for condemning other cultures practices. But sometimes condemnations are legit and deserved. 2. We could determine what is morally correct by consulting the current standards of society. This seems wrong. 3. The notion of moral progress ceases to make sense based on the fact that progress implies a standard
Positive Law
If you want a right, it must be in writing
Hypothetical Imperatives EX
If you want to maintain a good reputation you should keep your promises
Material Implication
If/then - If P then Q
Necessary Truths
Problems, Knowledge, Deduction (Mathematics), Objective Public, Truth for All.
Empirical Truths
Problems, Knowledge, Induction (Science), Empirical Truths, Objective Public, Truths for All.
Dialectic
Process of becoming
Anologia entis
Putting god in time and space
Certitude
Seeking the truth in the sciences.
dao
the way/ beyond reason
Memorial in Washington
named after George Washington comes from an ancient egyptian image resurrection of classical Greece monument we erected it because the Greek were democratic
wuzhi
non knowing
truth of reason
non-empirical, universally true statement, the denial of which leads to self-evident absurdity
problem of induction
o All inductive inferences induce UP o An inductive inference is justified only if the inducer is justified in believing UP o No one is justified in believing UP o So, no inductive inference is justified • He is not saying to stop making inductive inferences that would be impossible
Epistemic regress argument
o Either (a) you have reasons for your belief in p, or (b), you do not. o If (a) then your belief in p is unjustified o If (b) then your belief in p in unjustified o So, your belief in p is unjustified o Likewise with respect to any belief o So, no beliefs are justified
divine command theory
view that divine will, commandments or an authoritative religious test is the basis of all objectively true moral judgments
Consequentialism
view that moral theories should stress the results of actions
Skepticism
view that we lack knowledge entirely or within particular disciplines; alternatively, any approach that advocates a noncommittal attitude toward its subject matter
de
virtue
Doctrine of the Mean
virtues are personality traits that fall within the extremes of two vices ex:
Anaximander
disciple of Thaleis and also thought principle of structural unity. Whatever was basic unit of universe was much smaller than water (infinitely small) is alive and constantly in motion. Believed in evolution. First living creatures emerged in the sea and eventually evolved into man.
pragmatic method
discovering what our ideas mean by studying their consequences in actual experience (e.g.: does it work?)
Simple vs. Complex Ideas
• Simple-Sensation, Reflection, Yellow, Hot • Complex-A combination of simple ideas Produced by comparison
5 Traditional Branches of Philosophy
1. Metaphysics 2. Epistemology 3. Aesthetics 4. Ethics 5. Logic
Dream Argument
Argument that you don't know anything at all - how do you know if you're dreaming or awake currently?
Dream Argument
Argument that you don't know anything at all - how do you know if you're dreaming or awake currently?
Induction
premises make conclusion probable
Locke's Voluntary Prisoner Argument
Argument; He argues that a person is not free unless you could have done otherwise; man is carried into a room with a person he longs to speak with...there, he is locked in beyond his power to get out: he awakes, and is glad to find himself in desirable company so he stays willingly. Is this stay voluntary?
Dirty Trick number 11, Beg the question.
Assume a point in the first place. "Would you rather have a liberal government that spends all your money, or would you rather have a conservative government that saves money?"
Begging the question
Assuming the very thing that needs to be proven; typically when the premises of an argument presuppose its conclusion.
Continence
someone who knows what the morally right action (what the virtuous person would do), and performs that action, but does not have the settled habit to choose it. (merely continent) ex:
Where does the term Philo-sopher come from?
sophos were more of a prophet not a teacher and philosophers think about things in a certain way living in a philosophical life.
Agape
spiritual love
mysticism
spirituality or direct communication with or knowledge of God
according to heraculitus in both nature and convention, ____ is the result of ____ between both equal and opposite forces.
stability, tension
Epistemology
study of knowledge
duhkha
suffering
equality compared
CAPITALISM Pro: equality of opportunity Con: alienation of labor, little value of low wage workers SOCIALISM: Pro: avoid alienation of labor, compensate people for demoralizing work Con: no american dream
value of democracy compared
CAPITALISM Pro: political democracy, rich people have a greater impact Con: work place is a hierarchy and authoritarian SOCIALISM Pro: political democracy and less corruption and also has workplace democracy Con: democracy can be to slow to make decisions
autonomy compare socialism and capitalism
CAPITALISM Pro: the capitalist does very well Con: the worker doesn't do as well (fast majority) are told what to do in the workplace and has little control over the coarse of their lives SOCIALISM Pro: everyone has a say in the operation Con: stifles competitive drive less fortune=less opportunity
Problem (characteristics)
Can be analyzed, measured, described, tested, evaluated, and solved.
23. What was one of the charges the Athenians brought against Socrates? How did Socrates refute the charge?
Charge: Socrates was corrupting the young. Defence: He was encouraging them to question the things that the office accepted. It was more important that you have excellent teachers who direct you toward the truth than incompetent people who direct you toward the masses. Analogy: horse and trainer.
What does "Temperance" mean?
"None too much" - can do whatever you want to do as long as not too much --> too much of a good thing becomes bad.
The history of philosophy is?
"The history of heresy" - walter kaufmann
Cosmological Agnosticism
"The methods of logic and science are incapable of knowing the origin of the universe."
Conclusion
"Therefore" (a claim).
Deontology
"Universal obligation" You did the right thing because everyone should do it. Living by the universal moral rules. (Golden Rule)
Nous
"all-pervading Mind which imposes an intelligible pattern in an otherwise unintelligible universe."
reason to accept P2 that equality retributivism is less justifiable than proportional
"eye for an eye" the theory of punishment falls apart quick... doesn't tell us how to punish many crimes such as highjacking, prostitution, selling drugs also can require barbaric punishment by the state, some crimes should not be repeated
Predictability
"nothing occurs at random."
own wellfare/ no helping others
"robbed himself" of others help
virtue ethics
"the golden mean" you should want to do the right thing. virtue or character based approach to ethics emphasizes some conception of human flourishing and a list of virtues that promote flourishing and vices that serve as obstacles to it
Sophos "stranger to the world"
"wise men" used reason and observation to figure out their sophisticated questions about things; essence of life, natural process, and the origins of life.
We do not need religion to be moral
(p.12) #1-people do not act morally to escape hell, but out of habbit. #2-the moral reasoning of religions is general they do not relieve us of moral reasoning ourselves-ex. do no kill , yet we fight wars. # 3-the divine command theory is rejected by most philosophers because killing another person is not only wrong because god has said it but because it is immoral, no religion needed to justify this.
unsound arguments
(p.25)have at least one false premise or invalid reasoning.
Act Utilitariansim Consider each situation separately & do one by one to produce most good
-(still look @ consequences & not act itself) ==> self-defeating b/c would be spending most time "deliberating"
John Stewart Mill
-Consequentialist
Descartes is known as the ________ of Modern Philosophy.
-Father. -Wrote in French. -Radical, extreme. Method- Radical doubt. Rationalism. -Doesn't like school- too many opinions. Interested in optics. Favorite subject in school was math. -All people can REASON the same way. Best distributed thing in the world. Common sense. Same ability to reason. We use it differently but it's equal in all of us. "Not enough to have a good mind; main thing is to apply it well." *Epistemological turn- "What can I know? How do we get ideas? Which ideas are true?" (Prior to Descartes people asked "Who/what am I?" "How should I behave?") *Efluviance- the medieval idea that humans were able to produce mental images because when they observed something, bits of the object traveled through the air and entered their minds via their eyes..
Augustine's notion of the person, soul... body...
-Soul is important. Should only concern humans by being moral. -Body is physical/mortal. Its needs should be ignored. *Augustine encouraged monastic life and ascetic living. (Men leave, go to monasteries, to live a moral life they must get away from women).
What was the ancient conception of "soul"?
-Soul is worthless -After death, soul travels to Hates -Souls that don't make it to Hates get stuck on the ground & gets stepped -Souls can't think, see, hear, feel
What is the purpose of a Sophist?
-Teach /q one to win any argument -always charge to teach==>fee -AKA: "corrupting the youth" reputation
What is the purpose of a Sophist?
-Teach /q one to win any argument -always charge to teach==>fee -AKA: "corrupting the youth" reputation
During the Classical Age, what was derived from the concept of "Time"? Philosophy:
1. 2nd order qx - qxs about qxs. 2. Intrinsic value put on knowledge - wanted to learn just b/c.
What are the 2 forms of Utility?
1. Act Utilitarianism 2. Rule Utilitariansim
According to Kant, in order for morality to exist, what does right/wrong need to be?
1. Categorical 2. A Priori
According to Kant, in order for morality to exist, what does right/wrong need to be?
1. Categorical 2. A Priori Categorical NOT dependent on anything ie- God/Self/Time/Place
Descartes on Meditations. Structure. Parts of a Meditation:
1. Cathartic Stage- clearing out stage. [Meditation 1] 2. Reflective Stage- thoughtful stage. Conclusion. Goal-truth. *I exist. God exists. [Meditation 2-5] 3. Reconstructive stage- go back to the world.
What were Parmenides' objections to Heraclitis?
1. Change leads to unknowability --> if /q thing is constantly changing then nothing is known. 2. Heraclitis breaks the "principle of non-contradiction" --> something can't be & not be in the same respect & @ the same time . ie- I can't be in Europe & China at the same time.
Who are the Pluralists?
1. Empedocles 2. Anaxagoras 3. Democrities
What did Mill categorize the 2 types of happiness to be?
1. Hedonism 2. Eudaimonism
Problems of Theodicy
1. If god is omnipresent, then God is aware of all evil is present. 2. If god is omnipotent, then god has the ability to stop all evil. 3. If god is omniscient, then god knows when evil has occurred in past, when evil occurs in present, and when evil will occur in future.
What was Socrates' argument about his intention to harm those around him? 2 types of harm:
1. Intentional - will get harm in return 2. unintentional - shouldn't be convicted of crime... should get warning before conviction of crime
What are 4 Chief/Platonic Virtues?
1. Justice 2. Wisdom 3. Courage 4. Temperance
(Plato) 3 States of Thoughts
1. Knowledge -> (mind) -> Being/is/Forms/Reality 2. Ignorance -> ( ) -> Non-Being/Nothing/Doesn't Exist 3. Opinion -> (Senses) -> Becoming/Change/Natural World (our world)/Sensible Objs.
Hypothetical Imperative
A rule that tells you what you ought to do if you want to achieve some other goal. ex: if you want to bake cookies, then you ought to buy some eggs.
logical positivism
A school of modern philosophy that seeks truth by defining terms and clarifying statements and asserts that metaphysical theories are meaningless.
Law of Non-Contradiction
A statement cannot be both true and false at the same time
Pragmatist Theory
A statement is true if it "works" for you; true if it makes a difference to how you practice your life.
Moral (Aesthetic) Proposition
A statement of judgment.
Deductive Reasoning vs. Inductive Reasoning (Differences)
A strong deductive argument is always valid. A strong inductive argument has a strong probability. The difference is the strength that premises give conclusions.
Ethics (Definition)
A study of the customs, beliefs, values, biology (physiology), and environment that determine mores and taboos in a social group. Further, Ethics is a study of the justifications of the mores and taboos.
Turing Test
A test proposed by Alan Turing in which a machine would be judged "intelligent" if the software could use conversation to fool a human into thinking it was talking with a person instead of a machine.
Primary Quality Ideas
Accurate reflections of features or characteristics that are inherited or inseparable traits in an object; quantifiable
Judgment
Aesthetic reason
Plotinus
All reality is a necessary overflow of being from the One-- but the greater the distance from the One, the less the goodness.
Principle of Control
An agent cannot be held morally responsible for something that is outside of her control. EX: someone with severe mental illness is less morally responsible for a murder than a psychologically healthy person.
