Plbio 2100 Final Exam (PLANTS)

Conium maculatum (Hemlock)

- Apiaceae family -source of coniine alkaloid -Native of Europe, Eastern Asian, N.Africa TM: -leaves, root, fruits and seeds used for external prep. (highly toxic) for : -breathing problems -local analgesic -antispasmodic and to reverse strychnine poisoning -skin infections -anti-depressant (inhibit serotonin reuptake) VERY POISONOUS Coniine-MOA: -disrupt workings of CNS on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors -can cause death by blocking nicotine receptors on neuromuscular junction, thus blocking muscle movement -muscular and eventual respiratory paralysis Side effects: -sinking thirst, dry throat, rendering talking, difficulty breathing, numbness -interaction with other drugs acting on serotonin receptors may risk serotonin syndrome (fever, agitation, tremor, sweating, dilated pupils etc..)

Centella asiatica - (Tiger's herb/ Gotu Kola)

- Apiaceae or Umbrelliferae -source of triterpenes and phenolics (saponins, essential oils, flavonoids, etc.) -native to Southeast Asia, India, Sri Lanka, China, U.S, Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Eastern and South America Ayurvedic, African and TCM -tonic for longevity, improve cognitive function, cuisine -tea or powdered capsules used as a brain tonic, and anti-oxidant -treats dermatological conditions like varicose veins, psoriasis, wounds -encourages lactation -anxiety-related stress and nervous disorders Purported Uses -lower high PB -reduce inflammation -sedation -treat chronic venous insufficiency -improve cognitive function (Cancer benefits not fully supported) MOA -improved wound healing and anti-inflammatory effects -can decrease venous pressure in those with insufficiency and relieve anxiety Side effects -contact dermatitis- allergies-liver toxicity-reduce fertility in female mice -nasea, stomach pain, low fever, loss of appetite, dark urine " The legend goes that the tigers used to rub themselves with the Tiger's herb in order to heal their scars".

Catharanthus roseus- (Madagascar Periwinkle)

- Apocynaceae family -source of vinblastine and vincristine ( many alkaloids)-monoterpenoid indole alkaloids -Medicinal parts: leaves, areial parts and roots -Native to Madagascar- high toxicity TM -hypoglycemic, skin infection, hypotensive, stops bleeding, anticancer agent vincrstine (childhood leukemia) and vinblastine (Hodkin's disease and solid cancers) -slow/halt production of white blood cells -treats carious cancers (e.g leukemia, lymphomas, hodgkin's disease and solid cancers) -veterinary oncology MOA-vinblastine and vincristine -vinca alkaloids prevent microtubule assembly (combared to taxanes in Yew tree, which prevent microtubule disassembly) Side Affects -Nausea, vomiting, hair loss, hearing loss, dizziness, bleeding, nerve problems, seizures, liver damage, death, ad toxins can be passed to infants during breastfeeding and cause miscarriage. Interacts with other drugs -Biropiracy case Eli Lilly Pharamaceuticals developed vinblastine and vincristine without crediting local shamans

Artemisia annua (Wormwood or Sweet Annie)

- Asteraceae family -source of artemisinin terpenoid -Native of China and temperate Asia TCM -treat fevers, including malaria and inflammation Modern Western Medicine -anti-malarial drug, possible cancer drug, anthelmintic, anti-viral -anti-malarial drug (#1) - Artemisinin - observed to target cancer cells, but let the other healthy cells intact - cancer drug MOA -Several lines of evidence suggest that it can destroy the outer membrane of Plasmodium cells by formation of free radicals (reactive oxygen species) - by indiscriminately binding and inactivating proteins/enzymes in many of the organism's key biochemical pathways Synthetic Biology -making semi-synthetic artemisinin via yeast cells Side affects -skin rash -allergic reaction -other affects can occur from combination therapy (hepatitis and anemia) -do not take with anti-seizure medication

Valeriana officinalis - (Valerian)

- Caprifoliaceae family -Native to Japan and Europe -source of terpenoids, alkaloids, volatile oils (e.g.valeric acid), flavones, flavonoids, etc. TM -roots are used as a sedative, antiseptic, against migraine, antispasmodic, anticonvulsant -treat anxiety and stress -used in Europe for abdominal cramps due to nervousness, uterine cramps, mentrual agitation -consumed as tea of sleep supplements -flavoring for beverages Purported uses -insomnia, calm muscle spasms, treat menopausal symptoms -calming and non addictive MOA • Valerian constituents can bind to various neurotransmitter receptors implicated in circadian rhythms and anxiety such as serotonin receptors • In vitro & animal models - anxiolytic activity is due to valerenic acid (VA) • VA inhibits the enzyme system responsible for central catabolism of GABA* increasing GABA concentration /decreasing CNS activity -compounds may act synergistically Side Affects -- Occasional & anecdotal - headaches, daytime sedation / dullness - Because the compounds in valerian produce CNS depression - do not be use with other depressants (e.g. kava opiates, benzodiazepines, barbiturates)

Dioscorea spp.- (Yam)

- Dioscoreaceae -source of steroid diosgenin (saponin glycoside), which can be converted to progesterone, cortisone or other steroids. -source f steroid glycosides (saponins) TM -menstrual, ovarian, and labor pain production costs much cheaper when using mexican yam - "birth control pill for women" 50% of manufactured oral contraceptives, sex hormones & steroids are produced from diosgenin glycoside from dioscorea spp.

Vaccinium microcarpum - (Cranberry)

- Ericaceae -source of phenols (flavonoids, e.g quercetin, catechins) and Vitamin C -Natic to N.America, N. Europe and N.Asia TM -UTI, oral and GI infection, cardiovascular disease, and against cancer -antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-microbial Native American TM -kill germs, skin healing, reduce fevers MOA -Cranberry products can inhibit E. coli adherence to model systems of primary cultured bladder & vaginal epithelial cells. Probably responsible for the role of cranberry products for preventing urinary tract infection Side affects -GI upset, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, kidney stones

Homalanthus nutans - (Mamala tree)

- Euphorbiaceae family -source of prostratin (terpenoid, foundi n bark) -native to Samoia, in Polynesia (Indonesia) TM -jaundice, hepatitis, yellow fever Medicinal use -potential against cancer, Alzheimer's, HIV MOA -protein kinase C activator- prostratin activates latent viral reservoirs (group of immune cells in the body infected with virus but not actively producing new HIV) while preventing healthy cells from infection. -As modulator of protein kinase C, it has been shown to exhibit promising therapeutic potential against other diseases (e.g. cancer Alzheimer's disease). synthesis on mass scale -prostratin from phorbol (natural plant derived compound) -E.coli also -terpenoid (anti HIV) -bioprospecting example (Samoan Prime Minister Tuila'epa Aiono Sailele Malielegaoi with ethnobotanist P. A. Cox (left), and chemical engineer Jay Keasling (UC Berkley), negotiated an agreement that recognizes Samoa's sovereignty over the prostratin gene sequence and the contributions of Samoan healers)

Trifolium spp. - (Red clover)

