Philosophy Review!

What account of virtue is suggested by Socrates' rejection of incontinence? What does Socrates think we need in order to avoid "being overcome by pleasure"?

Knowledge (b/c it's the art of measurement). Socrates thinks that if we have knowledge, we cannot be incontinent.

What are the three parts of Plato's city? What is the job of each?

3 classes: producers, auxiliary, guardians. The producers class produces the goods that the city needsThe auxiliary are in charge of enforcing the laws created by the guardians.The guardians are in charge of ruling the city and creating the laws that allow the city to run.

What is the difference between doing a virtuous action and doing a virtuously action virtuously?

A person can do a virtuous action without being virtuous. To do an action virtuously, you must know that you are doing a virtuous action, you must decide to do it for its own sake, and you must do so from a firm and unchanging state.

Give an example of a deduction with true premises that are explanatory of the conclusion but not primary and immediate. What kind of premises are primary and immediate?

A premise is primary and immediate if no others are prior to it.

Glaucon tells a story about the origins of justice. What is it? What view of human nature underlies it?

A shepherd with an invisibility ring used it to kill the king and take over the kingdom. A just person and an unjust person will act the same way. This shows that he thinks that people are naturally selfish in that they will both act in whatever way to achieve the most personal gain.

What does Aristotle mean when he says that the virtues (of character) are states? What is a state? How does Aristotle argue that the virtues are not feelings or capacities?

A state is being well or badly off in relation to feelings. For example, if our feeling is too intense or slack, we are badly off in relation to anger. Otherwise we are well off. Virtue is the state that makes a human being good and makes him perform his function well. We have capacities and feelings by nature, we don't have virtues by nature. Virtues about our feelings in relation to a certain circumstance.

Aristotle thinks that it may be nearly impossible for a vicious person to do virtuous actions. So how, on Aristotle's view, can we hold the vicious person responsible for her vicious actions?

A vicious person is unlikely to do virtuous actions b/c his nature prevents him. However, he was responsible for the type of person he turns out to be. Aristotle writes that no one is unaware that the actions they do shape his character, and the vicious person voluntarily did things that made him a vicious person.

Explain Plato's proposals for state regulation of reproduction and child rearing. Why does Plato think the nuclear family should be abolished?

Abolish nuclear family, families separates guardians from their main job of public good. Deprives the state over control of how to breed. Women and children should be had in common. To obtain the best citizens, only the best (most virtuous) citizens should be allowed to have children, so reproduction needs to be regulated. Having your own wife and children means you can have your own pains and pleasures, which can tear the city apart. Having wives and children in common means everyone can potentially be a family member, which will cause peace. Control how people breed will keep only the best kids. No mother knows her kids, they are all cared for. This helps the guardians unite and put the city first. Every citizen is relative, no favoritism, all citizens are pleasure and pained by same things. No private pleasure or pain from family.

Give some examples of voluntary actions not done from decision. What is required for a voluntary action to be done from decision?

Actions done on the spur of the moment are voluntary but don't express decision. For example, exiting the highway when you see a McD's or showing up at a friend's house when you walk past it. For a voluntary action to be done from decision, it has to involve reason and thought and stem from prior deliberation.

How do Hippias's answers illustrate the "compresence of opposites" in sensible things and properties? Give some examples.

Fine things seem not fine compared to finer things. For example, fine pots don't seem fine compared to fine girls, and fine girls don't seem fine compared to the gods.

What is an end? What is it for one end to be "higher" than another, that is, for the second to be "subordinate" to the first? Give some examples. What is meant by "the highest end"?

An end is that at which a craft, investigation, or activity aims. One end is higher than another if it is the ultimate goal of another craft. One end is subordinate to another if its end is to serve another craft, investigation, or activity. Bridlemaking is subordinate to horsemanship, warmaking is subordinate to generalship. The highest end is that which is pursued for itself and not for something else.

Give an example of something that is neither SAID OF nor IN any subject.

An individual man is not said of or in any subject.

Give an example of something that is IN a subject but not SAID OF any subject.

An instance of white can be in a body but not said of anything.

Aristotle agrees with Socrates that incontinence is a kind of ignorance. He also agrees with ordinary people that an incontinent person knows (or believes) what is best but does something else. How can he have it both ways? In what way does the incontinent person have knowledge, and in what way does she lack knowledge? Pay careful attention to Aristotle's distinctions.

