philosophy

its okay to kill an innocent man according to a utilitarianism because _____

there is always another option, you can switch from act to rule utilitarianism, and sometimes common sense can be mistaken

Mills theory

whichever produces the most good is the better action

What is the Divine Command Theory? How does Plato refute the theory?

"X is morally correct" means "X is commanded by God" Plato refutes it by asking if what god commanded right, or does he command what is right? If it is true its arbitrary.

Kant's first of the four examples, understand the situation, the maxim, and why he thinks the maxim fails to satisfy the two forms of the Categorical Imperative

1) His life is miserable and isn't going to get better; its hopeless, so he wants to commit suicide out of self love. The maxim is: if you have self-love it is okay to kill yourself when youre hopeless. Kant thinks it fails the 1st form b/c job of self-love is make your life longer but you're using it to shorten your life. (problem w/maxim). Fails 2nd bc your using yourself as a mere means to end. The formulation says he has value all the time but he only feels he has value when he is happy. He is treating himself as an object.

What are the five questions a theory of virtue should be able to answer? How does Aristotle's theory answer these questions?

1) WHAT IS A VIRTUE? They are habits that become natural through practice 2) WHAT CHARACTER TRAITS ARE VIRTUES? Depends on the person 3) WHAT DO THESE VIRTUES CONSIST IN? (How do we define them?) He defines them. 4) WHY ARE THESE VIRTUES GOOD FOR A PERSON TO HAVE? Only way to lead a good/ successful life is to have all the virtues 5) ARE THE VIRTUES THE SAME FOR EVERY PERSON? There are core values that everyone should have.

What are the three confusions that Rachels attributes to the psychological egoist?

1) confusion of self-interest and selfish (u brush ur teeth b/c it is in your self-interest but that doesnt make you selfish) 2) If there are no altruistic actions then all actions must be egoistic (false, there are lots of actions that dont benefit u are anyone like smoking) 3) Looking out for urself is incompatible with caring for others (when you help someone it makes you feel better)

Two arguments for psychological egoism and how rachels replies to them

1)people do what they want and that is selfish. Rachels says that if people want world peace that is unselfish. 2) Since every action, even "unselfish" ones produce a good feeling of satisfaction, it is selfish to do them. Rachels argues that people get the satisfaction b/c they care for w/e it is they are doing, which means the action is not selfish.

What is the Cultural Differences Argument by Rachels, and what is wrong with it?

1. Society A believes that X is morally correct 2. Society B believes that X is not morally correct 3. Therefore there is no fact of the matter as to whether or not X is morally correct. You cant go from true things to false things.

The two forms of the categorical imperative (kant)

1st formulation: Act only so that you can will that the maxim of your action becomes a universal law. (Kant thinks it fails) 2nd formulation: Treat every rational being as an end in him or herself, and never as merely a means to an end.

Kant's second of the four examples, understand the situation, the maxim, and why he thinks the maxim fails to satisfy the two forms of the Categorical Imperative

2) He wants to borrow money to get out of trouble, but knows he cant pay it back. He wants to promise to pay his friend back but never do. Maxim: whenever your in difficulty it is okay to break promises to get you out of trouble. Kant thinks it fails the 1st form bc it's a contradiction; its like saying "I intend to doing something I have no intention of doing". (problem w/maxim). Fails 2nd form bc he is using the other man as a mere means to an end.

Kant's third of the four examples, understand the situation, the maxim, and why he thinks the maxim fails to satisfy the two forms of the Categorical Imperative

3) Man has a talent but he doesn't want to use it. He is happy and doesn't want to trouble himself. Maxim: as a rational being you cant want this; a rational being wants to improve theirself. He thinks it fails the 1st form bc its irrational to not use any of your talents at all. Fails the 2nd form bc he is treating himself as a means to an end. He should see his talents as valuable at all times.

Kant's fourth of the four examples, understand the situation, the maxim, and why he thinks the maxim fails to satisfy the two forms of the Categorical Imperative

4) man is well off but doesn't want to help anybody else. Maxim: no one needs to help anyone else. Kant thinks it fails the 1st form bc rational beings cant want the world to be like that bc there will come a time when you need help. Fails 2nd bc if you only view ppl as valuable when they can help you, you aren't rational.