- Fabaceae family (legume) -source of phytoestrogens & polyphenolic isoflavones (modified to estrogens) converted to phytohormones, and nutrients (calcium, magnesium, potassium, vitamin C, etc) -symbol of the Irish people and Celtic lucky emblem TM -respiratory problems -skin inflammations, diureic -improve circulation and cleanse the liver -epidermal regeneration (skin ointment) -relieve symptoms of menopause MOA -polyphenolic isoflavones (anti-oxidants) which are modified to phyto-estrogens. -can cause infertility in animals if grazed for al long time -phyto-estrogen is a health benefit for menopause (research mixed) -contains coumadin (blood thinner) Side effects -bleeding around the brain/skull -do not take if you are using warfarin or other blood thinners -do not take if you have a hormone-sensitive disease Legend: St.Patrick went to Ireland and converted Druidic people to Christianity by explaining the Trinity using the clover ( which was the old Celtic lucky symbol)

Arnica Montana - [Arnica]

- Family Asteraceae -Native of Europe and North America -source of terpenoids, including toxins (helenalin, poisonous) -Plant parts:Flowers are typically used medicinally and sometime the rizomes TM -bruise and anti-swelling treatment Uses -topical, or very diluted by mouth, osteoarthritis, swelling, bruises MOA -anti-inflammatory properties - inhibit the binding of transcription factors involved in the inflammation cascade. -laboratory experiments on arnica have shown that it can kill bacteria -a few studies have shown that topical arnica applied to affected areas may reduce symptoms of osteoarthritis and heal bruising but MOA is not known. -in homeopathic formulas, can be taken by mouth in extremely dilute solutions. More research is needed to determine whether they are effective. Side Effects - Pure arnica herb is considered unsafe to ingest - toxic can cause serious side effects (including internal bleeding, tachycardia) - Topical & homeopathic arnica are generally considered safe Folklore - humans learned the value of Arnica by observing mountain goats, who would clamber to find the Arnica plant after falling or stumbling. This explains its German name, Fallkraut or "fall herb"

Hypericum perforatum - (St. John's Wort)

- Hypericaceaes family -Native to Europe and Asia -polyphenolics (e.g. flavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins), essential oils, terpenoids (hyerforin) and many more -Extract from buds, leaves and flowers TM -essetial oils, capsules, drops, tinctures, skin lotions, tea -combat anxiety, treat mild depression -coughs and stomach ailments -- Topically - Because of its anti-inflammatory properties used as enhancer wound healing, treat skin conditions, treat burns & bruises, antibacterial, antioxidant, & antiviral properties • Proposed uses : -treatment of mild to moderate depression, fatuge, PMS, wound healing, anti-inflammatory • Controindications : - Pregnancy - Taking any other anti-depressants, birth controls, analegsics, psychedlic drugs, chemo/radiation therapy -do not take with alcohol MOA • Possibly inhibition of the reuptake of various neurotransmitters (e.g. serotonin) into the pre-synaptic neuron, increasing the release of these in the synaptic space - increased level of the neurotrasmitters available to bind to receptors - increased sense of wellbeing, happiness. Side effects -Headache, gastrointestinal upset: nausea, abdominal discomfort, constipation, dizziness, confusion, sedation, sleep disturbances, fatigue, dry mouth, skin sensitivity to sunlight, dermatitis, etc.

Mentha arvensis - (Menthol)

- Lamiaceae family -source of the terpenoid menthol, essential oils menthone, limonene, cineole, flavonoids, azulene, etc. -Native to Europe TM -colds and flu -help digestion -menstrual symptoms, pain relief, headaches, energizing, skin irritation, pesticide Uses -colonic and gastric spasms - migraine, nausea, bad breath or dental plaque -digestive aid (GI discomfort), IBS -respiratory problems -anti-bacterial/fungal -immuno-boost, apparent weight loss -azulene reduce inflammation -relaxes muscle of GIT and relieve colon spasm -menthol also kills bacteria and parasites Pharmacological effects -decongestant -antipruritic/septic -against acne -toothpaste, insect repellant, digestive (in teas, decoction etc.) MOA -cooling sensation (triggers cold sensitive receptors in the skin) -analgesic properties through selective activation of opioid receptors -anesthetic properties by modulating GABA receptors and increasing GABA transmission in neurons (decreased pain signal) -menthol used in dental care as topical antibacterial agent -helps digestion by blocking calcium channels leading to relaxation of smooth muscle Side effect -OD is irritant and toxic -heart burn, increase uterine contraction -abortion, allergic reaction -gastritis, nervousness -well-tolerated externally (GRAS) -allergic reactions, inducing abdominal cramps, heartburn) -do not take during pregnancy and lactation, not recommended in Parkinson's diseases, delays caffeine absorption as well

Cinnamomum aromaticum - (Cinnamon)

- Lauraceae family -native to sri lanka and india -source of essential oils, terpenes, polyphenolics (e.g.tannins, coumarins, eugenol in leaves) -medicinal parts: bark, leaves, and roots produce essential oils and terpenoids TM -Traditionally used as anti microbial, taken for colds, flu, bronchitis, digestive problems. Externally, it reduces the pain of minor cuts & abrasions -In Japan Cinnamon is often combined with ginger to stimulate circulation & digestion -In China, Japan & India, cinnamon is used to promote regular menstrual cycles -antiseptic, aids digesting, antibacterial/fingal/viral, promotes regulate menstruation Purported uses -may decrease blood glucose levels in type 2 diabetes -anti-inflammatory -may lower LDL cholesterol -may improve appetite and relieve indigestion MOA --Terpenoid compounds present in cinnamon, exerts anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting nitric oxide production & stimulating blood flow - Cinnamon also mimic insulin by activating the insulin receptors Side effects are rare when it is used as a food additive at normal doses; - allergies, - high doses of cinnamon may depress the central nervous system (CNS) -contains coumarin, a type of phenolic glycoside which can be liver toxic in high doses

Cinnamomum camphora -(Camphor)

- Lauraceae family -source of terpenoids -Native of S.E Asia and China -camphor found in bark and leaves (white, flammable, crystalline substance, obtained from a tree resin-terpenoid with a strong aromatic odor) TM -oils used as aphrodisiac, contraceptive, abortifacient, antiseptic, antimicrobial, cough suppressant -common ingredient in many OTC prep and moth balls Uses -for spice, incense, embalming, medicine, colds (vicks vapo-rub), insect repellent, anti-microbial/inflammatory, arthritis and muscle pain -insect-repellent, rheumatic pain, neuralgia, arthritis, sore muscle, sprains, bruises Pharmacological effects and MOA -bronchodilators and decongestants -antiseptic (prevent pathogenic microorganisms), now used externally -relieve pain and reduce itching (stimulant nerve endings that relieve symptoms such as pain and itching when applied to the skin) -anti-fungicidal/microbial Camphor toxicity -highly toxic -discouraged by FDA -OD can cause aromatic odor, seizure, vomiting, abdominal pain, convulsions, CNS depression, fatality -external use well-tolerated -prolonged use can induce organ damage

Eucalyptus spp. - (Eucalyptus)