Aristotle makes a distinction between active and passive knowledge. He says that when the incontinent person acts against himself, he has passive knowledge of what is right and wrong but not active knowledge. Therefore, he is in a way acting out of ignorance b/c he doesn't have active knowledge, but is in a way acting with knowledge, as he has passive knowledge.

Describe Aristotle's method in his examination of incontinence.

Aristotle says he will use the dialectical method. He will raise all of the common beliefs held about incontinence and raise objections. If all of the objections can be answered, then the common beliefs will stand.

Aristotle agrees with Socrates that "every vicious person is ignorant," but he doesn't think it follows that all wrongdoing is involuntary. Why not?

Aristotle states that vicious acts are done either in ignorance of the law or by the agent's inattention (which is ignorance). However, not all wrongdoing is involuntary b/c he has made choiceworthy decisions that caused him to have an inattentive nature.

Oedipus killed an old man at a crossroads. The old man turned out to be his father-though he did not know this, and had no way of knowing. Would Aristotle say that Oedipus killed his father voluntarily? Explain. Would Aristotle says that Oedipus killed the old man voluntarily?

Aristotle would say that Oedipus killed the old man voluntarily b/c he was in control of his body and was aware of what he was doing (killing him). However, Aristotle would say that Oedipus killed his father involuntarily b/c he was acting out of ignorance (he didn't know it was his father).

How does Plato characterize democracy and the democratic soul? What features of the democratic soul correspond to the freedom and equality of the democratic state?

Because the democratic man has individual freedom, he will pursue any kind of pleasure that comes by. Social equality will cause parents to fear children and teachers to fear students. He says this happens in the soul when the unnecessary appetites take over and all appetites rule equally. All citizens are free to pursue their own ends, city is full of freedom. Now, any desire is purely chosen from luck, sometimes drink a lot, sometimes play the flute, sometimes do something else. Even less unity.

What is the difference between being SAID OF and being IN (as a subject)?

Being "said of" is a reclassification of an object within the same category (Human is said of Bob). Being in refers to quality (Pale is in Bob).

How would Aristotle distinguish between the relation between subject and predicate in "Socrates is pale" and the relation between subject and predicate in "Socrates is human"? How would Plato understand these two sentences?

Being "said of" is a reclassification of an object within the same category (Human is said of Bob). Being in refers to quality (Pale is in Bob). Pale is said to be in Socrates. Human is said of Socrates. Plato would understand it as there's some similarities shared between Socrates and the Pale and the Human.

What does the second stage in the allegory of the cave (i.e., looking at the fire and the figurines that cast shadows on the wall) represent?

Fire is realizing the truth that what they are seeing is not the real thing just the things the perceive. We only view things based of our sensory perception not through forms.

How does dialectic differ from mathematics? What is the goal of dialectic?

Dialectic does not assume hypothesis nor use images in its arguments. The goal of dialectic is to discern the forms.

Explain how Socrates uses hedonism to show that incontinence is impossible.

Everyone is pursuing pleasure. Since the pleasure and the good are the same, everyone is pursuing what they think is good. They may be wrong about what the good is, but they are not willingly doing wrong to themselves.

Aristotle says that Plato departed from Socrates and "separated the Forms" because he accepted the Heraclitean doctrine that all sensible things are "in flux." How should we understand this doctrine, and what does it have to do with Plato's belief in non-sensible Forms?

Everything is changing in perspective due to the com presence of opposites. All sensible things have compresence of opposites and for this reason can never be the form of anything. From this, because the form of beautiful is beautiful it can never be ugly, a sensible thing can always be ugly compared to something else.

True or false? For Aristotle, being virtuous is a matter of being strong enough to overcome your emotions and feelings when they tempt you to do something inappropriate. Explain.

False. For Aristotle, being virtuous is partly a matter of not having inappropriate feelings that tempt you to do something wrong. A person who has these feelings and has to overcome them is continent, not virtuous.

T/F? When P is SAID OF S, P and S are in different categories.

False. For example, human is said of Socrates (both substances).

T/F? When P is IN S, the definition of P is SAID OF S.

False. P and S are different categories. P and its definition are the same category, so the definition of P cannot be said of S.

T/F? When P is IN S and Q is SAID OF P, Q is SAID OF S.

False. Since P is in S, they are different categories. Since Q is said of P, they are the same category. Therefore, Q and S are in different categories, so Q can't be said of S.

How does Socrates define fear (358d)? Why does his account of incontinence, together with this definition of fear, imply that courage is neither standing up to what you fear nor not having fear? What does he think courage is?