Autonomy
An agent has this if and only if her actions are not determined by anything outside of her will ex:
Reductio Ad Absurdum
An argument that assumes some principle and shows that it leads to a contradiction; because there are no true contradictions, the assumption must be false. EX: 1) Suppose that a square circle was possible 2) Because it is square, it will have four 90 degree corners 3) And because it is circle, it will have no 90 degree corners 4) (2) and (3) contradict each other C) So a square circle is not possible
Sage
Archetpal figure who combines religious inspiration and extraordinary insight into the human condition; the English word sage is derived from the Latina sapiens, meaning "wise."
primary qualities
Are characteristics such as size and shape that exist in an object whether or not we perceive them;
Cosmological Argument
Argument states that gods existence allegedly follows from some fact about the universe, most notably that it exists
ontological argument
Argument; God is defined as morally perfect, He must exist, since a God who exist is greater than a God who does not
Mean
Balance; Temperance
Synthetic Statements
Based on observations; not true by definition; contingent; aposteriori
Archetype
Basic image that represents our conception of the essence of a certain type of person; according to psychologist C.G. Jung, some of the images have been shared by the whole human race from earliest times.
Eightfold Path
Buddha's prescription for rooting out suffering: Right understanding; right purpose; right speech; right conduct; right livelihood; right effort; right mindfulness; right meditation.
Four Qur'anic Jihads
By heart, by tongue, by arm, by sword
Deduction/ Analytical
Certainty
What was Thales trying to account for?
Change - Qualitative & Quantitative.
Parmenides
Change and division are illusions; everything is ultimately one.
Quantitative Change
Change in amt/#/size - ie) skinny change --> fat
Qualitative Change
Change in type - ie) monkey change --> person
Qualitative Change
Change in type - ie) monkey change --> person
Anthropormorphism (third characteristic)
Chosen People's enemies = people of color.
Anthropormorphism (second characteristic)
Chosen ones TO HAVE Sacred Land.
Anthropormorphism (first characteristic)
Chosen people (whites, Aryans).
Old and New Testament
Christian Bible.
What is Bigotry a distortion of?
Community
Reason
Concept (rational)
Natural evils
Diseases, floods, famines, earthquakes, tornadoes, hurricanes, volcanoes, etc. To be contrasted with moral evils.
St. Anselm
Distinction between a contingent truth, a contingent falsehood, and a necessary truth: He had three assumptions: God is maximally perfect, everyone has some conception of divine nature, existence is a perfection
Cynical
Distrustful of the human race
Unit of indulgence
Document a person got by donations that allowed them to not go to church or not lead a christian life.
Acting out of Inclination
Does not deserve moral praise
"the chosen" are given a gift from God...
Efficacious Grace. *according to Augustine, this is grace given as a gift from God to those souls that will be granted salvation. *Only God knows who is to be saved. *Salvation can be lost if one of the chosen lives immorally, so all should live morally just in case.
Hybris
Ego;conceitedness
Darwin
English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)
Empiricism
Epistemology
Reflections on Love: Three Types
Eros, Philos, Agape
Enlightenment
Escape from stupidity
Utilitarianism
Essentially, 'the greatest good for the greatest many'
Ethics
Ethos: practical reasoning, good and bad, virtues and vices, character. the philosophical study of moral values and rules
Revelation
Event where God reveals himself to humans
Equality of Consideration
Every sentient creature deserves equal moral consideration-the amount of utility or disutility it experiences must be accounted for in deciding what to do ex:
Relativism vs Skepticism
Everything can be explained in the way one is explained Everything cannot be explained in the way one is explained
explain Homers era
Everything happened for a "divine" agency. Ex sun was carried around the heavens by apollos garden chariot.
Pythagoras
Everything in the world is reducible to numbers.
Omnipresent
Everywhere at once.
Modus Tollens (Invalid)
Fallacy of negating the antecedent. If P then Q Not P Therefore not Q
What was Descartes problems with the university system?
Fallacy of the appeal to authority Fallacy of false authority.
Who is Plato?
Famous student of Socrates. -Young & wealthy/powerful -opened 1st school (The Academy) -wrote 36 dialogues & 13 letters -interested in definition but wanted to find connection b/n morality & reality
What is the Theory of Fire & Flux?
Fire is the source of constant change & Flux is the constant changing ==> /q thing is in a constant stage of change/flux - things change through a battle of opposition
Antecedent
First part of clause (If...)
Consequentialist
Focus on consequence, not act Motive -----> Act -----> CONSEQUENCE
Karma
From the Pal: kamma; according to the Buddhist tradition, the law of moral causation (moral cause and effect); it includes past and present actions and is not to be confused with faith or predestination: good or bad karma results from our own actions.
Sensitive Knowledge
From the senses
Wisdom
Fundamental understanding of reality as it relates to living a good life; reasonable and practical, focusing on the true circumstances and character of each individual; good judgment about complex situation involving reflection, insight, and a plausible conception of the human condition.
Sects
General division in a religion.
Jen
General human virture; thranslated as human, humanitarian, humanity, and benevolence; can mean both humankind and kindness; also a man or woman who is truly himself or herself; a "real person."
Deductive Logic
General to specific.
Martin Luther
German Roman Catholic Priest ordered the bible to be translated into different languages.
Kant
German philosopher whose synthesis of rationalism and empiricism, in which he argued that reason is the means by which the phenomena of experience are translated into understanding, marks the beginning of idealism. His classic works include Critique of Pure Reason (1781) and Critique of Practical Reason (1788), in which he put forward a system of ethics based on the categorical imperative.
The Divine Command Theory + EX
God's will alone determines wheather and action is right or wrong ab and isaac
cogito ergo sum
I think, therefore I am
Cogito ergo sum
I think, therefore I am.
Buber and Randall: The Three Different Types of Relationships
I-It, I-You, I-Thou
Berkeley
Idealist; no access to anything but ideas
Sensation
Ideas from experience
P # 3
If each citizen decides which laws to keep and which to give up, there are no laws.
Ascetic
Individual who turns away from pleasure and severely limits all sensual appetites in order to achieve salvation or peace of mind.
Knowledge of Matters of Fact
Inductive; truth
Absurdity (characteristics)
Ineffable, self-isolation.
Unjustified Evils
Instances of suffering that do not lead to greater good. EX: deer burning in woods with no witnesses
Justified Evils
Instances of suffering that lead to a greater good or prevent a greater evil. EX: studying
Atheism
Judging that there is no God.
The Enemies of Philosophy
Just, should, really, and you know.
Difference between Sociology and Ethics
Justification
Knowledge
Justified true belief.
18. What do Kantian's think is the most important part of human nature-the part that ground moral worth? Utilitarians? Virtue ethicists? Explain each view and give an example
Kantian: Rationality, act for reasons and are autonomous (free source of their own actions), seen as an end in themselves. EX: humans. Utilitarians: Sentiences, feel pleasure and suffer pain. EX: dog and not shovel. Virtue ethicists: Being the sort of being that has a personality that can achieve eudaimonia. EX: founder of non-profit organisation designed to help those in need, has meaningful relationships, contemplates philosophical questions and is healthy.
Technical Knowledge
Know how to do something (Type of Knowledge)
Thesis
Knowledge
What is A Posteriori?
Knowledge DEPENDENT on experience
Scholasticism
Knowledge from authority and tradition.
Natural Right
Life, liberty, the pursuit of happiness
Chung-Yung
Literally "centrality and universality," the Golden Mean of Confucius, consisting of moderation and normality, universal moral law, also equilibrium or harmony.
Li
Literally "ceremony," encompassess rites, customs, and conventions ranging from ritual sacrifices honoring one's ancestors to everyday etiquette and good manner.
Wu Wei
Literally "not to act," in the Tao to Ching; refers to unnatural or demanding action.
Formal Logic
Logical structure.
Emotivism
Moral judgements express feelings that doesn't make assertions
Reflections on Love: Three Characteristics
Mutual trust and respect, conversation/dialogue, laughter.
Intuitive Truths
Mysteries, Faith, Subjective Private, Truths for Oneself.
Categorical
NOT dependent on anything ie- God/Self/Time/Place
What is considered to be Non-consequentialism?
Not dependent on consequences but focuses on the ACT itself --> An act is right/wrong independent of consequences Motive -----> ACT -----> Consequences
What did the Pluralist believed in?
Notion of change through a compromise of ideas.
S # 2
P # 1 - 5
Naive Realism
Personal thoughts resemble reality
Etymology of Philosophy
Philos + Sophia (Loving Wisdom)
Who is Pathagoras?
Philosopher after Anaximenes. -Natural Philosopher -Idealist => Idealism
Who is Pathagoras?
Philosopher after Anaximenes. -Natural Philosopher -Idealist => Idealism
Who is Parmenides?
Philosopher after Heraclitis. -Natural Philosopher -Heavily influenced by Pathagoreast AKA: "Father Pamenidis"
Who is Parmenides?
Philosopher after Heraclitis. -Natural Philosopher -Heavily influenced by Pathagoreast AKA: "Father Pamenidis"
Who is Socrates' famous student?
Plato -Young & wealthy -wrote in dialogue (dialectic method) -most influential
Who is Socrates' famous student?
Plato -Young & wealthy -wrote in dialogue (dialectic method) -most influential
Augustine = _________ + ___________.
Plato + Christianity *one of church fathers *became Christian
Utilitariansim
Pleasure + pain
Who is Anaxagoras?
Pluralist Natural Philosopher
Who is Empedocles?
Pluralist Natural Philosopher
Augustine's main idea ____________:
Predestination: the idea that before people are born God determines who will gain salvation. *Adopts noble risk. *The idea that God knows who's going to gain salvation.
A valid Deductive argument:
Premise #1: If X is round, then X cannot be square. Premise #2: X is round. Premise #3: X is not square.
Reasoning
Premises yield conclusion.
A cause must have as much reality as its effect.
Principle of Sufficient Reason
Induction
Probability
Euthypro problem
Problem: Is X good because God says its good or is X good, thus, god says it is. (inherent virtue or divine command)
Mill (utilitarianism)
Quality is more imp than quanity
Antithesis
Questioning (Alienation)
Berkeley
Reality is entirely mental, nothing exists that isn't perceived, and God is the Absolute Perceiver.
Logos
Reason/ Law of nature
Stoicism
Recognition of internal and external events, self-discipline over external events, reason (logos), courage, apathy (non-suffering/total control), rules and regulations.
Logos
Refers to all of the words a speaker says (What's the ----- on the elections?)
What did Democritus do?
Reflected back on all previous philosophers & tried to u/stand why they though what was thought & tried to find common ground
Primary Qualities
Resemble the object
Neoplatonism
Revival of Plato's philosophy that evangelists used to describe who Jesus was
Moral
Right behavior.
Non-consequentialism
Right depends on good consequences.
Hume
Scottish philosopher whose sceptical philosophy restricted human knowledge to that which can be perceived by the senses (1711-1776)
Ethics
Search for happiness
Particularism
Start with some examples of what you are positive is real and then from those figure out a reliable method to separate the true from the false.
Omniscience
Strong: God knows every truth, including the truth about every future state of the world. Weak: God knows every truth but there may not be truths about the future to know. EX: if you read a story from this point of view, you can know everything about each character, not only their actions, but their thoughts too.
Big Bear
Thales discovered the North Star (Little Bear) constellation.
Ht. of pyramid
Thales figured out how to measure ht. of pyramid via measurement of shadow.
Diverging River
Thales helped Lybians win war against Persians by suggesting they dig hole next to river to diverge river so they can eventually walk across river to fight Lybians.
Olive Press
Thales made a prediction that olives will grow after hard winter; bought all press @ cheap $ & resold @ outrageous $ when in demand.
Knowledge argument
The argument that someone who knows all the objective neurological facts about the brain still does not know what it is like to see red, or have stereoptic vision, until they have those subjective experiences.
Multiple realizability argument
The argument that the same mental states can be implemented in different neurological ways. It is a problem for the mind-brain identity theory.
Divine foreknowledge argument
The argument that there is no free will because God's infallible knowledge of the future precludes free choice.