- Myrtaceae family -source of eucalyptol (terpenoid)-insecticide, flavonoids(anti-oxidants), tannins (anti-inflammatory) -Native to Australia -Blue Gum is the main source of eucalyptus essential oil used globally -parts used: leaves, essential oil Uses -respiratory tract disorders, reduce inflammation, stimulates saliva to loosen cough -coughs, colds, creams and ointment for muscle pain -oil for antiseptic, perfume, cosmetics, flavoring, dental preparations -oil for mouthwash and cough suppressant -leaf infusion for body pains, fevers -essential oil for aromatherapy MOA -antimicrobial: -They concluded that a positive interaction between essential oil (from a tree in the Eucalyptus family) & existing antibiotics could lead to the development of new treatment strategies for certain infections -They hope that this property could eventually reduce the need for antibiotics -treats respiratory tract, anti-inflammatory -stimulates release of saliva and helps loosen cough • It may act as expectorant for loosening phlegm & easing congestion • shown to be effective in reducing pain, swelling, and inflammation via its modulatory effect on the immune response Side effects -safe at recommended doses. Cineole >80% toxic -allergies or dematitis -diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, stomach upset -poisoning (dizziness, feelings of suffocation, small pupils) -may interact with other medications and can impact the liver (increase their side effects)

Syzygium aromaticum - (Clove)

- Myrtaceae family (like Eucalyptus) -source of eugenol(phenol?), terpenoids, essential oils, -Native to Asia and S.America Medicinal parts - terpenoids, essential oils, eugenol (dried flowers, leaves & stems) Medicinal properties in TM (used in Ayurveda & TCM) - Boost immuno-system - Anti inflammatory - Respiratory & digestive ailments - Stimulate blood circulation - Heals wounds and cuts of injuries - Stress & pain reliever (tooth ache = clove oil or eugenol) OTHER USES - Insect repellent - Popular element in aromatherapy - Used as flavoring agent in cooking, toothpaste, soap, cosmetics, perfumes, cigarettes, etc. MOA - anti inflammatory: -Clove oil contains a chemical called eugenol that may help to decrease pain and fight infections, but more research is needed Toxicity -likely safe in small amounts -unsafe to smoke -toxic in small amounts in children -Sore gums, mouth irritation, bleeding gums - Sexual dysfunction - Slow blood clotting

Papaver somniferum (opium poppy)

- Papaveraceae -natural source of morphine, codeine, papaverin (alkaloids), etc. and semi synthetic heroin. -Native of the Mediterranean basin and Western Asia Uses -Pain killers, addictive and give tolerance -antitussives (prevent or relieve cough)-opium alkaloid -diarrhea -synergism with paracetamol or aspirin for greater pain relief MOA -• Opiate, produce pharmacological actions (e.g. analgesia), by activating receptors located on neuronal cell membranes. • These receptors are distributed throughout the central nervous system (CNS) on peripheral afferent nerve terminals and many other organs. • Opiates (as other narcotics) inhibit neurotransmitter release to attenuate pain. • The natural ligands that normally bind to opiates receptors are endorphins & encephalin (small peptides produced by our body). These peptides are released at synapses on neurons involved in transmitting pain signals mostly to the brain & the spinal cord. -CODEINE MOA: works by inhibiting the cough center in the brain, elevating coughing threshold DIARRHEA MOA: • Action on Gastrointestinal Tract - Used to treat diarrhea: • High density of opioid receptors in GI tract • Motility decreased in the stomach • Peristalsis diminished in large intestine • Increase fluid absorption • Reduce intestinal secretions • Promote constipation Side effect -sedating and constipating -respiratory depression Legend - 1 interpretation of poppies in classical mythology is that the flowers bright scarlet color signifies a promise of resurrection after death Poppies have also been used (e.g. Sumer, Egyptians, Greek & Romans) as a symbol of sleep, peace, death:

Passiflora spp.- (Passion fruit), Maracuya

- Passifloraceae family -source of alkaloids (harman), flavonoids, cyanogenic glycosides (gynocardin), flavonoids and glycosides -Native in N.America, Caribbean and S.America Parts used:leaves, flowers, roots, stems, passion fruits TM -fresh or dried leaves used to prepare a tea to treat: insomnia, hysteria, epilepsy -used as sedative and analgesic by Native Americans Purported uses -to relieve anxiety, sleep aid for insomnia MOA -alkaloid constituents (harman and harmaline) thought to produce MOA inhibition, typically used as an anti-depressant (inhibit reuptake of NE, S, and DA) -phenolic compounds (pyrone derivatives) activate GABA receptors that may account for anxiolytic and sedative effects -anti-radical/inflammatory Side affects -GRAS -possibly unsafe in excessive amounts during pregnancy (contraction) -dizziness, sleepiness, induce contractions

Harpagophytum procumbens (Devil's Claw)

- Pedaliaceae -contains multiple active compounds including glycosides, phenolics and flavonoids, terpenoids caffeic acid, cinnamic acid, sugars are resins -Native of South Africa TM -digestive problems and arthritis, menstrual and pregnancy problems, rheumatism, reduce fevers, treat sores and ulcers Purported uses -rheumatism, arthritis, inflammation -anti-inflammatory, pain reliving, antioxidant -slow bone loss caused by inflammation -osteoarthritis Key actions -anti-inflammatory/arthritis -analgesic -digestive stimulant • MOA - as antioxidant - scavenger of ROS (reactive oxygen species), due to presence of compounds such as phenolics, able to stabilize ROS - as anti-inflammatory agent - inhibit the production of inflammatory cytokines (signaling molecules made by the immune system in response to inflammation), reducing inflammation • Toxicology - Ulcers & gastrointestinal bleeding have occurred with use of devil's claw root, especially in combination with other antiinflammatory & pain relieving drugs (e.g. NSAID & aspirin) Side affects -indigestion, ulcer and GI bleeding, hypertension

Digitalis spp. (Foxglove) -

- Plantaginaceae -Native to Western Europe, Wester and Central Asia, and Northwestern Africa -source of digoxin and digitoxin cardioglycoside -treat edema and congestive heart failure and arrhythmia Pharmacological action: • Both cardiac glycosides: - Increase strength of the contraction in the heart & force the heart to beat - increase cardiac output - more blood pumped through the body - Lower heart rate, improve circulation, decrease edema, increase kidney output MOA • Block & disable Na-K ion pumps in the heart cell membranes, causing a rise in the concentration of sodium & calcium ions inside these cells. This larger Ca2+ concertation results in a stronger force of contraction. -blocks transmission of electrical signals, slowing the heartbeat -digitalis toxicity: from overdose. Cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, drooling, abnormal heart rate, cardiac arrhythmias, weakness, collapse, dilated pupils, tremors, seizures, death -antacids reduce effectiveness of drug -antifungal medications affect removal of drug from body

Rubus spp. (Raspberry, blackberry plant)

- Rosaceae -source of flavonoids, polypeptides, polyphenolics & glycosides -medicinal parts: raspberry leaf TM -women's health (painful and heavy menstruation (vitamin K), morning sickness, preventing miscarriage, easing labor, etc.) -anti-microbial/anti-oxidant -may improve brain function Other benefits -reduce inflammation, fight infection, boost immunity -cardiovascular system -promote healthy skin Toxicity -GRAS

Coffea arabica - (Coffee)