Fear is an expectation of something bad. Courage is not standing up to what you fear b/c no one will willingly go towards something that you fear (which is bad), so you won't have to stand up to it. It's also not not having fear in the same way that continence isn't the same thing as being temperate (having no base desires). Courage is the knowledge of what should and shouldn't be feared. They have knowledge of what is bad and can fear it. Courage is neither going towards wha you fear nor is it not having fear at all. It is courageous to fear the right things to have knowledge of what is bad.

Is the knowledge the guardians must have any different from the knowledge the completely just individual must have? Why or why not?Is the knowledge the guardians must have any different from the knowledge the completely just individual must have? Why or why not?

Guardians are concerned with finding the form of the good in order to make the city a happy place. The just person has knowledge in a way in which he rationalizes and attempts to find universal truths. Slightly different.

How does Protagoras reply to Socrates' arguments that virtue cannot be taught?

Injustice and impiety are punished. This punishment shows that it is thought that justice and piety can be taught. Also, so much attention is given to virtue at schools that it has to be teachable. Not only that, he claims that justice and virtue only work in the city if everyone has some bit of it, that is why there are no experts, because it has to be taught to everyone to do any good. People get punished for injustice trying to teach them its wrong. Sons aren't always virtuous because everyone plays a part in teaching virtue, and because some people aren't virtuous not everyone can teach him adequately.

How does Aristotle argue that happiness is the highest end of human actions? What does he mean when he says that happiness is "complete" and "self-sufficient"?

Happiness is the end to which all things aim.Complete: the good is not chosen because of something else but b/c of itself Self-sufficient: the good makes life choiceworthy and lacking nothing. We choose the good for itself as it perpetuates itself and is for itself. We choose it not for its consequences, like what Plato discusses in book 3 of the republic.

What kind of answer is Socrates looking for when he asks Hippias "what is the fine?"

He is looking for an explanatory answer, like when he asks Euthyphro what is pious. He wants to get a definition of what fine is so he can determine things that are fine.

What are Socrates' reasons (at the beginning of the dialogue) for doubting that virtue can be taught?

He names two reasons , the first is that if virtue could be taught there would experts on it. He provides the example that anyone can talk about political science and actions at the assembly, and if there were experts on virtue, they would let them talk at the assembly too. Also, if it was teachable the sons of virtuous men would also be virtuous which does not always happen.

How does Aristotle argue that the human good is the good performance of the human function? What is the human function? How does Aristotle get to the conclusion that the human good is "the soul's activity that expresses virtue"?

Human function: soul's activity that expresses reasonExcellent man's function: soul's activity that expresses reason wellA function is completed when it expresses the proper virtueHuman good (excellent man's function) is the soul's activity that expresses virtue

What is Socrates' justification for requiring that each person in his city do the one job for which he or she is most naturally suited, and not dabble in others?

Humans have natural inclinations that need to be fulfilled. Also, more plentiful and better-quality goods are produced if each does the job they are naturally suited for. Each human has certain natural abilities (370a) and doing only the single job one is naturally suited for, is the most efficient way to satisfy the needs of all the citizens. This makes the city most efficient as everyone knows what they do and are most naturally suited for i

Give an example of a deduction with true premises that are explanatory of the conclusion, and an example of a deduction with true premises that are not explanatory of the conclusion.

If I am in Philosophy, I am in Lewis .I am in Philosophy. I am in Lewis. I am in Lewis. Philosophy is in Lewis .I am in Philosophy.

What are the four stages in the cave? How do they correspond to the four parts of the Divided Line?

Imagination: seeing shadows Belief: seeing objects in the cave Thought: seeing objects in the light Understanding: seeing objects close up

What is injustice in the soul? In the city? In what sense is injustice "contrary to nature"?

Injustice in the soul is civil war between the 3 parts, where one part of the soul tries to do the work of another. Injustice in the city is when the 3 classes try to do the work of the others. Injustice causes one part of the body to be ruled by another, which is contrary to nature b/c the different parts of the body were designed to work in harmony.

How does Socrates explain apparent cases of incontinence, e.g. smoking a cigarette though you know it's bad for you?

Incontinence is done through ignorance. In the case of smoking a cigarette, he thinks that the pleasure brought about in smoking is greater than the pain that will result. They are ignorant and lack wisdom.

What is incontinence (a.k.a. akrasia, weakness of the will, or "being overcome by pleasure")?