What does Nagel conclude is the basis of morality?

A belief that good and harm to particular people is good or bad not just from their point of view but from a more general point of view that every thinking person can understand. You must consider not only your own interests but also the interests of everyone else too.

What would a correct moral theory do? Why would a mere list of which actions are right and which are wrong not be an adequate moral theory?

A correct moral theory would tell us which actions/ character traits are morally correct and what makes them so. Lists dont tell why or what makes them morally correct.

What is the difference between act and rule utilitarianism?

ACT: act is right iff it results in as much good as any available alternative, says rules in general (dont lie, dont cheat) should be followed b/c you cant always know the consequences. RULE: act is right iff it is required by a rule that is itself a member of a set of rules whose acceptance would lead to greater utility for society than any available alternative. Take rules (like 10 commandmants) make a system. If people follow them they maximze good.

distinction between acting from duty, according to duty, and against duty.

Acting FROM duty: you go visit your friend b/c you think it's the moral law. Acting ACCORDING to duty: you go visit your friend b/c you want to see the hot doctor. Acting AGAINST duty: you don't go visit your friend, breaking your promise (immoral)

How does the soul work to attain happiness?

Aristotle divides our soul into rational and irrational. Irrational includes the needs/ wants but doesn't have measurements. It doesn't know when enough is enough. The rational part controls the irrational part. When the rational finds the proper amounts, called the MEAN, the person is functioning right.

What is Cahns conception of happiness?

COMMON SENSE VIEW: you have everything you want, you achieved your goals, being satisfied, pleasure (thinks immoral people can be happy)

distinction between hypothetical and categorical imperatives, and why Kant will only accept the latter as possible moral rules.

Categorical imperatives: just tells you what to do. Hypothetical imperatives: has an "if". Do this, if you want this to happen. (Depends on tastes, preferences so its NOT MORAL. Its subjective.)

why does aristotle think that the life of contemplation is best?

Contemplation/ using reason is the best form of thinking (most high form/ most important) because you feel more satisfied when you do something more complicated.

Why does Crito want Socrates to escape? How does Socrates argue that it would be morally wrong to do so?

Crito thinks ppl will criticize him for not saving his friend and they will think he is too cheap to help his friend escape. Scorates thinks its unjust to leave his city and he says you shouldnt care what people think, you should listen to the experts.

How does Frankena distinguish descriptive, normative, and metaethical thinking?

DESCRIPTIVE: facts, not philosophy, describes a specific group of ppl NORMATIVE: what we oughta do, theory about what is wrong/ right, how we should live METAETHICAL: questions about our ethical language

How does Rachels define Cultural Relativism?

Diff cultures have diff moral views.

What is the difference between having direct duties toward animals vs. having indirect duties toward them?

Direct duties give rights to dogs and requires you to do stuff for the dogs. Indirect says that we just do wrong acts that involve animals, we have duties regarding them. Ex: if your neighbor kicks your dog he has done a wrong but not to the dog.

What is the good at which human behavior aims according to aristotle?

EUDAIMONIA: Aristotle's definition of happiness (well-being, flourishing)

TRUE/FALSE: Rachels thinks you can refute ethical egoism with a logical error.

False

Why does Regan think that Utilitarianism is not the best way to argue for animal rights?

He thinks it fails for two reasons. 1) it only assigns value to pleasure and pain (feelings). Beings don't have value. Cup and liquid metaphor doesn't work bc you must have a person to have feelings but you can have liquid w/o a cup. Humans are most valuable bc they have the most potential to have feelings. 2) Aunt B story. It fails bc it is immoral to kill an innocent person.

Why does Regan think that animals have rights? What does he think is the mistake in the viewpoint that denies this?

He thinks it is not rational to think that animals don't feel pain and that human pain is the only pain that matters. The viewpoint tht denies it has to look over those two facts.

Why does Kant think the purpose of reason is not to bring us happiness? What does he think the purpose of reason is?