- Rubiaceae -source of caffeine alkaloid (psychoactive and CNS stimulant) and other polyphenols (e.g. citric acid, chlorogenic acids) with anti-oxidant activites -Native to Africa: Ethiopia and tropical Africa TM -depression, constipation, acute asthma -fatigue, hangover -anti-oxidant Effects -increased attention and memory performance -increased intraocular pressure -decreased risk of heart disease -increased physical performance -decreased risk of liver disease MOA -polyphenolics donate OH groups, neutralizing free radicals and ROS (anti-oxidant) -neuro-stimulant produces cerebral vasoconstriction by blocking neurotransmitter adenosine's receptors, increasing excitability in the brain Side affects -sleep deprivation, irritability, anxiety, restlessness, confusion -rapid breathing -heart (rapid/irregular) -systemic hydration -toxic in large enough doses -Legend: the boy and the dancing goats (vibrant, wide away sensation produced)

Aloe Vera - (Aloe)

- Xanthorrhaceae family -source of anthraquinones and anthraquinone aloin glycosides, antioxidant vitamins A,C,E, saponin, salicylic acid -Native to Africa Use -stimulant laxative -skin treatment, burns, inflammation (cold sores, eczema, pruritis ), ulcerative colitis MOA -: like other anthraquinones containing plants, Aloe act on the intestinal mucosa to increase peristalsis of colon -LAXATIVE:stimulate colon motility, enhancing propulsion & accelerating colonic transit, which reduce fluid absorption. Increase permeability across colon mucosa (inhibition of ion channels) resulting in increase in water content in large intestine. -GASTRIC PROTECTION: of the gastric mucosa against ethanol induced gastric ulcers/damage by regulating gastric enzymes. -ANTI-INFLAMMATORY: agents acting on thromboxane A2 and cytokine pathways. • Other compounds with potent IMMUNE STIM. properties • Stimulation of macrophage & fibroblast activity INCREASE COLLAGEN SYNTHESIS • Prevent ultraviolet radiation-induced damage - Toxicity: long term use of laxatives can cause inflammation & higher risk of colon cancer - overall few toxic effects observed -seizures, low potassium levels, electrolyte abnormalities - Side Effects: overdose - colic pains due to spastic contractions of muscle in GI tract -GI upset, nausea, vomiting, rash -do not take before surgery (unwanted bleeding)

Allium sativum - (Garlic)

- amaryllidaceae family -source of allicin, alliin (sulfphur containing) -native to Central Asia and Iran -Plant parts: bulb Uses -cardiovascular -anti-microbial -antioxidant -strengthen immune system -colds, fever, cough, stomach ache -regulate blood sugar (diabetes) -antifungal, antibactieral -prevents heart disease and infections -treat hypertension -high cholesterol -insect repellent -anti-oxidant -atherosclerosis -regulate blood pressure and circulatory disorders Pharmacological effects -cardiovascular disease -high cholesterol -hypertension -infections -MOA -Inhibits atherosclerosis by different mechanisms (e.g. lipoprotein modification, inhibition of LDL uptake/degradation by macrophages) - Anti-hypercholesterolemic (lower cholesterol) & anti-bacterial - Hypolipidemic (lower lipid levels in the blood) - Overall, lower LDL, cholesterol, triglycerides, has hypotensive activity, blood thinning action - Antioxidant (can quench free radicals and ROS species) protects endothelial cells from oxidized LDL damage and protect DNA against free-radical mediated damage & mutations - Anti-bacterial - kill E. Coli, salmonella and many other bacteria Toxicity -allergy and anaphaylaxis -bleeding -hepatotoxicity -chemical burn

Rauwolfia serpentina (Indian Snakeroot)

- apocynaceae -source of reserpine indole alkaloid , more than 40 alkaloids -also contains flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, phenolics, glycosides, saponins, resins, etc. -Native to: India, Sri lanka, Malaysia, Burma, Bangaladesh, Indonesia, Jave, America, Africa -medicinal parts: roots TM -in India called Sarpaganda, used to treat insanity, fever, snake, and insect bites -anti-fungal/inflammatory/diuretic, tranquillizer, sedative -resperine used in Western medicine to treat high blood pressure and mental disorders (anti-psychotic and anti-hypertensive) MOA -- Reserpine leads to loss of/inhibit release of neurotransmitters catecholamines (i.e. adrenaline & dopamine) from the nervous tissue (synaptic vesicles), by blocking Vesicular Monoamine Transporters (VMAT) - It leaves neurotransmitters in cytoplasm where they are destroyed - These substances are normally involved in controlling heart rate, force of cardiac contraction & nervous system -relaxation of vessels and output of heart reduces blood pressure -angina -sedative effects Side affects -inability to concentrate or perform complex tasks -psychotic depression, which can lead to suicide -nasal congestion -lethargy, weight gain, nightmares, depression, suicidal thoughts

Strychnos nux vomica. - (Strychnine tree)

- loganiaceae family -source of strychnine, and brucine (alkaloids)- highly poisonous -native to Australia, India, Philippines, Southeast Asia • Used in the past as a medicine - prescribed as a remedy for heart & respiratory complaints, as a stimulant (athletic performance enhancer + recreational stimulant) • It is no longer used today because the size of effective dose could be toxic/poisonous/lethal -currently used as a rodent poison and pesticide MOA -- Strychnine - neurotoxin acting as antagonist (binds to the same receptor, activating it) of glycine & acetylcholine receptors - Glycine = inhibitory neurotransmitter - more glycine can lead to respiratory & heart failure - Acetylcholine = neurotransmitter of parasympathetic nervous system, responsible for muscles contraction & slows heart rate - More acetylcholine leads to paralysis & respiratory failure, muscle spasm, increased salivation etc. - Strychnine therefore cause convulsions, over excitation of motor neurons, muscles cramping & respiratory problems, slows heartbeat Toxicity -injection, inhalation, ingestion can cause muscle spasms, respiratory failure and brain death, seizures, cramping, stiffness, agitation, hyper-vigilance, muscle convulsion, increase salivation, etc. Pharmacological effects: - anxious and restlessness (increased CNS activity)m any sensation become acute -respiration and circulation are slightly stimulated -colonic convulsion with gradual increase in contractions -respiratory/circulatory failure -INTACT SEED CAUSES NO SYMPTOMS, only crushed

Azadirachta indica - (Neem tree)

- mahogany family of Meliaceae -source of terpenoids and terpenoids and phenolics (catechins) -Native of Asia (India, China) -Medicinal parts used: barks, leaves, seed (also root, flower, fruit) Properties -antimicrobial and insect repellent , anti-parasitic (anti-malaria), potential anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-bactieral, anti-viral, contraceptive, sedative -dental hygiene and skin conditions TM -cleaned teeth and gums, skin problems, aromatherapy for anorexia, nausea and GI worms -cosmetics, hair oil, soap MOA -antibacterial effect against streptococci, reduced adhesion to tooth surface and oxidative burst from leukocytes -anti-inflammatory: inhibits macrophage and neutrophil migration -Biopiracy source:- 1995 US patent office granted patent on a fungicidal compound derived from seeds of the Neem Tree - India opposed the patent by claiming that the fungicidal properties of the Neem tree had been public knowledge in India for many centuries Side affects -insufficient research to prove benefits -long-term use harm kidneys or liver -in small children, neem oil is toxic (seizures) and can lead to death -miscarriages, infertility, low blood sugar -According to Hindus, the Goddess of chickenpox lives in the Neem tree

Plantago major (Plantain)