Incontinence is willingly doing what one thinks is not beneficial. In the Protagoras, Socrates states that it is impossible, for everyone is pursuing what they think will bring the greatest amount of pleasure. Weakness of will is that most people are unwilling to do what is best, even though they know what it is are able to do it. People act that way because they are overcome by pleasure. Socrates says this can't happen and that it is an error in judgement about what is good.

Glaucon argues that no one practices justice willingly. Explain

Injustice is more profitable than justice. Justice is done b/c no one wants to suffer injustice and b/c he will be rebuked if he publicly practices injustice. However, justice is not done for the sake of performing justice but for other means. They view justice as a necessary evil, which we allow ourselves to suffer in order to avoid the greater evil that would befall us if we did away with it. Justice stems from human weakness and vulnerability. Since we can all suffer from each other's injustices, we make a social contract agreeing to be just to one another. We only suffer under the burden of justice because we know we would suffer worse without it. Justice is not something practiced for its own sake but something one engages in out of fear and weakness.

Explain the distinction between intelligence and craft knowledge. (How is Aristotle departing from the Socrates of the Protagoras here?)

Intelligence deliberates about promoting a good life in all areas. Because it is general, it is different from craft knowledge, that is different from craft to craft. Intelligence doesn't need a craft to be applied. Intelligence can be taught because the good can be studied? (Plato doesn't think so)

Why does Plato think that no sensible property could explain why beautiful things are beautiful, or why large things are large? What does he think can explain why beautiful things are beautiful?

It can't be explained b/c it can be seen differently when compared to different things. Beautiful things are beautiful because they share some qualities with the Beautiful. Nothing is literally constantly changing the thing itself may not change, but when comparing it to something else, the perspective will change. Socratic move is to find explanatory definition, Plato says you can't define the sensible things because they are always chaining. Something beautiful in one context but not another whereas the form the beautiful is always beautiful. Comprescence of opposites!

Why is it important for Aristotle that virtue and vice be in our power?

It is important b/c we can then choose whether we are virtuous or base. (B/c being virtuous stems from doing virtuous actions).

What is the relation between a just person and just actions? Is one defined in terms of the other? What makes an action just, on Plato's view?

Just people commit just actions. Just actions can only be performed by just people because for an action to be just, one must realize that the action is just. Realizes it is just through realizing his organization of his soul in harmony so that it is lead by rational thought, then spirit, and appetite last.

Thrasymachus thinks that Socrates, Cephalus, and Polemarchus all share a mistaken assumption about justice. What is it?

Justice is the advantage of the stronger? Justice isn't about how you act toward other people but toward yourself. He says justice is not to our own benefit it is simply to advantage the stronger, the advantage of the established ruler, and it is used to legitimate the institution of power, justice is the good of another. He claims it does not pay to be just, it advantages others, not the person who behaves justly. He assumes that justice is unnatural restraint on our natural desire to have more. It is a convention imposed on use, and the rational thing to do is act unjustly.

What does Thrasymachus mean when he says that justice is "nothing other than the advantage of the stronger" (338c)?

Justice is whatever is in the interest of the stronger person. For example, justice is obeying laws made by the strong. He claims it does not pay to be just, it advantages others, not the person who behaves justly. He assumes that justice is unnatural restraint on our natural desire to have more. It is a convention imposed on use, and the rational thing to do is act unjustly.

Socrates says that justice "isn't concerned with someone's doing his own externally, but with what is inside him..." Explain

Justice isn't about the actions one takes on the outside but rather his mentality. Justice is a regulation of the different parts of oneself to make sure they operate in harmony.

How does Socrates argue that the lovers of seeing and hearing and are lovers of opinion, not knowledge?

Knowledge encompasses what is, ignorance encompasses what isn't, and opinion encompasses what is both. Only the forms are what is. For example, only the Beautiful is truly beautiful. A beautiful lady can be both beautiful but also not beautiful by different standards. Therefore, only those who comprehend the forms have knowledge; everyone else has opinion. completely of what is without qualification, ignorance is what is in no way. All sensible things only have one property inn a certain perspective and has opposite property too, things that lovers of sights and sounds are lovers of belief. You are a lover of belief, some people find it beautiful some don't may be nice in one way not another.

Give an example of something that is SAID OF a subject and IN a (different) subject.

Knowledge is in a soul and is said of grammatical knowledge.

Explain how Socrates argues (on behalf of "the many") for hedonism, the view that "pleasure and the good are the same" (351e).