He thinks its not the reason bc every object has a purpose for which its best suited for, if reasons job was to help us achieve happiness then that would be the job it is best suited for, BUT it is NOT best suited for this job (if someone uses reason to plan their happiness they end up hating reason, and also reasoning may lead to mistakes and it takes time, instincts would be better as it is fast and accurate), Therefore reason must have some other purpose. He says the job of reason is to get GOOD WILL.

What is Aristotle's doctrine of the mean?

His doctrine of the mean says all the virtues are the middle ground in between two extremes. (generosity: there are ppl that are too cheap and stingy and then there are ppl that are too giving. Generosity is the right amount of giving.) Also says that not everything has a mean (there is no proper amount of theft or murder) and says that the mean can vary for each person (if a poor person gave a couple hundred dollars that is very generous but if a billionaire donates the same amount they are considered cheap)

Williams "Doctrine of Negative responsiblity"

I am just as responsible for things that i allow or fail to prevent as i am for things that i myself bring about

difference between instrumental and intrinsic goods

INSTRUMENTAL GOOD: Use it to get something else (exercise you use to gain weight loss) INTRINSIC GOOD: Use it to get happiness (you want eudaimonia)

What are some of the troubling consequences of taking Relativism seriously?

If it is true 1)social morality is false 2) you cant compare contries so the holocaust is morally correct 3) we have made no moral progress 4) we are perfectly moral

Each thing as a function. What role does this idea play in Aristotle's moral theory?

If this is true, if someone asks what a "good" man is you must first know what makes us unique, which is reason. So a "good" man is a man who is using reason in the right way.

How does Nagel think the "How would you like it if someone did that to you?" argument is supposed to work?

If you can admit that you would resent it if someone did it to you youre admitting there is a reason not to do it.

Concerning moral virtues and intellectual virtues: what are they and how are they acquired?

Intellectual virtues are learned/ taught. Moral virtues cant be taught or explained, you must practice the virtues to attain them. (you cant tell someone how to be brave, they have to practice using bravery until it becomes natural)

What is Aristotle's distinction between voluntary and involuntary action and why is it important?

Involuntary actions are done 1) OUT OF IGNORANCE: unaware of circumstances or consequences or 2) AS A RESULT OF EXTERNAL COMPULSION: If something forces you to do something (can also be internal like mental problems or addictions) or 3) TO AVOID A GREATER EVIL: If they do it because something worse would happen. If you are acting in a voluntary way, none of these things occur. To be morally responsible you have to act voluntarily, on free will.

What are some of the difficulties with trying to solve moral questions by appealing to religion?

Is what god commanded right, or does he command what is right? If it is true its arbitrary.

Platos definition of Justice and the parts of a just state and their respective virtues

It is an internal harmony and balance/ health. Workers: temperance and desires. Auxiliaries: courage and spirit. Rulers: wisdom and reason.

What is the greatest happiness principle and whos view is it?

It is mills view that the morally correct acts are those which produce the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number. THe only desireable end = happiness (pleasure and freedom from pain)

What is contractarianism? Why does Regan think it fails

It is the view that morality consists of a set of rules that indivi voluntarily agree to abide by, as we do when we sign a contract. Adult humans sign the contracts but not young children or animals. So they don't have direct rights but they get rights bc an adult has sentimental feelings for them.

What is murphys conception of happiness?

PHILISOPHICAL VIEW: having a balanced soul, its kind of character you must have, must have meaningful relationships (thinks immoral ppl cant be happy)

difference between psychological egoism and ethical egoism

PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM: everything everyone does is in their own self-interest, there is no unselfish action. ETHICAL EGOISM: the morally correct acts are those which benefit the agent. How we oughta act.

What argument is supposed to show that ethical egoism is inconsistent? What does Rachels think of it?

People argue that not everyone can be an egoist at the same time and only look out for theirself. Then there will be no one to act nice to you back. Rachels argues that you dont have to be nice to have others be nice to you, you just have to convince them your nice.

Why isn't happiness the same thing as pleasure, for Aristotle?