- many active compounds (rush in polyphenolics) -N.America TM -wound healing, fighting off wound infection -astringent, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial -protecting the liver

Crataegus spp. - (Hawthorn)

- rosaceae family -source of bioactive polyphenolics -native to N.Hemisphere TM -leaves, berries, flowers used for digestive aid -heart and blood vessel diseases (chest pain, congestive heart failure, strengthen cardiovascular function, irregular heartbeat) -high and low blood pressure Purported uses -angina, atherosclerosis, congestive heart failure, hypertension MOA -improves heart function, shortness of breath, palpitations, exercise tolerance in people with heart failure by causing dilation of the smooth muscle that lines coronary arteries, thereby increasing blood flow to the heart. -increases muscle contraction, heart rate, nerve transmission and heart muscle irritability Toxicity -generally well tolerated -dizziness, nausea, cardiac or GI complaints, sedation -OD: low BP, irregular heart beat -do not take with digtoxin

Salix spp (Willow)

- salicaceae -source of salicin (alcoholic beta-glucoside) from which aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) was derived -Native to Northern Hemisphere -Known by Egyptians, Native People of N. America to relieve headache. Symbol of good luch. Salicin converted to salicyclic acid in the body, which is related to aspirin: -analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial effects -aspirin classified as NSAID drug Purported Uses -to reduce fever, pain MOA -Aspirin works by inhibiting the synthesis of prostaglandins • Responsible for a wide array of activities which spark the healing process: - stimulation or relaxation of smooth muscle - dilation or constriction of blood vessels - stimulation of inflammation responses - enhancement of the perception of pain - stimulate the formation of a blood clot - cause increased blood flow, chemotaxis (chemical signals that summon white blood cells) and subsequent dysfunction of tissues and organs MOA-willow extraxts -Key components - Anti-inflammatory activity is mostly attributed to salicin (alcohol glycoside) but also catechol & flavonoids Physiological effects: - Willow bark inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokines (analgesic) - Raise glutathione (GSH) levels, thereby limiting lipid peroxidation (anti-oxidant & anti-inflammatory) - In vitro/animal models suggest salicin can inhibit reactive oxygen species (ROS) (anti-oxidant) - Demonstrated antibacterial properties, clearing pores and alleviating acne and skin irritation. Side affects -stomach or GI discomfort, may prevent blood clotting, stomach cramping Overdose- toxic, damaging kidneys, liver, stomach ulcers, diarrhea, bleeding, or digestive comfort -Legend- In Celtic custom, if you knock on the tree it sends away bad luck

Withania somnifera (Ashwaganda)

- solanaceae or nightshade family -source of alkaloids & steroidal lactones triterpenoids (withaferin A) (indian ginseng) -medicinal parts: roots, leaves, berries TM -poweder used for healthy sleep patters, sedative, calm the brain, reduce swelling, lower BP, alter immune system -Ayurveda:wound healing and ulcers -reduce anxiety and stress, cholesterol levels -increase power output and muscle mass Considered an adaptogen -modulate response to stress or changing environment Purported used: -reduction of anxiety and stress, reduce total cholesterol levels, increase power output and muscle mass, anti-inflammatory MOA -Reduce Fatigue (performance enhancer, body tonic) - It may increase the power output in subjects during resistance exercise and anaerobic running (compounds stimulating CNS) Reduce stress & anxiety - Some studies suggest that ashwagandha is GABA agonist, so activates GABA, (the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter) receptors in the brain, thereby having sedative effects on the CNS. Side affects -GRAS -aren't regulated by FDA -interaction may increase testosterone levels -pregnant women should avoid (cause early delivery and induce abortion)

Melaleuca alternifolia - (Tea Tree)

- source of Terpinen-4-ol, terpenoids -essential oil (with many terpenoids) extracted from the leaves -Native to Australia TM -potent antimicrobial -used topically (toxic orally) -relieve dermatologic conditions -wounds and cuts, brewed as tea for throat ailment -antifungal/bacterial Purported uses -acne, fungal infections, inflammation, insect bites/stings, dandruff MOA -• Terpinen-4-ol, a terpenoid & major constituent of tea tree oil, was shown to have antifungal & antimicrobial activity -it can also suppress inflammatory mediatory production by activated human monocytes -prevents influenza from entering host cells by disturbing the normal viral membrane fusion procedure Side affects -taking it orally can cause confusion and ataxia -contact dematitis, skin irritation

Hydrastis canadensis - (Goldenseal)

- source of alkaloids, volatile oil, resin

Euterpe oleracea - (Acai palm/berry)

- source of anthocyanins -Nativve to Brazil and Trinidad; Northen part of S.America TM -taken to lower cholesterol and allergies -moderate support for immuno modulating effects -anti-inflammatory and antioxidant (anthocyanins) Purported uses -prevent heart disease and stroke -false claims: reverses diabetes , other chronic illnesses, and increasing men's sexual virility. Not been prove to be effective for cancer. Side effects -GI pain, bloating, gas, nausea, constipation or loose stool

Hyoscyamus niger - Henbane

- source of atropine/tropine alkaloid -extracted from leaves, berries, roots -induce pupil dilation

A. Comosus - (Pineapple)

- source of bromelain

Coffea Arabica

- source of caffeine alkaloid & polyphenols antioxidants

Camptotheca spp.- (Chinese Happy Tree)

- source of camptothecin (alkaloid)- cancer-fighting and research in treating hematological malignancies) TCM -psoriasis, liver and stomach ailments, common colds, cancer, leukemia (chemotherapuetic agent) Drug derivatives -irinotecan (less toxic than Camptothecan. Treats metastatic colorectol cancer, lung cancer, and leukemia) -topotecan (ovarian cervical and lung cancer) MOA -inhibition of topoisomerase I (prevents DNA unwinding during replication and transcription) Toxicity -poisonous -tiredness, hair loss, stomatitis, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hermorrhagic events, low WBC count (risk of infection), low RBC count, death

Erythroxylum coca - Coca plant

- source of cocaine and derivatives (novocain) -Native of S.America TM -Source of calcium and vitamins -act as a stimulant like strong coffee -prevents fatigue and hunger -prevents against altitude sickness -must be treated with strong acids to modify active ingredients into cocaine (alkaloid) Medicinal Use -local anesthetic -nerve blocks for dental procedures and spinal procedures MOA -blocks reuptake of excitatory NT in the brain, effects on sympathetic nervous system (euphoria, anti-depressive) -Inhibits sodium influx though voltage gated Na channels or peripheral nerve cells (local anesthetic)- no depolarization - no action potential Side affects -allergic reaction to PABA (novocain's metabolites) -coca leaf without cocaine is safe in small doses orally and for skin -cocaine: unsafe, illegal, hyperactivity, restlessness, seizures, migrains, strokes, heart attacks, resp. failure, liver and kidney failure -cocain is addictive -alcohol interacts with COCA Stories: People feel that it connects them to their land and ancestors (seen as a gift). Reminder from their gods to take care of the land. Legend: The plant was a gift form the sun god Inti who instructed the moon mother to plant the coco in the moist valleys of the Andes. Used only by the decedents of the gods (Incas) for endurance

Piper methysticum - (Kava kava)