Knowledge is what drives our decision-making, because knowledge can't be "dragged around". Through our knowledge, we act on what we think will bring us the most pleasure, b/c what brings us the most pleasure is good.

Socrates' aim at the end of book 5 is to distinguish true philosophers from the "lovers of seeing and hearing." Who are the lovers of seeing and hearing? What distinguishes them from philosophers?

Lovers of seeing and hearing love the beautiful things but not the beautiful. They don't have knowledge but only belief b/c knowledge is knowledge of the forms. Philosophers have knowledge of the forms. Lovers of sights and sounds are interested in things that look and sound beautiful whereas the philosopher is interested in the beautiful itself. Philosophers love and pursue all of wisdom (475b-c) and they especially love the sight of truth (475e). Philosophers are the only ones who recognize and find pleasure in what is behind the multiplicity of appearances, namely the single Form (476a-b). Socrates distinguishes between those who know the single Forms that are and those who have opinions (476d). Those who have opinions do not know, since opinions have becoming and changing appearances as their object, whereas knowledge implies that the objects thereof are stable. Belief of what is beaitiful in the sense that it has multiplicity and many things can be beautiful versus philosophers who want to learn the single form of the beautiful itself. The way to get there is not through belief but through knowledge.

Give an example of something that is SAID OF a subject but not IN any subject.

Man is said of an individual man but is not in any subject.

What are the three parts of the soul, and how do they match up with the parts of the city? What is the natural role of each part?

Money-making = appetitiveAuxiliary = spiritedGuardians = rationalAppetitive part causes us to experience desire for pleasureSpirited part causes us to get angry and can either align itself with the appetitive or rational partRational part judges what is real and not real, true and false, advantageous and disadvantageous. The function of the rational part is thinking, that of the spirited part the experience of emotions, and that of the appetitive part the pursuit of bodily desires. Socrates explains the virtues of the individual's soul and how they correspond to the virtues of the city (441c-442d). Socrates points out that one is just when each of the three parts of the soul performs its function (442d). Justice is a natural balance of the soul's parts and injustice is an imbalance of the parts of the soul (444e).

What are natural virtue and cleverness, and how do they relate to full virtue and intelligence?

Natural virtue is what we have from birth. For it to become full virtue, it needs to be combined with intelligence. Cleverness is the capacity to do the actions that achieve whatever goal we're trying to achieve. Intelligence requires cleverness, but they're different b/c intelligence is only concerned with pursuit of the good.

How does Aristotle define a "nature"? Explain what work is done by each part of the definition

Nature is a type of principle and cause of motion and stability within those things to which it primarily belongs in their own right and not coincidentally.Motion and stability = internal (self-driven) movementOwn right and not coincidentally = explanatory connection between a thing and its cause of motion and stability

What is the difference between necessary and non-necessary appetites or desires? Explain what Plato means when he says that the rational part of the oligarchic man's soul is enslaved to his necessary desires.

Necessary desires are ones we can't desist from and whose satisfaction benefits us (eating). Money-making is a necessary desire b/c it is beneficial to us and we need it, and the oligarchic man is enslaved to his desire to make money in that it is his sole source of pleasure. Necessary appetites are things you actually need to have, the desire and appetite to eat and drink, non-necessary are the opposite the desires and appetites for things not required for survival. Here reason is slave of appetite because they are more after their desires and don't control their rational thought.

How does Aristotle argue that we are responsible for our own states of character?

No one is unaware that the actions they do shape his character. Therefore, they do actions voluntarily that shape their character.

Why does Thrasymachus call justice a vice, injustice a virtue?

One of justice and injustice must be a virtue, and the other must be a vice. Justice is less beneficial than injustice, so it must be a vice.e claims it does not pay to be just, it advantages others, not the person who behaves justly. He assumes that justice is unnatural restraint on our natural desire to have more. It is a convention imposed on use, and the rational thing to do is act unjustly.

What's wrong with democracy (and the democratic soul), according to Plato?

People are choosing what to do at random in a democracy because all appetites rule the same.

What kinds of phenomena does Plato take to show that the soul has different parts?

Phenomena where something undergoes opposites in the same part of itself, in relation to the same thing, at the same time. This can't happen if the thing is made up of only one part. A thirsty person who doesn't always drink is an example.

Would Plato say that a businessman who rationally organizes all of his desires so that he can make money most efficiently has a soul ruled by the rational part? Why or why not? What kind of soul would Plato say such a man has?

Plato would say that this man is ruled by the appetitive part of his soul b/c he is concerned with the pursuit of money-making, which is controlled by the appetitive part of his soul. Unjust soul, most like a timocratic government.