Regress of reasons for acting argument
The argument that there is no free will because actions are the result of desires that one does not choose.
Dilemma argument
The argument that there is no free will because all behavior is either determined or random, and both preclude free choice.
Fideism
The belief that faith is independent of or adversarial to reason. EX: Pascal's wager
Psychological egoism
The descriptive thesis that everyone always acts in his or her own self-interest.
17. What is the doctrine of the mean in virtue ethics? Explain it, and then give TWO examples illustrating how the theory works.
The doctrine of the mean in virtue ethics states that a virtue lies between two vices. A virtue doesn't go to either extreme of to over the top or not enough, for example courage is a virtue, and it lies between recklessness and cowardliness. Honor is a virtue, but taken too far is self-deprecating, dishonor.
Novum Organon
The new tool box
Problem of sameness
The problem of explaining how you are the same person as some baby of long ago, despite the fact that you have little in common with that baby.
Personal identity
The puzzle of simultaneously and consistently solving the twin problems of difference and sameness.
What is the "socratic method"/dialectic?
The role reversal b/n teachers & students - teachers now ask all the qxs & students provide answers
Uniqueness Principle
The same body of evidence E cannot justify belief in both a claim and its negation. Evidence points, at most, in one direction. ex: Suppose Sherlock Holmes finds a bloody footprint. The evidence of the footprint does not Both justify believing that Moriarty is the killer AND believing that Moriarty is not the killer
Practical Knowledge
The skills needed to do things like play the piano, use a band saw, remove a tumor, or bake a cake.
Explanans
The statements that do the explaining
The noble risk....
The task of life is to care for your soul. *Changes from Greek notion to Christian notion
Behaviorism
The theory of mind that mental states are really just behaviors, or that sentences referring to mental states can be translated without loss into sentences that only refer to behavior.
Empiricism
The theory that all knowledge comes either directly from experience or inference from experience.
Mind-brain identity theory
The theory that mental states are identical with specific brain states.
Divine command theory:
The theory that moral qualities are the result of God's decisions. It is God's love that makes things good, and his dislike that makes things bad. Prior to, or considered independently of, God's judgment, things don't have moral qualities at all.
Substance dualism
The theory that reality contains two kinds of substances: physical and mental.
Intrinsic value
The value possessed by a thing that is valuable in itself, for its own sake, regardless of whether it produces happiness or any other valuable thing.
Empiricism
The view that experience, especially of the senses, is the only source of knowledge
Ethical Relativism
The view that morality is relative to culture. No moral principles or values are cross-cultural
Theater of the mind
The view that the mind is a kind of theater screen upon which reality projects all the images and sounds of a world.
Searle's Chinese Room Argument
Theory (criticizes functionalism, against artificial intelligence); someone who knows English sits in a room alone, following English instructions for manipulating string Chinese characters, such that to those outside the room it appears as if someone in the room understands Chinese. ; arg. is intended to show that suitably programmed computers may appear to converse in natural language, but they are not capable of understanding the language
Reductive Materialism
Theory that mental state is identical to brain and central nervous system (opposite of Eliminative)
Kirk and Squire's Zombies
Theory; Imagine an exact physical replica of given man may conveniently dub "zombie"; Would such an exact physical replica or "zombie" be an exact replica of that man?
Skepticism
There is absolute, limited, and external world. Absolute says we cannot have knowledge of anything. Limited says we cannot have a particular type of knowledge. External world says we cannot have knowledge other than facts on current existence and mental states. ex: absolute- limited- external world-
The Sophists
There is no objective truth or knowledge, so the goal of philosophical argument is persuasion in the interests of power.
Materialism
Things are real (body).
What did Empedocles believe?
Things change - they come into being & are destroyed but then are composed of eternal, unchanging elements known as "MINI ONES".
Univocal
Things retain the same meaning when it pertains to god
Secondary Qualities
Things we feel/experience-based on senses
Mystery (characteristics)
Three characteristics: Ineffable, transcendant, inexhaustible.
Autarchia
To rule oneself
Distortions of the Individual Self
Too much or too little
Knowledge
True belief.
Analytic Statements
True by definition; tautologies; a priori
Tautology
True in all cases
Sound
True premise and valid form.
Contingent
True sometimes and false sometimes
Induction/ Synthetical
Truth
Necessary Truth
Truth in all possible world - outer space/ heaven & earth. ie- Object canNOT be red & green @ the same time.
Contingent Truth
Truth in our world. ie- leap from point A to B
Contingent Truth
Truth in our world.ie- leap from point A to B
Aquinas' Two types of Truth: Truth of ________, and Truth of ____________...
Truth of REASON: this truth is called knowledge and is gained by observing yourself and your world. It teaches us "that" a 1st cause exists. Truth of FAITH: gained by using Free Will to make a Leap of Faith and adopting a belief system. These truths teach us "what" the 1st Cause is.
Identity of indiscernibles
Two objects that have all the same properties in common are identical; they are really just one object.
Principle of equal treatment
Two people should be treated in the same way unless there is a relevant difference between them.
Numerical Identity
Two things are numerically identical if and only if they are one and the same thing. ex: Clark Kent and Superman. Your six year old self and your present self?
value issues
Type of Issue; Relationship between religion and morality
Extrinsic Value
Wanting/expecting something in return.
Thales
Water
What did Thales of Miletus believed everything was made of?
Water.
Manichaeism
Way to describe why evil existed, reality is a battlefield between evil and good
Descartes
We are essentially thinking substances, and self-knowledge is the foundation for all other knowledge.
Empirical Dimension
What an onlooker perceives.
What do Utilitarianism believe?
What is obligatory is what makes the good (consequence).
Epistemology
What is the mark of genuine knowledge and how does it differ from mere belief?
S # 1
What others say does not make you honorable or dishonorable.
Phenomena
What our knowledge is limited to
Reflections on Wisdom: Third Characteristic of Wisdom
Wisdom cannot be owned.
Reflections on Wisdom: Second Characteristic of Wisdom
Wisdom is a life long search.
What is the definition of a Sophist?
Wise person
Agnosticism
Withholding judgment about the existence of God.
Amoral
Without a conscience.
Hedonist principle
You should believe whatever makes you happy.
Rational principle
You should gain truth and avoid error.
Casual reasoning
a form of inductive argument; one event is claimed to be the result of the occurrence of another event
Knowledge
a form of true belief
abstraction
a general concept formed by extracting common features from specific examples
Humean Conception of Law of Nature
a law of nature is a well-established regularity, something observed over and over again without finding discrepancy ex: observing over and over that water boils at 100C
"on nature"
a poem that Parmenides Of Elea created that recounts how a goddess revealed three possible "paths" of study and understanding and indicates that only one is true.
Anaxagoras
a presocratic Athenian philosopher who rejected empedocles two fundamental motions, and in their place he posited Nous, "mind." which provided one of the most powerful intuitions in the whole course of presocratic philosophy, the the principle is an infinite reality, separate from everything else.
atoms
according to Democritus have such properties such as size, shape, position, arrangement, and motion but they do not posses sensible qualities. However they can grow large enough for us to perceive
Rachels says that certain values are universal EXP + WHY?
caring for the young, prohibiting murder Necessary for survival
objections to singers argument
causal impotence - any life saved matters anti-capitalist not safety net for ourselves
Augustine was a ________ father. He interpreted _________ beliefs for the general population.
church Catholic
"sweet exists by___, bitter by ___, color by ____; but inn reality atoms and the void alone exist." -Democritus
convention, convention, convention
Amphiboly
double meaning where there is none
empedocles four basic roots are, ___ ,___ ,___, ___ and two basic motions are, ___ and ____.
earth, ait, fire, and water. love and strife
false cause
fallacy. CONCLUSION rests on the presumption of a casual link between two phenomena, when in fact all that has been shown is a correlation
Eudimonia
flurish/ thrive
Mill: when are we justified in limiting liberty
for self defense, to prevent harm to others we are justified
Philo
friend
Types of Friendship
friend of utility, friend of pleasure, friend of good
Lycan's Henrietta
human being replaced with synthetic material example (artificial intelligence); some portion of the nervous system causes loss of consciousness despite perfect maintenance of all intelligent capacities
renxing
human nature
Descartes' Evil Demon
hypothesis states that all one knows for sure is that they exist (I think therefore I am). All else can conceivably be the result of input from an evil demon who just wants to mess with us. We may not really have a body or senses (think the Matrix). However, the one thing that can not be an illusion or false input is the fact that one has thought... existence of some sort. It is important to note that in the second part of his hypothesis, he refutes the existence of such a being. He puts forth the assumption of a God, who being God is all merciful and would not allow such a being to play such tricks. Thus, we can be certain that we are as we perceive ourselves - assuming we believe in God.
Conditional
hypothetical statement (If P, then Q)
ineffability
idea that something is literally beyond all description
utilitarianism
idea that the goal of society should be to bring about the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people
innate ideas
ideas that are inborn or naturally born
Exclusivism
if two peers disagree on some matter P, then at least one of them must be unjustified or irrational with respect to believing P ex:
Leibniz's law
if two things are identical (the very same thing), they share the same properties and fail to share none
design argument
if we look around us in the natural world, everything seems to be suited to the function it performs, almost as if it were designed
Brahman
in the belief system established in Aryan India, the single spiritual power that resides in all things
paradox of hedonism
individuals who care only about their own happiness will generally be less happy than those who care about others
Mystery (example)
intimacy, beauty
religion
involves not only a formal system of worship but prescriptions for social relationships. " do unto others as you would have them do unto you ".
a posteriori
involving reasoning from facts or particulars to general principals or from effects to causes
an organization
is a group of people who work together to achieve a common purpose
Inclusivism
it is possible for two peers to disagree about a matter P and for both of them to be justified or ration in their belief. (Possible if they are epistemic peers). ex:
Practical knowledge
knowing what to do and how to do it. actions. skills. (emphasized by Romans) involve adequate evidence
Epistemology
knowledge. (knowledge vs. belief vs. proof vs. evidence)
statutes
laws enacted by legislative bodies
plato thought of women as "____"
lesser men
Rachels argues that differing cultural practices do not always reduce to differences of _____ but sometimes ____ ____ + EXP
moral values factual matters eating cows/souls of the dead
Religion and Existentialism
movement that is skeptical about the ability of reason to establish God and that emphasizes the inescapability of the deeply subject nature of the decision or choice to believe or not to believe
why capital punishment is unjustified
no justification because doesn't demand capital punishment 1) we never lose our fundamental rights, human desert, seen in the prohibition on cruel and unusual punishment 2) set an example the state shouldn't sink to the level of the murderer, rise above, the cycle of violence has to end somewhere
Statements a
ny sentence that is either True/False
reciprocal way to justify a belief
o B1, is justified by B2, which is justified by B3, which is justified again B1, circular reasoning not good
uniformity of nature principle
o Ex. Sun rises in the east o 1. In the past, future has been like the past o 2. The future will be like the past o 3. So, the future will be like the past • all three of these beg the question
Three freedoms want to protect while still being true to utilitarianism
o Freedom on conscience - freedom to think whatever you want to o Freedom of taste and pursuit - freedom to do what you like o Freedom to unite - assembly
objections to mill
o No blood no foul- objection to mills idea that harm is the only thing that is problematic o West borrow Baptist church protest the war at funerals of dead soldiers, do we have to defend our beliefs when we are grieving? o What constitutes harm • Doesn't have set example of harm • Physical Athletes surgeries • Psychological Break ups • State doesn't get involved in all kinds of harms o The state needs to get involved for some things that don't cause harm
the harm principle
prevent harm to others justified on the principle of utility
capitalism vs. socialism
private vs public ownership of the means of production
wont improve the self
rational person will recognize duty to develop to the max
deductive reasoning
reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect)
deductive reasoning
reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.)