- source of flavanoids (kavalactone-> kavain)-phenol group, and alkaloids -Native of the western Pacific -Medicinal parts: root and rhizome are chewed or grounded (anxiolytic and treats insomnia) TM -gout, local anesthetic, rheumatism, weight loss, headaches, anxiety, and urinary tracts ailments -calm and numbing, euphoric buzz -drank socially and ceremonially Uses -anxiolytics, to treat insomnia -as effective as benzodiazepine (treats anxiety, insomnia, seizures, spasms, withdrawal) -anti-inflammatory, herbicidal, fungicidal -inverse relationship between consumption and cancer rate (inhibits leukemia and ovarian tumor cell growth) MOA -Kavalactones bind to different receptors in the brain causing calmness: • Potentiation of GABA receptor activity (the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter) • Inhibition of the reuptake of norepinephrine and possibly also of dopamine • Binding to the cannabinoid receptor CB1 (by yangonin) • Inhibition of voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels • Monoamine oxidase B (reversible) inhibition (by all six of the major kavalactones). Monoamine oxidase, enzyme that breaks down serotonin, epinephrine, and dopamine. Toxicity -may increase alcoholic effects and liver toxicity (legal in U.S) -hepatotoxicity, urticaria, altered mental status, ataxia -heart problem, eye irritation -dry, scaly skin or yellowing or skin

Panax spp. - (Ginseng)

- source of glycosides, terpenoid saponins, essential oils, vitamins (e.g. D,B), minerals (i.e. calcium, iron, etc.) -Native to N. American and Eastern Asia (mostly notherest China, Korea, Bhutan, Eastern Siberia) TCM -lengthening live and promoting vitality -linked to doctrine of signatures -anti-inflammatory, analgesic, diabetes, strength and stamina health maintenance immuno-stimulant, angina, HIV, sexual dysfunction and more Medicinal part: root Purported uses: -to treat HIV and AIDS, improve immune system, sexual dysfunction (research is inconclusive overall) MOA: • Glycosides Ginsenosides - shown responsible for many of ginseng's effects, including analgesic effects when administered parenterally - cholinergic effects (improves the release of acetylcholine (Ach), neurotransmitter regulating pain perception in the central nervous system) • Oral intake of ginseng was shown to reduce muscle injury and inflammation, marked by reductions in the levels of markers of inflammation in humans Side Affects: -dry mouth, tachycardia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, insomnia, nervousness -considered relatively safe in larger amounts, but overdose can cause bleeding Mesopotamian record 1600 BC: "A secret of the gods let me tell you. There is a plant. Its roots go deep, Its spike will prick your hand like a bramble. If you get your hands on that plant, you'll have everlasting life.

C. Papaya - (Papaya)

- source of papain

Psilocybe mushrooms- (Psychedelic mushrooms)

- source of psilocybin (alkaloid), psilocin -Native to Mexico and S.America, S. Asia and Europe TM -OCD, headaches -Used by native people for sacred rituals, to cure various neurological disorders (e.g. headache, panic attack, anxiety), following anecdotal reports of benefits (sacred mushroom of the Aztecs) Purpoted Used -potential for personality disorders and depressive disorders (still classified schedule I drug)- potential for anxiety, OCD, eating disorders, drug and alcohol addition, distressed cancer patients MOA -Like many other hallucinogenics - are Serotonin*- like drugs - bind to serotonin receptors in the brain (share indole ring, also found in the synthetic drug LSD) -repeated used does not lead to physical dependence Effects -altered perception of time and space -changes in mood -euphoria, peacefulness, chaging emotion, nausea, paranoia, confusion, dizziness,etc. Toxicity -adverse reactions (dose related) -"bad trip", panic attacks, toxic psychosis, disconnection from reality

Strychnos spp.

- source of strychnine

Lavandula officinalis (Lavender)

- source of terpenoids TM -relaxation and sedation -anti-inflammatory and analegesic -skin burns and pain -antimicrobial, disinfectant, and natural pesticide -helps anxiety, depression, improve breathing, relaxation, sleep Purported uses -anxiety, depression, insomnia -migraine treatment, pain, spasms -potential in cancer symptom control (not firmed clinically yet) MOA -terpenoid causes anti-inflammatory and analgesic effect (e.g. 1,8-cineole known also for its mucolytic action on the respiratory tract, with proven clinical efficacy) - controls inflammatory processes by mediating production of infection -terpenoid linalool relaxes blood vessels and induces anxiolytic effects -oil has antibacterial activity -depressive effect on CNS (relaxant) Side effects -considered safe (well tolerated) -nausea, belching, confusion -skin reactions, sensitivity to sunlight -potentiate sleep-inducing effects with other sedatives -increase narcotic and sedative effects with other depressants, anticonvulsants

Chondrodendron spp. (Curare)- Chondrodenron tormentosum

- source of tubocurarine alkaloid -Native of S.America -used as a paralyzing agent (native people used it to poison their arrow and blowpipe darts for hunting), can also produce psychedelic effect -bitter and resinous substance from bark and stems, tropical lianas growing attache to tree Medical use -tubocurarine used as a skeletal muscle relaxant during surgery to treat spasms -contributed to research of anesthesia MOA -Tubocurarine paralyzes the motor nerves - used as muscle relaxant by blocking transmission of acetylcholine* signal to muscles *Acetylcholine - neurotransmitter - chemical that neurons of the nervous system release in order to activate muscles • Muscle relaxants are medicines that block the nerve impulses to the muscles (neuromuscular blocking agents). These medicines are often used during anesthesia, but they do not usually affect whether you are awake. They also don't relieve pain. • Cannot be used as an anesthetic - can't cross BBB (blood brain barrier) Side effects -low BP -allergic reaction and skin rash -slow heartbeat -water retention, respiratory paralysis

Commiphora myrrha- (Myrrh)

- source of volatile oils (e.g limonene-. eugenol and pinene)-terpenoids, mucilages(polysaccharides), triterpenes - British Myrrh family (Myrrhis odorata) is Apiaceae -Native to Mediterranean countries, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Yemen, S.Arabia -Parts used: resin, essential oil, tasts bitter -Plant preparations: tincture, powder, incense, perfumes, oils TM -embalming and incense (India) TCM -stimulate the stomach and promote digestion (toxic in large amounts) -heal wounds Key Actions -astringent -antiseptic -antimicrobial actions -anti fungal properties (toothpastes and gargles), antispasmodic, immune system and circulatory stimulant, reduces phlegm Purported Uses -asthma, GI disorders and indigestion, anti-inflammatory MOA - Analgesic: Myrrh appears to produce an analgesic effect associated with its suppression of prostaglandin production - Anti-inflammatory Myrrh reduces the production of cytokines and reduces the effects of inflammation - Antibacterial/Anti-parasitic/Anti-fungal: The precise antibacterial, anti-parasitic, and anti-fungal mechanisms of myrrh are unknown - Anti-ulcer (GI): The anti-ulcer activity of myrrh is suggested to be due to inhibition of gastric acid secretion, increasing gastric mucus secretion, and myrrh's antioxidant properties - Cancer?: Myrrh produces cell damage and death in various cancer cell types Side Affects -high doses can affect heart rate -topical use can cause skin redness, swelling and itching

Achillea millefolium - (Yarrow)