Why does Plato think that the successful tyrant is the most wretched and least free of all people?

The successful tyrant is judged by those around him and has to constantly leave in fear of retaliation. He will also be in more of a position to act on the whims of his tyrannical soul.

Why does Aristotle think that the happiest life cannot be a life devoted to pleasant amusements?

Pleasant amusements seem to be choiceworthy, but they are chosen only because it is thought that these pleasant amusements bring happiness, but they are often wrong.

What does Aristotle mean by "primary substance" and "secondary substance"? In which of the above four categories are primary substances? In which of them are secondary substances?

Primary substances are neither said of nor in any subject. Secondary subjects are said of a subject but not in any subject.

Why aren't the guardians allowed to have any private property?

Private property goes against specialization, because then guardians will not just be guardians but also household managers. Socrates's reasoning is clear: if the rulers are permitted to acquire private property, they will inevitably abuse their power and begin to rule for their own gain, rather than the good of the entire city.

Why does Aristotle think that the happiest human activity is study (or contemplation)? What makes study superior to exercises of the "civic virtues" like courage and justice?

Study is self-sufficient. It's superior to things like justice b/c the just person needs other people as partners and recipients of his just actions. Study is also done because of itself.

Why does Socrates start an investigation into the just man by inquiring about the just city?

Since there may be more justice in a just city than in a just individual, it may be easier to examine justice in the city and than find it in the individual by looking at the similarities between the two.

What sorts of sense perceptions does Plato call "summoners" (523b ff.)? What effect do summoners have on the soul? How do they draw us towards knowledge of the forms?

Summoners are things that require summoning understanding, not just sense perception. They strike one sense and its opposite (e.g. something that is both relatively big and relatively small). The soul is puzzled by this perception and is driven to find the principles behind it (what is bigness and smallness?) People who perceive smallness and largeness, summons us to think about smallness and largess in its own right.

T/F? When P is SAID OF S and Q is SAID OF P, Q is SAID OF S.

True. Human is said of Socrates, and animal is said of human. Animal is said of Socrates.

T/F? When P is SAID OF S, the definition of P is SAID OF S.

True. Human is said of Socrates. If the definition of human is rational animal, rational animal is said of Socrates.

Explain the dilemma about knowledge Aristotle poses at the beginning of Posterior Analytics 1.3. How does he resolve the dilemma?

Some people think that b/c knowledge thru demonstration requires knowledge of the primary things, there is no knowledge. Others think that everything knowable is demonstrable.Plato says that knowledge of the immediate premises is not demonstrable. However, he also says that these premises are the origin of knowledge, which allows us to have other knowledge.

Glaucon says that justice is an intermediate between the best and the worst. What are the best and the worst?

The best is to do injustice and the worst is to suffer injustice. The best is to do injustice without paying the penalty; the worst is to suffer it without being able to take revenge. Justice is a mean between these two extremes. People value it not as a good but because they are too weak to do injustice with impunity."

What is wisdom in the city? What is courage? Temperance? Justice?

The city is wise b/c it has good judgment, which stems from the knowledge of guardianship. The city is courageous b/c it preserves the things that are believed to be right. The city is temperant b/c the desires of the inferior are controlled by the desires of the superior, which shows self-control. The city is just b/c everyone does the work for which he is naturally suited for and doesn't meddle in other people's work. The wisdom of the just city is found in its rulers and it is the type of knowledge that allows them to rule the city well (428b-d). The courage of the just city is found in its military and it is correct and lawful belief about what to fear and what not to fear (429a-430b). The city's moderation or self-discipline is its unanimity in following the just city's structure in terms of who should rule and who should be ruled (430d-432a). The city's justice consists in each class performing its proper function (433a-b).

Glaucon urges Socrates to examine the completely just man and the completely unjust man. Describe each of these. Why does he think it is important to focus on these?

The completely unjust person will act completely unjustly without being caught. The completely just person will act completely justly while having a reputation of being unjust. These two men will lead lives of complete justness and unjustness, and then it can be determined who is happier and has a more pleasant life.

Plato says that the communal breeding arrangements he recommends lead to "the greatest good" for the city. What is this good?

The greatest good is when everyone experiences pain and pleasure together. This will create a unified city in which people care just as much for each other as for themselves.

What is Plato's justification for giving all the political and military power to the guardians and depriving the producing class of any political participation? What is the guardians' main goal in governing?