Pleasure is only a momentary feeling, but happiness is a fulfillment of the soul

To be an ultimate end, three conditions must be met; what are they?

SELF-SUFFICIENT: it's all you need, unlike money where you need other things too to be happy. DESIREABLE IN ITSELF: not an instrumental good ATTAINABLE BY MAN: not impossible to get

What is the difference between subjective meaning and objective meaning? Which does Taylor think is more important for a meaningful life?

SUBJECTIVE: Must feel meaningful to the person, its meaningful if you believe it is (realitivism) OBJECTIVE: Objective conditions that decide whether your life is meaningful. Just because someone feels doesn't mean its true. There must be ACTIVITY, must be ENGAGDED, and must be able to prove things have a POSITIVE VALUE. Taylor thinks Subjective is more important.

"What ought I to do?" How does Mayo think the virtue theorist can answer this question?

Says they would have to say "be brave, or be honest" (name one of the virtues) sometimes it doesn't work. Virtue theorists should instead ask "how should I be?" or just reject the question.

How does Taylor characterize a meaningless life?

She gives the boulder example. Meaningless because he's not accomplishing anything, he's doing a pointless task with no end. Even if he does the rock to the top there is no point, he has nothing to do with a temple. If the gods make him love rolling rocks, and make it his biggest desire then he is living a meaningful life.

What is the difference between theoretical reasoning and practical reasoning?

THEORETICAL REASONING: finding out the science PRACTICAL REASONING: finding out how to act (trying to figure out what time to leave to get somewhere on time)

How does Aristotle characterize the three sciences?

THEORETICAL: Pursue knowledge for its own sake, want to know the facts (Math, physics, maybe philosophy) PRACTICAL: pursue knowledge as a means to conduct (the main one is Politics: the study of the good of the state, also includes Ethics: study of character and the good of man) PRODUCTIVE: pursue knowledge as a means to making beautiful/ useful objects (art)

What are examples of what Kant means by talents of the mind, qualities of temperament, and gifts of fortune, and why does he think none of these is good in itself?

Talents of the mind - Intelligence, wit, judgment. Qualities of temperance - Courage, resolution, preservation. Gifts of fortune - Power, riches, honor, health. He thinks they are not good within itself because in order to be good w/in itself would be to never be used for evil and the goodness cant be dependent on something else. He thinks the only thing intrinsically good is GOOD WILL.

What is the difference between "the meaning of life" and "a meaningful life"?

The meaning of life asks if my life has a purpose. Most people answer that God is their purpose. A meaningful life asks what is needed to lead a meaningful life. Depends whether its subjective or objective.

What is Glaucon's example of the Ring of Gyges? what is it supposed to show?

The ring will turn you invisible so you can do whatever you want and not get caught. It shows that the unjust person is better off sometimes, ppl are only just out of fear of the consequences and w/o the fear you should be unjust. (Rachels view)

What is the cruelty-kindness view? Why does Regan think it fails?

The view says you have a direct duty to be kind to animals and a direct duty not to be cruel to them. He think it fails bc you can act kindly but not cruely and still be immoral. Ex: kind abortionist

How does utilitarian view of Mill and Bentham differ from that of other utilitarians?

They are hedonistic utilitarians which means they believe the good is pleasure. believe in the greatest happiness principle.

ethical egoism, altruism, and utilitarianism are all ________ views

consequentialist

Kants beliefs about punishment

believes in retribution (punishment must fit the crime) Against utilitarianism

Stevenson thinks science by itself _______ solve moral questions

cannot

Under what conditions does the "why should i be moral?" question arise? why isnt "if everyone was immoral, society would collapse" a good answer to this question? How does plato answer the question?

conflict between duty and self-interest. It only talks about the society and not why "I" should be moral. He says the just person is ALWAYS right.

What does kant say about our moral obligations to animals?

says animals are objects becuase they cant make decisions

singers view of rights

says women and animals should have rights too

the fallacy of compostion occurs during which step?

step 4 talking about the general happiness

Relativists think morality is all _____

subjective (rachels attacks it)

Nagels belief is the basis of morality is ______

universality