Logic (Definition)
reasoning/reason
ren
reconize value and dignity of eveyone
yi
ritusness
Causality
study of cause-effect
Meta-ethics
study of how if at all our ethical judgements are true
epistemology
study of knowledge, truth
theology
study of religion
Logic
study of rules of correct reasoning
Logic
study of the principles of correct reasoning
cosmology
study of the universe as a totality; theory of the origin and structure of the universe
Etymology
study of words and their history/origin
In the beginning the difference between a philosopher and a proto-scientiest was one _____ of matter, later it became one of ____.
subject, method
Theoretical knowledge
the accurate compilation and assessment of factual and systematic relationships. Thinking. theory.
general ideas
the basic idea you abstract out the common idea
panentheism
the belief that all of creation is in God, but does not make up the sum total of what God is.
Monism
the belief that realty is essentially one.
Thales
the first western philosopher. lived in the city of miletus. Known for trying to figure out the single substance underlying all things. Observed that everything is "moist"
skepticism
the idea that nothing can ever be known for certain
Esoteric Utilitarianism
the morally right action is whatever action maximizes expected utility, but you should not always base your moral decisions on utilitarian reasoning ex:
The Good Will
the only thing good in itself the good will seek to do what is right for it's own sake A uniquely "rational" desire
realism
the philosophical doctrine that abstract concepts exist independent of their names
relativism
the philosophical doctrine that all criteria of judgment are relative to the individuals and situations involved; knowledge is determined by specific qualities of the observer
metaphysics
the philosophical study of being and knowing, reality
nominalism
the position that only particular entities are real and that universals represent detectable likeness among particulars
applied ethics
the practical application of moral standards to the conduct of individuals involved in organizations
virtue
the quality of doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong
Epistemology
the study of knowledge, identifying and developing criteria and methodologies for what we know and why we know it
Epistemology (Definition)
the study of knowledge, truth, and logic
Ethics
the study of moral values and principles
Metaphysics
the study of the ultimate characteristics of reality or existence
cosmology
the study of the universe as a rationally ordered system
Axiology
the study of values and value judgments
Belief
the subject mental assistance that a claim is true. Beliefs don't have to be true, but someone can believe one is true because of mental states.
consequentialism
the theory that actions should be judged right or wrong based only on their consequences or results
solipsism
the theory that the self is all that can be known to exist
Physicalism
the thesis that all facts are physical facts Ex: Jupiter is larger than mars, there's a high degree of neural activity in Justin's prefrontal cortex, etc
pneuma
the ultimate, pervasive spirit that holds the world together; all things are produced by either ''rarefaction'' of the pneuma
coherence theory
the view contending that truth is a property of a related group of consistent statements
Queen of the sciences
theology and is regarded as so in medieval universities
Fatalism
theory advocating that what is true of our future is independent of our current situation
Eliminative Materialism
theory that all reference to them mental concerning humans should be eliminated in the favor of neurobiology terms and concepts
Substance Dualism
theory that humans are the union of two metaphysically different substances
transcendental idealism
theory that knowledge is the result of the interaction between the mind and sensation and is structured by regulative ideas called categories
Jihada
to fight, to battle, to struggle
Correspondence Theory
true if it corresponds to an observable fact Strength- Intuitive weakness - cannot account for abstract ideas or systems
What are issues that ethics deals with?
truth telling, relativism, universality
Contingent
truth vs. necessary truth
Act Utilitarianism
type of utilitarianism; Determines goodness of a particular act by measuring the utility for all, but only for that specific act and without regard for future actions (Bentham's version)
Problem (example)
unbalanced checkbook
Categorical Imperatives are
unconditional no exceptions
excusability
under certain circumstances, people cannot be held responsible for the morality of their decisions
University
uni - one Universe Universus
arete
virtue
Negative Responsibility
you are morally responsible for what you do not prevent just as much as you are responsible for what you voluntarily do. ex: warlord ex- suppose you decide you cannot kill one of the hostages. You are morally responsible for the deaths of all of the hostages, because you did not prevent the warlord from killing them.
ontological argument
(Believed God's existence but prove it through logic) --Essentially God must exist because the mental conception of God—the greatest thing imaginable—cannot be as great as the actual existence of God. Huh? ( : --Definition of God entails that God be perfect in every way --Existence is more perfect than non-existence --Very platonic: (1) purely a priori—appeals solely to reason (2) most perfect = most real
What was the ancient conception of "soul"?
-Soul is worthless -After death, soul travels to Hates -Souls that don't make it to Hates get stuck on the ground & gets stepped -Souls can't think, see, hear, feel
Ethics Study of Morality
. Right vs. Wrong/ Objective vs. Subjective
Kant's 4 Illustrations of Categorical Imperatives
1. suicide 2. insincere promises 3. wont improve the self 4. own wellfare/no helping others
Two crucial principles started by ancient Greeks
1. there's a difference between the way things appear and the way they really are. 2.There are unseen causes of events
Problems with Relativism
1. unhelpful with dealing with intersecting cultures ex: trade, media 2. we can not make legit moral judgements because we cannot fully understand other cultures
Religious Cults (7 Characteristics)
1.) Paranoid Separation Psychosis--extreme dualism of good and evil. 2.) Charismatic Leader--process the gnosis (secret knowledge of salvation 3.) Cult members = chosen ones. 4.) Leader has Gnosis (signs). 5.) Intellectual Slavery. 6.) Secret Rituals 7.) Immediate Cosmic Eschatology
Epistemic Peer
A and B are epistemic peers with respect to some topic P if and only if they have access to the same evidence about P and they are able to reason equally well about P ex: two physicists working in same lab are epistemic peers with respect to their beliefs ex: My lovable brother Pat is not the epistemic peer of anyone when it comes to quantum mechanics
What is the Lyceum?
2nd school that existed, opened by Aristotle after the death of Plato
how many sects are there in christianity
30,000
What did Plato write?
36 dialogues & 13 letters
Socrates
399 B.C.E. (already dead). One injustice does not make another just.
Empedocles
4 Roots: Fire, Earth, Water, Air.
law
4 kinds of law: statutes, regulations, common law and constitutional law
5 reasons why the world was ready for Descartes...
5 Main World Events 1200-1630 1. Rennaisance- rebirth of learning. *Moving away from God towards the world. Church power diminishing. 2. Protestant Reformation *"95 thesis". 3. World Travel 4. Rise of Science *Galileo, Copernicus, Heliocentric. 5. Printing Press- Latin to vernacular. *Thinking and sharing ideas in their own languages.
when was the church founded?
600 CE
20. Can a Kantian be a loving saint? A rational saint? Why or why not?
A Kantian can be a rational saint but not a loving saint. A rational saint is
What is an Aperion?
A boundless indeterminate realm. - vortex: something that spins - made/contains of mixture of opposites
What is an Aperion?
A boundless indeterminate realm. - vortex: something that spins - made/contains of mixture of opposites
Manachaism
A mixture of Heathenism with Christianity
Parmenides
A monist who characterized the one real thing as "being." Being is purely positive. "not being," is negitive, complex, and unintelligible. uses two key premises: "what is, is" and "what is not, is not."
Agent-neutral moral theory
A moral theory according to which everyone has the same duties and moral aims, no matter what their personal interests or interpersonal relationships.
Agent-relative moral theory
A moral theory according to which our interpersonal relationships can impose particular moral obligations that we do not have to all others.
Utilitarianism
A moral theory that is the conjunction of consequentialism and a theory of the highest good.
virtue ethics
A perspective that goes beyond the conventional rules of society by suggesting that what is moral must also come from what a mature person with good "moral character" would deem right.
Teleological Argument
A posteriori argument for existence of God, based on apparent design and purpose in the universe.
Consequentialism
A theory about the structure of morality according to which all that morally matters is the consequences of action.
Ritual (Definition)
A repeated behavior that has sacred meaning.
Reflections on Wisdom: First Characteristic of Wisdom
A wise person is aware of their ignorance and has a passion to learn.
Anarchy
Against all types of rule
9. What is the difference between induction and abduction? Give examples.
Abduction: AKA inference to the best Sometimes called principle of abduction. If a statement provides the simplest most comprehensive explanation of some surprising phenomenon, then you are justified in believing it. Focus on explanation. EX: watch and intelligent designer. Principle of induction: if in all previous observed cases, a statement holds true, then it will continue to hold true in all unobserved cases and all future observed cases. From Hume lecture. Focus on past observations. EX: black swans and white swans.
Omnipotence
Ability to perform any possible action. EX: part the sea against the laws of nature
Aquinas' Sufficient Grace
According to Aquinas, this grace is a gift from God given to all souls so that each can gain salvation.
Egoism
Act so as to produce the most good for ME!
Three Forms of Ethical Hedonism
Active Egoistic Hedonism, Passive Egoistic Hedonism, Utilitarianism.
Compatibilist Conception of Free Will
An agent is free if his will is not impeded. If the person wants to do the action that was predetermined then this still works. EX: locked room
Aquinas
Aristotelian philosophy confirms that Christian theology is reasonable.
Who is Plato's famous student?
Aristotle -next most influential beside Plato
Who is Plato's famous student?
Aristotle -next most influential beside Plato
Who is the Father of Logic?
Aristotle - (allows us to reason & think)
Ethics
Asks the question "How does one live best?" What is virtue and vice? Are there really goods and bads?
Aesthetics
Asks the question: Is there such a thing as objective beauty?
A priori
Before experience. A type of knowing based on general claims independent of what exists in the world. Some examples are the ontological arguments and the moral arguments. These always depend upon some innate awareness or innate idea in humans.
agnosticism
Belief that humans can't know whether God exist
Relativism
Belief that knowledge is determined by specific qualities of the observer, including age, ethnicity, gender, cultural conditioning.
Pascal's wager
Blaise Pascal's argument that it is rational to believe that God exists because it is only if God exists that you have something to win or lose by believing, and if he does exist you win big by believing and lose big by not believing.
De corpore
Body=matter
Dualism
Both ideas and things are real (mind and body).
Where was the Descartes interaction point of the mind/soul and the body?
Brain
Epistemology
Branch of philosohpy that studies the nature and possibility of knowledge.
Ethics
Branch of philosophy concerned with the good life and moral value and moral reasoning.
Ethics
Branch of philosophy that studies moral theory
10 Commandments
C#6: "You shall not kill." Murder, Only humans--image of God. Does not apply to accidental death.
Beliefs (Christian vs. Buddhist)
C: "God is an eternal spirit of love, compassion, and forgiveness. Heaven is to be in the eternal, infinite essence of God's love." B: "Nirvana is infinite, eternal bliss."
Values (Christian vs. Buddhist)
C: "You are to love, forgive, and pray for your enemy." B: "I renounce the harming of all living things (beings)."
Ritual (Example)
C: Baptism, Last Supper. I: Salat (prayer).
Saved how?
C: By God's grace. B: By oneself.
Symbol (Example)
C: Holy Water, Bread and Wine. I: Prayer Rug, Postures.
Saved for?
C: Individual immortality. B: Non-individual immortality.
Saved from?
C: The finality of death. B: The finality of death.
Reasoning
Constructing arguments.
What is the Pathagorean Way of Life?
Contemplate Numbers & Self Denial.
Belief
Conviction or trust that a claim is true; an individual's subjective mental state; distinct from knowledge.
Heliocentrism
Copernicus found out in 1520 that the sun is the center of the universe.
Valid
Correct logical structure.
Kierkegaard
Danish heavily influenced by Christianity; criticizes rationalism; minimizes perception; emotion is way of knowing; Dialectic System (Thesis and Antithesis struggling forever); ability to choose is important; something must happen before change; Plains of Existence: aesthetic )physical and driven by perceptions), Ethical (use reason and perceptions to help you make decisions); Authentic/Religious (having an emotional experience with God)
Logos
Derived from the word "to speak"
5. How does Descartes argue that we can trust our senses in Meditation III?
Descartes: belief in God as antidote to skepticism: 1. You can trust "clear and distinct" perceptions. Beliefs that come from "the light of nature". 2. Why? Because God gave us this light, and God would not make us such that we are systematically mislead (since He is all-good) 3. But why think God exists? Argument: 1. I understand God as the infinite independent, supreme creator 2. Because I am finite, I could not understand an infinite creator unless that creator gave that idea to me 3. An infinite being must exist in order to give an idea of infiniteness C) God must exist
Libertarianism
Determinism is false and humans are sometimes responsible for our choices and actions; deny that the universe is deterministic
Punishment Theodicy
Developed by Augustine, Doctrine of Original Sin.