The guardians (philosophers) desire every aspect of knowledge and are the only ones that can contain knowledge. Therefore, they are in the best position to know how to run and govern the city. Their main goal is to establish truth because truth stems from wisdom. Create good and happiness among the people through knowledge of the good and the truth. The aim of the guardians is to make city happy, so they don't have freedoms to satisfy anything but that.

What is the difference between incontinence and intemperance, and between continence and temperance?

The intemperate person believes it is right to pursue pleasure above all else. The incontinent person realizes it's wrong but does so anyway. The continent person feels a pull to act basely but resists the urge. The temperant person doesn't feel the pull.

Why does Plato think that the prisoners in the cave would be reluctant to turn around and walk towards the light? Explain how this part of the allegory applies to us

The prisoner wouldn't be used to the light and be discouraged b/c he wouldn't be able to see anything and the light would hurt his eyes. Similarly, we are used to seeing things a certain way (with sensory perception) and would be discouraged trying to view them as forms b/c we would be unable. In other words, Socrates is stating that the prisoner does not want to progress in the way he sees things, and his understanding of reality.

How, according to Aristotle, do we become virtuous?

Virtue of thought comes from instruction. Virtue of character comes from habituation (doing virtuous actions).

What "small" question does Socrates have after Protagoras' speech? Why does he ask it? How does Protagoras answer Socrates' question? Why does he answer the way he does? (That is, why is this a reasonable way for him to answer, given what he has said in his "Great Speech"?)

The small question is whether all virtues are one is the same or if they are parts. Protagoras answers by saying they are all parts that make up one thing, like the parts of a face. Given the way he has described it as teachable, it makes sense that you can learn and habituate one without the others. He ask this because you have wisdom as one of the virtues which is teachable, if they are all interconnected then you can teach them all, if they are separate, it may question the validity of the ability to teach one or another.

In what way does Plato think the senses are unreliable as sources of knowledge?

The soul is able to discern truth of the Forms while the body is unable to. The body distracts us with wants, desires, fears, and sickness. The soul reasons best when none of the senses are troubling it. Senses may acquire inaccurate account of information of reality. Everything we sense is an imperfect representation of the forms. Senses are used in the service of the appetite, some relatively in each perceiver can be contradictory. Sensible things are always changing and for that reason can't be objects of knowledge.

Describe the tyrannical soul and explain how it is analogous to a tyrannical state.

The soul of the tyrant is full of slavery, with the decent parts enslaved and the vicious parts as their master. The tyrannical soul will be least likely to do what it wants and will be full of disorder and regret. In the same way, the majority of the tyrannical city will be enslaved by the few tyrants, and the majority will thus be least likely to get what it wants. The tyrant pisses everyone off and has body guards always producing him, in this soul it is ruled by lawless and unnecessary appetites. Now tyrant is so focused on protecting himself that this unnecessary appetite becomes the leading desire inn his whole body. He is least likely to do what he really wants because he is always in fear trying to keep his bodyguards from turning and protecting himself.

Explain Aristotle's distinction between theoretical and practical knowledge. (How is Aristotle departing from Plato here?)

Theoretical knowledge is knowledge of things that can't be otherwise (universal truths, science)Practical knowledge is reasoning, knowledge of things that can be changed, and how to bring about those changesPlato says that practical knowledge is actually opinion? (B/c knowledge only encompasses what is) (Calls it belief in Analogy of the Line)

At 357b-357e, Glaucon distinguishes three classes of goods. What are they? In which class does he put justice? In which class does he think "most people" put justice?

There's a type of good that we want not for itself but for what it brings.2. There's a type of good that we want for itself but not for what it brings.3. There's a type of good that we want both for itself and for what it brings. Most people put justice in the first class. Socrates thinks it should be in the class where it is pursued for itself and for what it brings.

Suppose someone threatens to kill my family if I don't confess to a crime I didn't do, and I confess. Is this voluntary or not, according to Aristotle?

This is voluntary b/c it is choiceworthy and there is a goal in the action. The person does it willingly b/c he is in control of his body. It's also voluntary b/c people are praised/blamed based on how they act in these scenarios.

What are the two characteristic features of Thought (the third stage of the Divided Line, 510bd)? How does Plato illustrate them by means of mathematics? What are some other examples of Thought (in addition to mathematics)?

Thought assumes hypotheses and makes use of images. In math, hypotheses are assumed and built off of to reach a conclusion. Images such as lines and triangles are used to find universal truths. Other examples of thought include science? Uses images of sensible things and hypothesis to attempt to discover universal truths and forms.