- terpenoids with anti microbial properties (may be rich in polyphenolics) TM -anti-microbial properties to stop bleeding (anticoagulant) -cold and flu, induce sweating and diuretic (eliminate toxins), eyewash

Curcuma longa - (Turmeric)

- zingiberaceae -source of curcumin (polyphenolic) - phenolic - (anti-inflammatory, antioxidant) -Native of Southern Asia -Medicinal part: roots/rhuzome TM -anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant, breathing problems, rheumatism, serious pain, fatigue research -may not reduce inflammation -may reduce the number of heart attacks -control knee pain from osteoarthritis -reduce skin irritation -curcumin is being studied for Alzheimer's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, prostate and colon cancer MOA -various polyphenolics in turmeric (curcuminoids) may protect the body by enhancing the activity of an important detoxifying enzyme, and by neutralizing molecules that cause DNA damage, such as free radicals Side effects -allergic skin inflammation, hives

Cassia senna - (Senna)

- • Fabaceae family -source of senna glycosides (sennosides A-D), resins, salicylic acid, etc. -Arabic origin (Unani). Native of Africa and India -Medicinal part: senna pods (fruits), or as herbal tea from leaves TM -purgative and fungicides - MOA: like other anthraquinones containing plants, sennoside acts on the intestinal mucosa to increase peristalsis of colon & increase water excretion to increase fecal volume (laxative) - Toxicity: similar to Aloe vera -may cause dirrhea, loss of fluids, abdominal pain/cramping -long term dependence causes inflammation and cancer -diaper rash/blister -coma, neuropathy, hepatitis - Side Effects: similar to Aloe vera

Sambucus canadensis (Elderberry)

-Adoxaceae family -source of many active compounds TM -infusion/tea with peppermint for cold/flu Uses - for cold, flu and respiratory issues -tissue healer externally, eyewash -N.America Pharmacology and MOA -demulcents and emollients (relieves irritation of the mucous and softens skin) -antiviral against flu (increased inflammatory cytokine production and antiviral properties Toxicology -non toxic and no side effects reported

Matricaria recutita - (Chamomile)

-Asteraceae family - source of terpenoids, coumarins, and polyphenols flavonoids (e.g. quercetin) -medicinal parts: dried flower heads TM -calming against irritability, insomnia, indigestion, anti-inflammatory (fevers, flue, cold, teething, colic, burns, rashes, conjunctivitis) Medicinal value/Effects -stomach-aches (indigestion), anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial - mild-sedative for anxiety/insomnia, -antiseptic and anti-bacterial -digestive aid -ulcers and gastritis -possible tumor growth inhibition Used as - herbal product, such as in tea for stomach-aches - as a topical skin cream, calming effects in eye drops - flavoring agent in foods and beverages - mouthwash, soaps, or cosmetics MOA -Flavonoid compounds interacts with GABA(A)-benzodiazepine receptors in vitro - leading to sedative, anxiolytic effects -GABA is the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in the human central nervous system. Its principal role is reducing neuronal excitability thru the nervous system -DIGESTIVE RELAXANT MOA can treat GI disturbance -shorten diarrhea and colic in children, relieve pain an anxiety -anti-spasmodic, reduce cramping, constipation, gastro-protection against ethanol induced ulceration by increasing glutathione levels Side Effects -GRAS -allergic reactions (asthma, contact dematitis) -drug interaction- may increase effects of sedatives -avoid taking with blood thinners as it alread contains coumarins (anti-coagulant)

Cannabis sativa (Marijuana & Hemp)

-Cannabaceae -Native of south central asia - source of THC & CBD -THC has potent psychoactive effects -CBD is less psychoactive than THC and used more for medical relief from pain,anagesic, seizures, psychosis, anxiety, inflammation, spasms, etc. -Native of South Centra Asia Medical Marijuana use -migraine and epileptic seizures, asthma symptoms, arthritis pain, muscular stiffness -feeling of well-being -increase appetite, increase heart rate, relief of nausea - dried flowers + fruits + leaves + stems of the female Cannabis plant. -THC present in marijuana, bind to & activates cannabinoid receptors controlling memory, thought, concentration, time, depth perception, coordinated movement. - By activating the receptors, THC interferes with the normal functioning MOA -THC, CBD and other cannabinoils, exerts their most prominent effects via actions on two types of cannabinoid receptors, the CB1 receptor and the CB2 receptor. The high lipid-solubility of cannabinoids results in their persisting in the body for long periods of time Side effects -- dizziness, feeling tired, depression & hallucinations - Long-term effects of cannabis are not clear - Concerns including memory, cognition problems, addiction, schizophrenia especially in young people

Ephedra spp. - (Man Huang)

-Ephedraceae family -source of alkaloids (i.e ephedrine-nasal congestion allergic disorders, colds, pseudoephedrine, norephedrine, methylephedrine) -Native to Asia, N.America, Africa, and S. Europe Parts used: above ground and root TCM -treat asthma, nasal decongestion, bronchitis, hay fever -CNS and cardiac stimulant -"mormon tea" to promote health Use -decongestant and bronchodilator, and asthma MOA -dilates bronchial passages of lungs and relieves resp. problems -stimulates heart (stroke or heart attack by raising BP) and metabolic rates -decongestant (constrict peripheral blood vessels) -antibacterial/inflammatory -antiasthmatic (relax bronchial smooth muscle) -CNS stimulant (pseudoephedrine preferred) -psuedoephedrine used to make methamphetamines Side affects -headache, hypertension, gastric mucosal injury -heart attack, stroke, seizures, insomnia, psychosis, death Toxicology -use and abuse as a performance enhancer and weight-loss agent (causes death) -hypertension and cardiovascular events over time -sale restricted to tea/herb in U.S

Ginkgo Biloba - (Ginkgo)

-Ginkgoaceae -Native to Japan and China -source of flavonoids, anthocyanin, terpenoids, ginkgolic acid, terpenoids, mineral (calcium, zinc, selenium, phosphorous), all in the leaves, and fatty acids, minerals and flavonoids all in the seeds TCM -heart, lung dysfunction -promoter of longevity -seeds are used as aphrodisiacs Current Common uses -early-stage Alzheimer's dementia -vascular dementia, peripheral claudication, tinnitus of vascular origin -asthma, bronchitis, circulatory problems (anticoagulant), sudden hearing loss, prevent memory loss (against cognitive decline), treat sexual dysfunction -anti-bacterial/fungal -skin serum for cosmetic industry MOA -prevent decline of intellectual function via: -vaso-regulating activity of arteries, capillaries, veins (increased blood flow); - Inhibit platelet aggregation by antagonizing platelet activating factor (PAF); - homeostasis of inflammation & oxidative stress; - scavenger of free radicals & prevention of cell membrane damage caused by free radicals; - neurotransmission modulation. Toxicity - overconsumption of seeds, especially by children, can result in loss of consciousness, convulsions, even death. Due to presence of ginkotoxin, which causes an imbalance between excitation & inhibition of neurotransmitters. This results in epileptic seizures. Side affects -interferes with seizure medication -spontaneous bleeding, hematomas or hyphema

Myristica fragrans - (Nutmeg)