What is Phaedo?
Dialectic of Socrates final moments; Socrates dies after Phaedo. Phaedo - soul/wisdom Socrates was convinced to break out of jail but in the end, Socrates decided it is "never ok to break law...even if unjust law".
What is Phaedo?
Dialectic of Socrates final moments; Socrates dies after Phaedo. Phaedo - soul/wisdom Socrates was convinced to break out of jail but in the end, Socrates decided it is "never ok to break law...even if unjust law".
Official Charges
Did not believe in state gods, introduced a new god, corrupted the youth.
Descriptive Relativism
Different cultures differ in their basic ethical beliefs
Too Much
Egotism, Narcissism
Incompatibilism
Either we have no free will or determinism is false.
Who committed suicide by jumping into Mt. Etna?
Empedocles
ethical absolutism
Emphasizes the principles of right and wrong in accordance with a set of universally fixed standards regardless of cultural differences.
I know that there is a markerboard in this room.
Empirical Truth, Inductive Argument. (Direct: See, touch. Indirect: Hear, taste, smell.)
Determinism
Given the laws of nature and a set of initial conditions, there is exactly one physically possible future.
Spinoza
God and Nature are one and the same, and everything else follows from that by logical necessity.
Leibniz
God has created the best possible world, and whatever happens in this world must happen for a sufficient reason.
Utilitarianism
Group has moral priority, most moral action greatest good for the greatest number.
Real Charges
Guilty by association--Critias, political enemies, public gossip.
What were the verdict in Socrates' trial?
Guilty: 280 to Not Guilty: 221 ===> DEATH
Comparison of Moral Principles:
Hammurabi Code, Socrates, and Sermon on the Mount.
Stoicism
Happiness through wisdom
Denteronomy 2.0
Harem (Holy War) with 3 justifications
Anthropormorphism (fourth characteristic)
Harem, Ethnic Cleansing, Genocide, Final Solution
Necessity Theodicy
Have to have evil as contrast to good.
Stace
He believes acts done freely are "those whose immediate causes are psychological states in the agent," meaning that if an action is directly caused by a person's thoughts, wishes, emotions, desires etc. it is free; and acts not done freely are "those whose immediate causes are states of affairs external to the agent," meaning that if an action is caused by outside forces, it is not free. (free will is compatible with determinism)
Descartes
He believes an infinite being put the idea into human beings about the existence of an infinite being
Rowe's Fawn
He believes fawn's suffering in forest fire was preventable & seems pointless; omnipotent & omniscient being does not exist or would have prevented gratuitous evil
Bentham
He believes: greatest good to the greatest number of people
Kant
He criticized Anselm's assumption that existence is a predicate or base for an argument
Hume's Infant argument
His argument challenges the design argument by explaining the world isn't perfect & possibility of more than one designer; therefore, we can't conclude that the designer are all-loving or morally perfect
Hick's Soul-Building Theodicy
His theory states: Evil in the world is the main ingredient humans need in order to build upon their character; without evil, there would be smaller chance of expanding one's moral virtues
Reflexion
Ideas from your mind- abstract
Soft determinism (compatibilist)
If the Universe is completely determined then there can be free will. The universe is completely determined. Therefore there can be free will
Logos
In pre-Socratic philosophy, the principle governing the cosmos (The source of this principle)
Felicific calculus
Jeremy Bentham's proposed method of measuring pains and pleasures in terms of their intensity, duration, certainty or uncertainty, propinquity or remoteness, fecundity, purity, and extent.
Process Theodicy
John Hick God is omnibolevelant and omnipresent but not omniscient and omnipotent.
What is A Priori?
Knowledge INDEPENDENT of experience; rational knowledge; knowledge gained /s having to use sense @ all ==>RATIONAL/REASON "arm-chair philosophy"
Empiricism
Knowledge from experience (observation).
Modus Tollens (Invalid)
Legitimately negating the consequent If A then B Not B Therefore, not A
I-Thou
Love, Friendship
What is the protestant reformation?
Martin Luther Justification by faith alone. 1517.
Logos
Meaning easily slides into the thoughts expressed in a discourse, which in turn presupposes there is a rationale behind it; A rationale has a typical structure or pattern to it
The Individual Self as a Source of...
Meaning, Value, and Purpose
Allegory
Meanings beyond the literal meaning
What do ethics philosophers specialize in?
Medical ethics, business ethics, and the nature of good life.
Prosecutors
Meletus, Anytus, Lycon
Psyche
Mind
Dualism
Mind and Matter
Anaxagoras
Mind is prior to matter and explains its order.
Passive Pleasures (Characteristics)
Moderate, long-term duration.
Reflections on Wisdom: Fourth Characteristic of Wisdom
Modesty (humility) is a fundamental characteristic of the wise person.
Three Kinds of Truth
Necessary Truths, Empirical Truths, and Intuitive Truths
Deduction
Necessity
Communism
No religion allowed
Atopia
No stance; no theory
3. Can a question-begging argument be invalid? Why or why not?
No, because an invalid argument is an argument that states the conclusion as one of the premises, therefore if the premise is true then the conclusion is automatically true.
Secular
Non-religious
Descartes proof for existence of God: Ontological
OVERT PREMISIS: (From Meditation 3) 1. I have an idea of God. 2. My idea of God is of God as perfect. 3. A cause must have as much reality as its effect. (Principle of sufficient reason). 4. I am imperfect. 5. I could not create my idea of God. IMPLIED PREMISES: 1. Perfection entails existence. 2. I believe in God. Conclusion: Therefore, God exists. *Good argument for 1st Cause
External Proposition
Objective statement.
What were the charges against Socrates?
Old Charges: 1. Natural Philosophy 2. Sophistry New Charges: 1. Corrupting the youth 2. not honoring the Gods of the city/Atheism
What were the charges against Socrates?
Old Charges: 1. Natural Philosophy 2. Sophistry New Charges: 1. Corrupting the youth 2. not honoring the Gods of the city/Atheism
divine nature
Omnicompetent- contains all three omnipotence (all powerful), omniscience (all knowing) and omnibenevolent (all loving and morally perfect)
4 Common Characteristics of God
Omnipresent, omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibelevolent.
identity theory
One basic premise of is that: consciousness is merely a function of the brain
Motion
One of five proofs for gods existence, notes reality is in motion
Heraculitus
One of the most important presocratics, from ephesus, made the term Logos. said logos is like god but is a process, not an entity.
Teleological argument (a.k.a. the argument from design)
One of the traditional arguments for God's existence. According to this argument, God exists because his existence best explains the complexity and order of the universe.
Cosmological argument
One of the traditional arguments for God's existence. According to this argument, God exists because there had to be a first cause, or prime mover, that started the causal chain of physical events.
Ontological argument
One of the traditional arguments for God's existence. It relies on the idea that since God is the most perfect being imaginable, and it is more perfect to exist than not exist, to imagine God at all is to concede his existence.
In a 2 world view, what is considered to be an "Intelligible World"?
Perfect world - ie) heaven (Soul is considered to be immortal & intombe in body)
In a 2 world view, what is considered to be an "Intelligible World"?
Perfect world - ie) heaven (Soul is considered to be immortal & intombe in body)
Archaic Period
Period of 2 famous authors: 1. Homer - Iliad/Odessey 2. Hesiod - Theogony
Archaic Period
Period of 2 famous authors: 1. Homer - Iliad/Odessey 2. Hesiod - Theogony
Anthropomorphism (definition)
Only whites/only Aryans (slippery slope theology)
Subjective
Opinion. ie- I think it is beautiful.
Subjective
Opinion. ie- I think it is beautiful.
Pride
Opposite of gratitude, original sin is pride
Disjunction
Or - P or Q
Descartes method: *traveled for 9 years. Only got more opinions. Going to figure out the truth by looking inside himself.
Radical Doubt 1. Examine all your ideas. Ones you can doubt, put aside. 2. Break ideas you have left into smallest parts. 3. Start with simple, move to complex. 3. Omit no ideas.
What did Parmenides of Elea transform?
Radically transformed the early philosophers' interest in cosmology into ontology. Work was a huge influence on Plato.
What was the church of the west called?
Roman Catholic Church.
Janus
Roman God with 2 heads Mythical creature Simultaneously looking into the future and back into the past
Where were the administrative centers of The Church?
Rome and Constantinople. Rome was the church of the west, more powerful of the two. Priests had to take vows of sullabacy. Church of the east was in Constantinople.
Divine Right
Ruling by God
Where is largest orthodox church.
Russian orthodox church.
Cynicism (Definition)
Self-contradictory.
What is "Allegari of the Cave"?
Socrates' conversation w/ Gloucan (Plato's nephew) about inter-meaning of the Cave
Who was the 1st known philosopher?
Thales of Miletus.
Views of Ultimate Reality (Whose views?)
Thales, Empedocles, Democritus
What was the 1st school called?
The Academy
Socrates
The Apology (Trial)
What is Crito?
The law that when the "holy ship"is away, nothing will happen (ie- death sentence punishment, etc)
Descartes was a RADICAL DUALIST
The mind and the body are two entirely different things. "I am a thinking thing." You are your mind. 2 problems arise: *unresolved 1. The problem of other minds Privileged access. We never know what someone else is thinking. Do we ever really know someone? No. 2. The mind/body issue
Greatest Happiness Principle
The morally right action is whichever action maximizes expected utility ex:
Functionalism
The theory that the mind is an abstract, immaterial object that must be implemented by a physical thing, akin to computer software.
Universalism (about the afterlife)
The theory that there is an afterlife, but no person will spend eternity in Hell. (In brief, there is no populated Hell. Every person will (eventually) go to Heaven. ex:
Determinism
The thesis that it is always determined ahead of time which action an agent will perform. EX: locked room, strong omniscience
25. Why does Plantinga think that peer disagreement does not necessarily undermine his religious or philosophical beliefs?
Think about all of the different religious views, all are inconsistent, but these people have held onto their views as being the truth. Is it wrong for you to hold onto a belief that entails that everyone else is wrong? If religious people are wrong for holding onto their beliefs, relativists are equally wrong for calling out everyone for being wrong. He is a theist, but believes that the fact that there are smart people who disagree with him on theism does not give him sufficient reason to give up his faith in God. Also, the rationally justified theist has some sort of unique evidence through personal experience that may justify his/her belief in God. Comparison to the way people deal with moral or political beliefs, think about all the issues people disagree on, it is counterintuitive that the existence of people who disagree with you makes it wrong for you to hold onto your beliefs, you will have to tell everyone that they have to become a relativist.
Physical substance
This is regular physical, material, corporeal matter, the domain of scientific investigation. Your body is built of this stuff, for example.
Mental substance
This is what ideas, thoughts, and sensations are composed out of. According to substance dualism, your mind is, or is made out of, a mental substance. Your brain is a physical thing, but your mind is not.
Sound argument
an argument that has both true reasoning and a valid structure
Unsound argument
an argument that has either false reasons or an invalid structure
Logic
Utilizes reason not just rhetoric (Rhetoric - persuasive speech)
5 Great Jain Vows
V#1: "I renonce the harming of all living beings, whether moveable or immovable, great or small. I will not remain silent when others... I renounce any behavior that encourages other to..." Humans. All animals. Plants. Does apply to accidental death.
Intrinsic Value
Value for it's own sake - wanted to learn just b/c.
Intrinsic Value
Value for it's own sake - wanted to learn just b/c.
Radical skepticism
We can neither avoid error nor gain truth. We're either incapable of eliminating error, invariably committed to circular reasoning, or should suspend judgment indefinitely. If we have any true beliefs at all, we have them by accident. There's no trustworthy way to separate the true from the false, or, if there is, we can't figure out what it is.