Why does Aristotle think that one cannot have full virtue unless one is intelligent? Why does he think that one cannot be intelligent unless one has full virtue?

To be fully virtuous, one has to know that he is being virtuous. This is not possible unless the person has intelligence. Intelligence is the study of what is good for the human soul. One cannot be intelligent without having full virtue because without it, there will be no desire to study what is good.

Why does Aristotle say that adequate students of ethics must have been brought up well, with good habits? Does he think that his book alone can make someone good?

To understand the good, we must have a solid foundation. This is why we must be brought up with fine habits, b/c these will gives us the starting points or make them easy to acquire.He doesn't think his book can make someone good; he doesn't think goodness can be taught. His book is supposed to explain what good is, why things are good, and how we can create societies that will create goodness.

T/F? When P is IN S, P and S are in different categories.

True. For example, paleness is in Socrates (one is quality, one is substance).

Aristotle says that "virtue makes the goal correct, intelligence what promotes the goal" (1144a10). Explain. What is the role of intelligence in deliberation?

Virtue gives us the end. Deliberation is the process of going from one point to the end. Intelligence provides us with the means to the end (how to go about achieving the end). Like what Socrates says about measurement.

What does Protagoras' speech tell us about (a) how he thinks virtue is taught, and (b) what virtue is?

Virtue is taught through punishment and habituation. Like with a piece of bent wood, you keep straightening it until it is eventually straight. Also thinks everyone plays role in teaching virtue. You read about virtuous people and become virtuous in this way. Virtue is a social function that all members of a community share. It is given by the gods to all men and is necessary for people to live together. It is a combination of justice, temperance, and piety.

What kind of state of character is a virtue? What does Aristotle mean when he says that virtue is a state "consisting in a mean"? (Does this mean that our actions and feelings should always be "medium-strength"?) How is the mean determined?

Virtue is the state that makes a human being good and makes him perform his function well. It consists in a mean in that it finds a mean between excess and deficiency. However, when it comes to base things, one should never do those things. The mean is determined according to the individual; what is the mean for one person may not be the mean for another.

Why does Plato think that the prisoners in the cave are "like us"? In what sense do we argue about mere shadows? - indeed, about shadows of artifacts, not of real things?

We appreciate everyday objects through our senses but do not focus on the forms.These prisoners are like us, this is a mode of cognition where we relate to physic things through our images. We don't go around just looking at images, we see real things and inform judgements about them. We don't think about the form of the free or the rock, the things Plato is talking about are the many just actions or many beautiful things, not the just or beautiful itself.

How does Socrates reply to Adeimantus's objection that the guardians in his ideal city won't be very happy?

We're not trying to make any group super happy but to make the whole city as happy as possible. Also, luxury and wealth will turn people away from their craft. Every group should just be as happy as his nature allows.

At 74b, Socrates asks: "do not equal stones and sticks sometimes, while remaining the same, appear to one to be equal and to another to be unequal?" Explain.

When dealing with particulars, specific things that are equal may appear to be unequal to some people. Equal things are therefore not the same as Equality itself, since equal things may appear to equal in one way and unequal in another. The things that appear equal and the form of the equal itself are different things. Sensible sticks appear equal to one another, the equals themselves never appears unequal, the equal itself does not equal the sensible equals.

How does Plato argue that the guardians should include women as well as men? How does he reply to the objection that since men and women have different natures, they should do different jobs?

When different people are assigned to different roles, it's not due to natural differences. Men and women have souls of the same nature, which should qualify them to the same jobs. It's optimal to have male and female guardians b/c it's optimal to have the best males and females ruling the city. Plato says women have different natures, such as different types of men, but these differences are arbitrary. The differences of men and women is that women can bear children, which is not relevant to this job,

What justification does Plato give for believing in the Forms? Is it a reasonable one?

Whenever someone sees things that appear like they may be equal, he must know what the Equal is first. When we see two things that aren't perfectly equal, we must know what perfect equality is (or the form of Equality). Form is grasped by intellect alone. The forms provide real explanatory principles because they are not longer relying on the senses.

What is wisdom in the soul? What is courage? Temperance? Justice?

Wisdom is associated with the rational part of the soul determining what is best. Courage is associated with the spirited part preserving what should and shouldn't be feared. Temperance is exhibited when rational part of the soul holds the other parts in check. Justice is when each part of the soul does what it is supposed to do.