Deontology
We should be able to test A Priori (reason) knowledge empirically (sense) Act is moral, if & only if the principle it embodies is capable of universalization /s self-contradiction --> morality is independent of you; must ask: "Self, can I will that everyone act on this rule?" YES - Moral NO - Immoral
Deontology
We should be able to test A Priori (reason) knowledge empirically (sense) Act is moral, if & only if the principle it embodies is capable of universalization /s self-contradiction --> morality is independent of you; must ask: "Self, can I will that everyone act on this rule?" YES - Moral NO - Immoral
P # 2
Without laws, the polis deteriorates into chaos.
Logos
Words, message, thought, rationale, structure
Mass
Worship service of catholics.
De Rerum Natura
Written by Lucretius. "On the Nature of Things" didactic poem purpose was to promote Epicurus' views and comprehensive account of the world. World does not have god interference.
Immoral
Wrong behavior.
Educate
building structure and bringing understanding to a higher level. Instruction
By Tongue
speaking against injustice
duan
sprout
Coherence Theory
A statement is true if it is consistent or coheres w/other statements you hold to be true Strength- account for math and other abstract systems Weakness it can support false beliefs; relative to only one person's beliefs.
Simpson's paradox
A statistical oddity that arises when a set can be partitioned into subsets that each have a property opposite to that of the superset.
Sociology (Definition)
A study of the customs, beliefs, values, biolog (physiology), and environment that determine mores and taboos in a social group.
What did Plato believe in?
Morality = objective Right/wrong based on FACTS
What did Plato believe in?
Morality = objective Right/wrong based on FACTS
morality and self interest
Morality restrains our self-interested desires.A society's moral standards allow conflict to be resolved by appeal of shared principles of justification. Thus social existence is possible. When morality and self-interest collide what you choose to do depends on the person you are.
Humanism
Name given to any philosophy that emphasizes human welfare and dignity; belief that human intelligence and effort are capable of improving conditions in the here and now.
What type of philosopher is Thales of Melitus considered to be?
Natural Philosopher. Monist.
What type of philosopher is Thales of Melitus considered to be?
Natural Philosopher. Monist.
Cosmos (ordered universe)
Natural Sciences: Physics, Biology, Geology/Geography, Chemistry, perhaps Engineering/Technology.
Non-human Sources of Meaning, Value, and Purpose
Nature, Religion or God
Formal Cause
Nature/Essence/Definition/Shape ==> Form - what it's shaped like
Consequent
Second part of clause (,then...). Follows from the antecedent.
Practical Imperative
People are not merely means, but also ends.
Herem (characteristics)
People living in sacred land, no surrender, total genocide
Who is Zeno?
Student of Permenidis -Natural Philosophist
Who is Zeno?
Student of Permenidis -Natural Philosophist
Who is Anaximander?
Student of Thales of Miletus. - Monist/Pluralist (depending on if you look @ Aperion as 1 entity or if you look @ Aperion as something made of many opposites). -Natural Philosopher
Who is Anaximander?
Student of Thales of Miletus. - Monist/Pluralist (depending on if you look @ Aperion as 1 entity or if you look @ Aperion as something made of many opposites). -Natural Philosopher
Ontology
Studies what exists (Is there a God? Do universals exist?)
Aesthetics
Study of Beauty/Art. Objective Vs. Subjective
Aesthetics
Study of Beauty/Art. Objective Vs. Subjective
Epistemology
Study of Knowledge. Empirical Knowledge vs. Rational Knowledge
Epistemology
Study of Knowledge. Empirical Knowledge vs. Rational Knowledge
Logic
Study of Reason - principles used to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning.
Ontology
Study of being is/are.
Ontology
Study of being is/are. Contingent truth vs. necessary truth
Ethics
Study of ideas about right and wrong behavior.
Epistemology
Study of knowledge
Epistemology
Study of knowledge (truth).
Logic
Study of principles used to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning
Empiricists
People who believe that knowledge is based on senses or observation.
Rats
People who took other people's jobs
Classical Age
Period of: Birth of Mind & Time Awareness.
Dark Ages
Periods before historic writing/recording ==> Nothing written about this time period.
Dark Ages
Periods before historic writing/recording ==> Nothing written about this time period.
secondary qualities
according to Locke, qualities that we impose on an object: colour, smell, texture, and so on
Inductive
(non-deductive) speaker intends for a conclusion to follow the premise with a degree of probability
Percept
Idea (experience
Teleology
Purpose drive
Skepticism
doubt
Skepticism
A doubting or questioning attitude or state of mind
Enlightenment
Deism
Intuitionism
Immediate knowledge (revelation).
A strong Inductive argument:
Cafeteria Example; process of elimination.
Who were the 3 ppl that brought charges against Socrates?
1. Meletus - poet (leader) 2. Anytus - craftsman 3. Lycon - Sophist
Descartes' 2 types of substances:
1. Mental- mind- ideas. 2. Physical- body. *Desk -physical substances have "extensions"- they take up space.
Philosophy
the wisdom of love
Aristotle thought of women as "____"
'mistakes' of nature, 'incomplete' or misbegotten men.
Sophism
'verbally pulling the wool over someone's eyes'
professional codes of conduct
(.p10) set forth by associations of professionals, promises by professions to regulate themselves in the general interest of society. By doing business you explicitly agree to follow codes of conduct,adherence to a professional code does not exempt you form scrutiny from the broader perspective of morality.
Modus Ponens (Valid)
(Affirming the antecedent) If A then B. A Therefore, B.
Modus Ponens (Invalid)
(Affirming the consequent) If P then Q Q Therefore P
ethics
(P. 5)i, the principles of right and wrong that guide an individual in making decisions
Aquinas
(Roman Catholic Church) Italian theologian and Doctor of the Church who is remembered for his attempt to reconcile faith and reason in a comprehensive theology
Ad Hominem (DIRECT)
(Version of fallacy); An attack made agains the person making the argument
Ad Hominem (CIRCUMSTANTIAL)
(Version of fallacy); points out that someone is in circumstances such that they are pre-disposed to take a position
Soft Determinism
(aka Compatibilism) Believe freedom can be present or absent in situations for reasons that have nothing to do with metaphysics; ultimately, we are responsible for our choices and actions
invalid argument
(p.25)an argument whose premises do not entail its conclusion
What type of philosopher is Anaximander considered to be?
-Natural Philosopher. -(both) Monist/Pluralist - dependent of how one views Aperion
What type of philosopher is Anaximenes?
-Natural Philosopher. -Monist
What type of philosopher is Anaximander considered to be?
-Natural Philosopher. -(both) Monist/Pluralist - dependent of how one views Aperion
What type of philosopher is Anaximenes?
-Natural Philosopher. -Monist
What was Thales famous for?
1. Olive Press 2. Earth was a flat disc 3. Big Bear (North Star) 4. Ht. of pyramid ~Olive Press Thales made a prediction that olives will grow after hard winter; bought all press @ cheap $ & resold @ outrageous $ when in demand. ~Earth was a flat disc Ppl believed Earth was flat but Thales 1st to predict Earth=round. ~Big Bear Thales discovered the North Star (Little Bear) constellation. ~Ht. of pyramid Thales figured out how to measure ht. of pyramid via measurement of shadow.
What are the types of Statements in an argument?
1. Premise 2. Conclusion
What was Parmenides's belief in regards to "Reality"?
1. Reality must be kept in line w/ the "Principle of Non-contradiction" - there must be no change. 2. Something can't come from nothing b/c nothing doesn't exist
What was Parmenides's belief in regards to "Reality"?
1. Reality must be kept in line w/ the "Principle of Non-contradiction" - there must be no change. 2. Something can't come from nothing b/c nothing doesn't exist
26. What is a Sorites argument? Why does Sider thing Sorites reasoning should lead theists to believe there is no populated Hell?
A Sorites argument: Always starts with two assumptions. 1: S is a series of members ordered by how much they have a certain property P. EX: S1 and S2 are individuals lined up based on how much hair they have, from baldest to hairiest. 2: Every adjacent pair in S is very similar, so if one had the property P, then its neighbor does too. EX: If S3 is bald, then S4 is too. A Sorites Argument uses assumptions 1 and 2 to argue that every single member of a series S has a property P. Can lead to paradoxical conclusions. Should you be suspicious of a belief if you find it is a matter of chance that you hold it? I know the twist ending of The Empire Strikes Back. My younger brother does not. But just because I (by chance) saw it on TV and he (by chance) was out that night. The fact that my belief that Darth is Luke's father is chancy does not mean it is unjustified. Mike knows he would be an atheist if he had grown up in Beijing. It was a pure matter of chance that his parents did not move to Beijing when he was born. In fact Mike stayed in South Bend, and like his friends and neighbors, is a Catholic. Is Mike justified in believing God exists? Everyone who takes Professor Newland's class eventually comes to believe that Moore refuted Skepticism. Everyone who takes Professor Speaks' class comes to believe that Moore's argument does not refute skepticism. It was a matter of chance that you took Newland's class. Are you justified in believing that Moore refuted skepticism?
Deductive Reasoning (Definition)
A deductive argument is an argument whose conclusion follows necessarily from its premises.
Counterexample
A description of possible situations where each premise is true, but the conclusion is false; does not have to be completely realistic.
Religion (Definition)
A faith incorporating beliefs, values, symbols, and rituals affirming transcendent solution.
Sophism
A fallacious argument that looks good, but is not
Who is Euthyphro?
A friend of Socrates who put his own father on trial in a court of law for the death of a servant.
Arguments
A group of one or more statements that are offered as support for some other statements
Defense (agst Prob of Evil)
A live hypothesis for why God might permit evils if He were to exist, does not presuppose that God exists. EX: free will defense
Psychological Criterion of Personal Identity
A person A is the same person as person B if and only if A and B are strongly psychologically connected--A shares the memoires, personality, traits and experiences as B or A and B are connected by a sequence of overlapping strong psychological connections. ex:
Philosophical Archetype
A philosophy who represents an original or influential point of view in a way that significantly affects philosophers and nonphilosophers: cynic, saints, pessimist, rationalist, idealist, and so on.
A posteriori
After experience. A type of knowing based on the existence of the world of things or facts about the world. Some examples are the cosmological arguments, the Kalam and the teleological arguments. These always depend upon the ability humans have to observe and reason about the world.
Religion (Etymology)
Again back/hold bind. Bind back taboo/sin.
3 Justifications for War
Against any group that forbids the worship of God, to defend one's home, to correct an injustice.
10 Buddhist Precepts
Ahisma: "I renounce the harming of living beings." All humans. Almost all animals. Accidental death.
What did Anaximenes believed /q thing was made of?
Air --> the (quantity) amt of air determines the (quality) type of the object.
What is "Felting"?
Air comes in thread --> air comes together & comes apart; condensation & rarification
Who is Aristotle's famous student?
Alexander the Great
No Name (valid)
All A are B All B are C Therefore, All A are C
No Name (Invalid)
All A are C All B are C Therefore All A are B
Omniscient
All knowing
Aristotle
All natural objects (including humans) are form-matter composites whose essential natures determine their ends.
Normative universe
All of one's legal, moral, aesthetic, and rational obligations, duties, and responsibilities.
Libertarian Conception of Free Will
An agent is free with respect to some action if there are at least two actions he could possibly choose and it is not determined before that time which he will choose. EX: free to leave or stay in room
Willed Ignorance
An attitude of indifference to the posibility of error or enlightenment that holds on to beliefs regardless of the facts.
Bodhisattva
An elighted being who voluntarily postpone his own nirvana in order to help all other conscious life-forms find "supreme release"; not a savior.
Absurdity (definition)
An experience that I am so deeply involved in that I cannot separate myself from the mystery.
Mystery (definition)
An experience that I am so deeply involved in that I cannot separate myself from the mystery.
Theodicy
An explanation for why God permits evils, presupposes that God exists. EX: Augustinian theodicy: evil is not created by God, but is instead a corruption of goodness
archetype
An image that has been shared by the human race from the earliest times.
Inductive Reasoning (Definition)
An inductive argument is an argument whose conclusion follows probably from its premises.
Epistemology
Are there different kinds of knowledge? What is truth? How far can our knowledge reach? Are there things that are just unknowable?
Epistemology
An inquiry into what can be known and how we know it
What is the "Horse Analogy"?
Analogy of Horses to ppl - who do you bring a sick horse to?
What is the "Horse Analogy"?
Analogy of Horses to ppl - who do you bring a sick horse to?
2 types of "judgments"
Analytic-Necessary cannot be false subject Synthetic- gives knowledge world Analyze subject+ Predicate
Nirvana
Annihilation of the ego; a state of emptiness or "no-thing-ness" a state of bliss: "pure consicousness that leads to release from suffering while remaining conscious.
Statement
Any sentence that is True/False
What did Anaximander believed /q thing was made of?
Aperion.
Locke's view on Innate Ideas
Are none, Latin term Tabula rasa meaning blank slate the mind is a blank slate and the ideas are building blocks for knowledge
Thomas Aquinas = ______ + __________.
Aristotle + Christianity -Inclusivist -1225-1275 AD -Most famous works Summa Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles -Attempted to take the philosophy of Aristotle and show that it was the means by which the Christian faith could be rationally explained. -He separated theology and philosophy, but he saw humans as rational animals who need to explain their world and existence. -He claimed that all humans have a natural impulse to seek answers with which offer them a way of understanding their world as a unity. -As a result, he also claimed that science, or the study of a material reality naturally leads to metaphysics. -He claimed that humans have no innate ideas- they are not born with knowledge. Humans must get knowledge from external sources, but he claimed that since humans are reasoning beings they can understand the knowledge they receive. 2 types of truth: the truth of reason and the truth of faith.
Empiricism
Aristotle, naturalism, body, experience over reason, Hume, perception, evidence.
What term did Democritus invent?
Atomein = uncuttable ==> ATOM
Democritus
Atoms (unobservable, indivisible/indestructible)
The Council of Four
Authority, Reason, Experience, and Intuition.
Ad infinitum
B1 justified by B2 justified by B3, goes on forever, its seems impossible to have an infinite number of beliefs, and is never clear how B1 is justified
hypothetical way
B1, justified by B2 which is not justified by anything at all
Hammurabi Code
Babylonian, c. 2,500 B.C.E. An Eye for an Eye.
Muavaise Foi (Translations)
Bad faith, or self-deception.
Sophrosyne
Balance
8. What is friendly atheism, according to William Rowe? Are friendly atheists inclusivists, exclusivists, or skeptics (using Plantinga's terminology)? Is friendly atheism rational?
Believe that there is evidence that God does not exist, but can understand that some theists are justified in believing in God due to their personal experiences. EX: survived a plan crash. Contrasts to unfriendly and indifferent atheism (completely unjustified and don't care). A friendly atheist is a broad inclusivist (but needn't be excluded to broad) because he/she thinks that although God does not exist, people may be justified believing that God exists due to personal reasons/experiences. Not rational, use argument against inclusivism. 1: If inclusivism is true, then two epistemic peers (A and B) can disagree about a claim P and both can be justified or rational in their belief. (Suppose A believes P and B believes the opposite of P). 2: A and B are epistemic peers so they must base their beliefs on the same body of evidence E. (Definition of epistemic peer.) 3: If A is rational, then E justifies believing P. (Belief is rational only if justified by evidence.) 4: If B is rational, then E justifies believing the opposite of P. 5: But no body of evidence justifies belief in both a claim and its negation. (Uniqueness Principle) C: Inclusivism is false. In religious, moral, political, philosophical disagreements, at least one side is not justified in maintaining their belief.
22. What is the difference between the psychological criterion of personal identity and the bodily criterion? (Be prepared to be given a case like teletransportation, cryogenic freezing, amnesia and be asked to describe whether the person survives).
Bodily criterion: A Person A is the same person as person B if and only if A and B are strongly biologically connected—A and B share the same body or the bodies of A and B are connected by a chain of overlapping stages. The psychological criterion states that a person A is the same person as person B if and only if A and B are strongly psychologically connected--A shares the memoires, personality, traits and experiences as B or A and B are connected by a sequence of overlapping strong psychological connections. Bodily Criterion states that...
Metaphysics
Branch of philosophy that addresses the problem of what is real.
Aesthetics
Branch of philosophy that deals with the nature and expression of beauty, as in the fine arts
Metaphysics
Branch of philosophy that examines the nature of reality, including the relationship between mind and matter, substance and attribute, fact and value
Ontology
Branch of philosophy that studies the nature of being
Epistemology
Branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge, (its presuppositions and foundations its extent and validity)
Cosmology
Branch of philosophy that studies the physical universe considered as a totality of phenomena in time and space
Logic
Branch of philosophy which sorts out good arguments from bad arguments
What is considered to be the best form of Utility?
Combination - follow Rule until it's no good & then break rule to produce most good for most ppl. Egoism Act so as to produce the most good for ME! Cognitivism Moral judgement have a truth value --> moral judgement are statement & thus either True/False
freedom and foreknowledge problem
Conceptual difficulty of explaining how we act FREELY if some agent has accurate KNOWLEDGE of our choices before we make them and thus our future before it occurs.
Act Utilitariansim
Consider each situation separately & do one by one to produce most good -(still look @ consequences & not act itself) ==> self-defeating b/c would be spending most time "deliberating"
Metaphysics (divisions)
Cosmos (ordered universe) and Anthropos (human nature)
Mind
Dedcutive
What are the two kinds of human reasoning?
Deductive and Inductive
Knowledge of Relation of Ideas
Deductive; certainty
Analytic Proposition
Definition (A is A.)
Chain of being
Degrees of existence. God at the top with humans on bottom
The void
Democritus term for no things or empty space. No-thing is not the same as nothing.
Dimensions of a Ritual
Empirical and Spiritual
Final Cause
End/its goal/its purpose - that for the sake of which - final cause by finding what's specific to that thing ie- statue of Zeus - (final cause/ purpose) = to honor Zeus ie- person's final cause = Happiness
Hobbes
English materialist and political philosopher who advocated absolute sovereignty as the only kind of government that could resolve problems caused by the selfishness of human beings (1588-1679)
Aquinas' notion of God:
God is forgiving and loving All people can gain salvation All people get the gift of Sufficient Grace
Augustine's notion of God... Life is to be _________.
God is judgemental, unforgiving, punishing Life is to be suffered, not enjoyed
Anne Conway
God is perfect, was pickled in her library after death
Augustine
God is the absolutely sovereign Creator, and we are utterly dependent on God for existence, knowledge, goodness, and salvation.
Providence
God's power to act in the world, to direct the world towards his goals. EX: determinism, omnipotence.
Supererogation
Goes beyond perfect duty, good if you do it but not bad if you don't ex: donating your kidney to a stranger
D'Holbach
He claims that free will is an illusion and that man is never free in any instant of his life, we always act on our strongest desire scan the brain pushing buttons unaware of mechanisms in the brain, psychological states is determined by the brain; appeal to ignorance - we don't know what mechanisms are making our brain work so we just assume its "free will"
What does it mean that Socrates was known as a "midwife"?
He had to "deliver" - person who coached the other person to deliver.
What does it mean that Socrates was known as a "midwife"?
He had to "deliver" - person who coached the other person to deliver.
Paley's Watchmaker Argument
He states that complexity and purposefulness of natural things makes it plausible the product of intelligent designer.
Aristotle
He states that happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim and end of human existence
Pascal's Wager
He states that there is more to be gained from wagering on the existence of God than from atheism
St. Thomas Aquinas
He supports belief in God; offers teleological/design argument
24. Was Socrates a skeptic? Why or why not?
He was a skeptic to a certain degree. Socrates was concerned for knowledge though the only truth he seems to discover is that the beliefs of others aren't knowledge. Also said that "the only thing I know is that I don't know." Socrates was encouraging the young people who studied under him to question everything (with the Socratic method), including whether democracy was truly the best form of government.
dreaming hypothesis
I cannot be sure I am sitting by a fire because I have had dreams in the past sitting by the fire • Objection: dreams are weird, we can tell the difference • Reply: some dreams are orderly
Dubito
I doubt
Religious Values
Idea-actions about empirical relationships (human-human, human-animal, human-land).
Religious Beliefs
Idea-actions about spiritual relationships.
Inference to Best Explanation (or Abduction)
If a statement provides the simplest most comprehensive explanation of some surprising phenomenon, then you are justified in believing it. EX:
Metaphysical principle
If any ordinary claim about the world is true, then no skeptical possibility is true.
The most important mythical view of life was expressed in the ___ and the ____, two epic poems attributed to the ancient Greek ___
Iliad,Odyssey,Homer
categorical imperative
Immanuel Kant's ethical standard: so act as if the maxim by which you act were to become universal law
Clifford's principle
It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone, to believe anything upon insufficient evidence.
Clifford's Principle
It is wrong to believe anything upon insufficient evidence. EX: a captain of a boat believed that it is sea worthy without checking....getting in the middle of the ocean and the boat sinking
pragmatic theory
It maintains that an idea is true if it works or settles the problem it deals with. People make truth, and is not "out there" to be found.
What did Protagoras believe in?
Man is the indicator of what is wrong/right--> all truths comes from oneself; we all have our own truth ie- Truth is all relative/subjective
Rationalists
Knowledge is based on innate ideas
A priori
Knowledge that does not come from experience.
Epistemology
Knowledge: asks questions about knowledge, nature and its origins, standards of evidence, truth, memory and perception the philosophical theory of knowledge
Cynicism (Etymology)
Kynikos (dog-like)
Limen
Is another word for threshold sub-limen -be affected on use, but we are not aware of this. Not always conscious of things.
Torah
Judaism's bible. First five books of old testament.
Tribunal (definition)
Judge and Jury
What is A Priori?
Knowledge INDEPENDENT of experience; rational knowledge; knowledge gained /s having to use sense @ all =>RATIONAL/REASON "arm-chair philosophy"
Rationalism
Knowledge from reason (logic).
Rational Knowledge
Knowledge gained though reason... will NOT change /c time. ie- 2+2=4
Rational Knowledge
Knowledge gained though reason...will NOT change /c time. ie- 2+2=4
Empirical Knowledge
Knowledge gained through experiences & sense.
Pragmatism
Knowledge has to be useful
Theodicy
Leibniz, Predicament of God or "Justice of God"
Tao
Literally "way" or "path," Tao (Dao) is variously translated as the source of all existence.
Philosophy
Literally, "Love of wisdom"
Chun-tzu
Literally, "the lords son," originally the sovereign himself for a "cultivated gentleman," Confucian morally superior man; a great or noble Soul.
Informal Logic
Logical meaning of language.
Anoxia
Loss of oxygen to brain, brain is damaged sometimes permanently.
Philosophy
Love of Wisdom
Philosophy
Love of wisdom.
objective idealism
Material objects have primary and secondary qualities, and the latter are mind-dependent.
The 4 causes and their relationship to each other
Material-From what? Formal-What is it? (to be) Efficient-How? Final-Why? (Do we have this change)
3 Q's Descartes asks in Meditation 1 and the answers he determines..
Meditation 1: Concerning those things that can be called into doubt *Cathartic stage: A pulling away from the world of old ideas and opinions. 1. Can I trust my senses? 2. Am I awake or asleep? 3. Is there a good God or an evil deceiver? *Reconstructive stage: Return to the world with new awareness of truth. 1. Yes, but when you are not sure, use a second sense to double check. 2. I know I am awake because my awake states are connected by memories. 3. A Good God because God is perfect and to deceive is an imperfection.
What was Socrates' argument that Meletus' intentions were?
Meletus' only interest were in himself & not about the youth he was accusing Socrates of corrupting
What is the belief in Iliad/Odessey?
Men lived /c belief /q thing contributed to Gods.
Intentional states
Mental states like beliefs, hopes, desires, fears, wishes, loves, and hates.
St Ambrose
Mentor to Augustine who led him back to Christianity
In/Out
Metaphysical position Hume wanted to avoid
Rationalists
Metaphysics
Skepticism (Definition)
Method of searching for truth through doubt.
4. What is a Moorean shift? Give an example of a shift we studied in class.
Moorean shift: •Strategy for refuting a philosophical argument with a very controversial premise •The 'shifter' formulates a new argument with the negation of the conclusion as a premise •And then uses that argument to argue that one of the original premises is false Moore's Hands Argument 1.I have hands 2.If I have hands, there is an external world C. So there is an external world What is this argument refuting?
What is Plato considered to be?
Moral Realist
Non-cognitivism
Moral judgement are NOT statements & have NO True/False value
Cognitivism
Moral judgement have a truth value --> moral judgement are statement & thus either True/False
What is considered to be Non-consequentialism?
Not dependent on consequences but focuses on the ACT itself --> An act is right/wrong independent of consequences Motive -----> ACT -----> Consequences
Bodily Criterion of Personal Identity
Person A is the same person as person B if A and B are strongly biologically related (A and B share the same body or the bodies of A and B are connected by a chain of overlapping stages). EX: Psychology of Body A person is switched with the Psychology of Body B. Body A is tortured, therefore Person A is tortured.
Dirty Trick number 41, fallacy of reification.
Personifying ideas such as freedom. Freedom supports us democracy calls us justice insists that we
Consequent
Second part of clause (,then...)
Argument
Premise(s) and one conclusion. Proposition A true or false statement.
Tabula Rasa
Our mind is a blank tablet at birth
Locke
Our minds are blank slates at birth, but everything we need to know (including political principles and theological truths) can be derived from sense experience.
dead dogma argument
P1) society benefits from being made to defend its positions P2) unpopular minorities by expressing their opinions forces society to defend its positions Therefore: society benefits from unpopular minorities expressing their opinions
infallibility argument
P1) society benefits from knowing the truth P2) because majority isn't infallible we must acknowledge that the minority may know the truth Therefore: society may benefit from hearing the minority
Justification for the argument
P1: justified in itself P2: utilitarian P3: look and see therefore: empirically justified
retributivism argument against capital punishment
P1: retributivism in some form, offers the strongest defense of punishment P2: proportional retributivism is a more justified form of punishment than equality retributivism P3: proportional retributivism does not justify capital punishment Therefor... on the most justifiable form of punishment capital punishment is unjustified
singer why are we obligated to give? (argument)
P1: suffering is bad P2: if it is in your power to prevent something bad from happening without sacrificing anything of comparable moral impotence, than you ought to do it P3: in most situations we would not sacrifice anything of comparable moral importance Therefore: in most cases you ought to do something to prevent suffering
Socrates
Philosopher -origin: Athens, Greece -middle class stone mason (but never worked @ his craft) -2 types of friends: wealthy & young -Definition (Essences) -believed "Virtues" lie b/n 2 opposites -AKA: "tough man" reputation - ability to hold alcohol -Consistency --> Courage (in battle of Athens vs Sparta, Socrates walked away from battle SLOWLY, but not run away) -claims to have Daemon (oracle) -never wrote anything...all writings from Plato -notorious for irony = sarcasm
Socrates
Philosopher -origin: Athens, Greece -middle class stone mason (but never worked @ his craft) -2 types of friends: wealthy & young -Definition (Essences ) -believed "Virtues" lie b/n 2 opposites -AKA: "tough man" reputation - ability to hold alcohol -Consistency --> Courage (in battle of Athens vs Sparta, Socrates walked away from battle SLOWLY, but not run away) -claims to have Daemon (oracle) -never wrote anything...all writings from Plato -notorious for irony = sarcasm
Sunnom Bunnom
Pleasure
Egoism
Right is doing good for self.
Consequentialism
Right is right regardless of the consequences.
Ethical Relativism
Right/wrong are different for each person
Natural Right
Rights naturally reserved for individuals
Distortions of Other Humans
Sadism, Bigotry
Three Religious Questions
Saved from? Saved for? Saved how?
Defense Attorney
Self-defense
Too Little
Self-effacing, masochism
The Individual Self (characteristics)
Self-honest, reason, courage, freedom FOR, not freedom FROM.
Healthy Responses to Absurdity
Self-honesty, courage, reason, intimacy, beauty, laughter.
Phenomenal states
Sensations and feelings.
The Class Ethic
Sincere, honest truth-seeker and to follow the golden rule.
Skepticism (Etymology)
Skeptikos (inquiring, reflective)
Principle of the non-identity of discernibles
Small differences between person A and person B prove that A and B are not identical.
Hsiao-Jen
Small or vulgar man; in Confucian philosophy, the opposite of the Chun-Tzu; a petty and base individual.
Soul curved in on itself
Someone fully into sin; soul is mirror, pride causes curvature, nothing can get in and you are no longer what you are for
16. Explain Kant's theory of moral worth. Give an example. How would a utilitarian disagree with Kant's theory?
Someone only has moral worth if they are rational. A person has moral worth because they are rational but an animal is not because they cant make rational decisions. Utilitarian's believe that anyone ????
Thrasymachus
Sophist
Who is Protagoras?
Sophist Philosopher who came after Democritus
Who is Protagoras?
Sophist Philosopher who came after Democritus
Efficient Cause
Source of change ie- Artist(painter) is the Efficient Cause in a painting b/c person caused the "matter/stuff" to turn into a painting
Premise
Statement of an argument thought to provide support for the conclusion
Conclusion
Statement supported by the premise
integrity
Steadfast adherence to a strict moral or ethical code
Logical Equivalence
Strong identity; If and only if
Who is Anaximenes?
Student of Anaximander. - Monist - Natural Philosopher
Who is Anaximenes?
Student of Anaximander. - Monist - Natural Philosopher
Religious pluralism argument
The argument that there is no God because it is inconsistent to believe in one god over any of the thousands of others that people have believed in, when the evidence for any of these gods is the same.
state of nature
The basis of natural rights philosophy; a state of nature is the condition of people living in a situation without man-made government, rules, or laws.
Relativism
The belief that only opinions exist (One is no better than the other)
Relativism
The belief that only opinions exist One is no better than the other
Bigotry (second characteristic of)
The bigot devalues words and reasons.
Necessary/ contingent
The existence of the greatest thing is necessary (it must exist), everything else is contingent (depends on existence from other things)
Moorean Shift
The first premise is the opposite of the conclusion of the opponent's argument. This premise is used to reason against one of opponent's premises. ex:
Eudaimonia
The goal of human life is this (Aristotle's term). It means a state of living a life that is objectively worthwhile, typically we believe only rational agents can have this.
Dirty Trick number 13, create a false dilemma.
The great either or. occurs when we are persuaded that we have only two, unequally unsatisfactory choices, when we really have more than two possibilities available to us.
what were the challenges to the church's authority.
The great schism - 1054 Protestant reformation - 1517 Copernican Revolution - 1520
Utilitarianism
The greatest good for the greatest number of people.
Deontology
The moral theory proposed by Immanuel Kant, according to which there is an absolute moral law expressed by the categorical imperative. Deontology is the basis for the theory of rights.
Moral relativism
The moral theory that the truth of moral claims and which values people should adopt vary across cultures divided by times and places. What is morally permissible in one culture may be morally wrong in another culture.
Hedonism
The thesis that the highest good is pleasure.
Instrumental value
The value possessed by a thing insofar as it allows us to survive, achieve our goals, and make us happy. It is no more than a useful tool to help us get what has intrinsic value.
What did Empedocles believe?
Things change - they come into being & are destroyed but then are composed of eternal, unchanging elements known as "MINI ONES".
1. Is this argument valid? Sound? Why or why not? (1) Your money is safe as long as it is put in a bank. (2) If you bury your money in the sand next to the St. Joseph river, then you have put your money in a bank. (C) Your money is safe if you buried it in the sand next to the St. Joseph river.
This argument is valid because if all the premises are correct then the conclusion is correct. The argument is not sound because although the argument is valid, the second premise is false. By burying your money in the sand next to St. Joseph river, you are not putting your money in a bank. Also, looking back at the great depression, 1 isn't necessarily true.
Qualitative Identity
Two things are qualitatively identical if and only if they have the same properties (or qualities) ex: identical twins/photocopies of the same page
Propositional Knowledge
Type of Knowledge; the focus of epistemology is on the conditions for knowing that X is the case
Deductive Argument
Type of argument where the speaker intends for a conclusion to follow from the premise with absolute certainty.
metaphysical issues
Type of issue; Existence of God, soul, afterlife, and the possibility of miracles.
rule utilitarianism
Type of utilitarianism, that determines the goodness of an action, by measuring the utility of that action, when made into a rule for behavior (Mill's version)
Faculties involved in making mistakes/errors
Understanding Free will
Categorical Imperative
Universal law; Applies to everyone.
Natural Law
Universal laws found in nature
Antecedent
Whatever comes before the symbol.
Humility
You gain humility after a transformation through revelation
Compatibilist free will
Your performance of an action is free just in case it is the result of your beliefs, desires, and intentions.
Crumley
[Criticism of Hallucination argument; Three pronged] 1) If knowledge is certain, this does not establish that all of our knowledge must be certain. 2) Even if we are required in some circumstances to rule out competing scenarios before our knowledge claims are warranted, it does not follow that we are required to rule out each. 3) Our typical view of daily experiences is simpler and more probable than the matrix
Hospers
[Criticism to Hallucination argument; against skepticism] He states that it seems unwise for the skeptic to rely on meaningless form of "doubt"
Gaunilo's Lost Island
[Objection to Anselm's ontological argument] To prove existence of the mystical "lost island": If it didn't exist, it would be imaginary. Anselm's way of thinking: if we can conceive a perfect island, then it must exist... if we can conceive a perfect God, then He must exist.
Ad Baculum
fallacy; appeal to consequences
compenents of ideas
memory-attempt to recolate impressions of the past in order imagination-free association of impressions.
Belief
mental acceptance that something is true
Euthasia-
mercy killing.
bodhicitta
mind is awakined
mills two arguments against freedom of speech
minority is right: infallibility argument minority is wrong: dead dogma argument
ethical subjectivism
moral judgements are merely true for the persons making them
simple ethical subjectivism
moral judgements are only true as they accurately represent speakers sentiments
moral relativism
moral judgements are true only as they accurately represent the current cultural norms and practices of society
Equivocal
when a person speaks with two voices at once so that nothing is revealed
cartesian foundationalism
• Descartes wants certainty in the foundation so that he can reason deductively from basic beliefs to non-basic beliefs • Step one: doubt every belief
Why must knowledge be more than true belief?
• Knowledge requires rational justification
3 criteria of "methodological skepticism"
• Self-evident, Must involve existing things, independent of beliefs
14. What is the difference between a categorical and a hypothetical imperative? Which does Kant think is the basis for morality? Why does he think this?
•A hypothetical imperative is a rule that tells you what you ought to do if you want to achieve some other goal. For example, if you want to bake cookies, then you ought to buy some eggs. •A categorical imperative is a rule that tells you what you ought to do no matter what. For example, you ought to avoid murdering people no matter what. Kant thinks that the categorical imperative is the basis for morality because it is universalizable. Kant says that truly moral rules are all the same in that they can be applied to everyone, everywhere, regardless of their circumstances. Morality is objectively binding: moral rules tell us how to act regardless of what we want. Hypothetical imperatives only tell us how to act given that we want something.
7. What does Hume think miracles are? Why does he think it is always irrational to believe in miracles?
•A miracle is a violation of the laws of nature •Testimony would support belief in a miracle only if it is more likely that the miracle occurred than that the testimony is false •It is always more likely that testimony is false than that a law of nature was violated •C: testimony never supports belief in miracles