-Myristicaceae - source of phenolic myristicin, terpenoids -Native to Sri Lanka -Parts used: seeds, mace -plant prep: ground powder, essential oils TM -insomnia, stress, common digestive problems & diarrhea, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, mild sedative -Aboriginal used it as a relaxant, aromatic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, antimicrobial -Natural sleep aid, but too much is very toxic -psychoactive component (myisticin) Medicinal -antimicrobial activity MOA -nutmeg interacts with the endocannabinoid system via inhibition of the endocannabinoid catabolizing enzymes. -This mechanism provides insight into reported cannabis-like action & expands the potential therapeutic of nutmeg (e.g. therapeutic evaluation for the management of anxiety, anti-depressant & substance abuse disorders) Toxicity( myristicin oil). -can induce convulsions, palpitations, nausea (anticholinergic) -interact with anxiolytic drugs -produce allergic reactions & cause contact dermatitis -it contains hallucinogens that may affect the mother & fetus if consumed in large quantities (psychosis) -nutmeg is highly neurotoxic to dogs and causes seizures, tremors, nervous system disorders which can be fatal

Alkaloids-main characteristics

-Nitrogen-containing compounds -extremely diverse, may also contain sulfur •Give a bitter taste to plants •Many alkaloids arelipophilic (dissolve poorly in water but readily dissolve in organic solvents, such as chloroform). •Manyalkaloids have psychoactive properties (affecting mood & behavior) •Their bitterness & toxicity act as PROTECTIVEagents against herbivores & insects •Families rich in alkaloids: Apocynaceae, Rubiaceae, Solanaceaeand Papaveraceae •Distribution on Plants -all partsfor example :-bark (Cinchona spp. -quinine) -seeds (Nuxspp. -strychnine) -fruits (Piper spp. Black pepper -piperine) -latex (Papavers. -opiates) -leave (Nicotianat. -nicotine in tobacco)

Classroom toolbox (flashcard skeleton)

-Plant Species/Genus -Endemic or Native of -Name of active metabolite(s) -Type of metabolite (e.g. alkaloid, terpenoid, etc.) -Main uses in TM -Use in Western medicine (if any) -Chemical derivation of bioactive compound? -Side effects and toxicity (if any)...

Cinchona spp.

-Rubiaceae family -source of quinine alkaloid -Native-South America and Andean highlands from Bolivia to Colombia and Peru TM -reduce fever and muscle relaxant (tonic water using tree bark) In Medicine -purified quinine used as anti-malaria drug and associated with febrile states and leg cramps caused by vascular spasm Side Effects -fever, chills, confusion, weakness, sweating, vomiting, stomach pain, diarrhea, allergic rxn Chemical derivative -chloroquinine (synthetic version), resistant in some areas MOA -weak bases, interfering with the growth of parasites in the RBC in the human body -depress oxygen uptake of the plasmodium parasite -intercalates into DNA, disrupting the parasite's replication and transcription -Used by people of the Andes (e.g. Peru) for treatment of fevers and brought to Europe as antimalarial, quinine, became synthesis of choroquinine/mefloquiine

Atropa spp. (Belladonna and Mandragola)

-Solanaceae - source of atropine/tropane alkaloid (anticholinergic) TM -sedative for asthma and cough, cold and hay fever, motion sickness (as scopalamine), analgesic, rheumatism, psychiatric disorders, homeopathic remedy (NOT RECOMMENDED) -used for eye dilation -Recreational drug (hallucination and delirium), risk of OD -Used by Greek, Romans and through middle ages as hallucinogenic, anesthetic, surgery, rheumatic pain, against melancholy, aphrodisiac, symbol of fertility and good fortune. Legends of the Mandrake (Mandragora spp.) -root's humanlike form made into amulets believed to bring good fortune and cure sterility. Source of atropine and scopolamine, and other alkaloids -people who pulled up this root would here its screams, killing it- contained hallucinogenic and narcotic alkaloids.

Theobroma cacao - (Cocoa plant)

-Sterculiaceae, Malvaceae - "food of the gods". Native to C. and S. America and Mayas -source of flavonoids (catechin), alkaloids (theobromine, and caffeine) fatty acids, magnesium Marketed as anti-oxidant/cardio-tonic, slow signs of aging, reduce anxiety... TM -vasodilator, diuretic, heat stimulant, cardio-tonic -anti-oxidant/flammatory -treats fatigue and exhaustion -improves digestion -improve the hardness of tooth coating -weight gain Claims and validation -dark chocolate may decrease blood pressure -improved blood flow in liver -aging -anxiety MOA -similar to caffeine as a neuro stimulant in that it produces cerebral vaso-constriction by blocking NT adenosine's receptors, increasing excitability in the brain Side affects: -likely safe for most -cocoa contains caffeine and related alkaloids and phenolic catechins -large doses might cause caffeine-related side affects such as nervousness, increased urination, sleeplessness, and a fast heart beat

Justicia gendaruss - (Gandarusa) - source of flavonoids

-acanthaceae family -native of India, China Active compounds -in leaves, alkaloids, steroids, terpenoids, saponins, phenolic flavonoids, and glycosides TM -asthma, rheumatism, digestion -anti-viral/microbial -contraception Western medicine - "birth control pill for men -anti-HIV in vitro MOA -interferes with sperm proteins responsible for penetrating oocyte -polyphenolic (parentflorin A) inhibits enzyme needed for HIV to incorporate its genetic code in cell DNA Toxicity -GRAS

Lophophora williamsii - (Peyote cactus)

-source of mescaline (alkaloid)-psychoactive -Used by Native Americans, and people in S.,C. America TM -analgesic -fevers and joint pain (rheumatism), sacred ceremonies, psychoactive properties (illegal in U.S) -wounds, snakebites, fractures -topical treatment for burns, wounds, aches Mescaline MOA -• It binds to and activate specific serotonin* receptors with a high affinity (partial agonist) mostly found in brain cortex. How exactly activating the serotonin receptor leads to psychedelia in still unknown • Mescaline also activate dopamine receptors

Taxus spp. (Pacific or European Yew)

-taxaceae family - source of Paclitaxel (Taxol-drug)- terpene-alkaloid (from bark) -taxane derivatives (docetaxel, abraxane) -Pacific Yew- Taxus Brevifolia (Taxaceae) -Native to Pacific Northwest of North America and Canada TM -cold, cough, fever, pain (used in Ayurveda, Unani, N. American TM) -various illnesses (worm infection, seizures, muscle and joint pain, liver) -menstration -abortion -paclitaxel used again solid cancers (ovarian, breast, prostate, etc) but also melanoma and leukemia MOA -inhibits mitosis -Interfere with cell division of cancer cells and stop uncontrolled growth associated with malignancies- used in chemotherapy and affect division in normal cells Toxicity -unsafe -cardiotoxicity -poisoning includes nausea, dry mouth, vomiting, stomach pain, dizziness, weakness, nervousness, heart problems, death -species endangered by demand for drug (European yew needles produced semi-synthetically)

Phenolics-Main characteristics

• Aromatic phenyl-rich ring compounds with 1 or more hydroxyl groups (- OH) -playing key role as antioxidant • Many exhibit antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral activity (like terpenoids) • Produced by plants for various purposes (e.g. protection against stress) • Usually limited solubility in water (because of presence of both polar - OH groups and the aromatic apolar phenyl group) Subgroups: - Flavones, flavonoids & isoflavones (show activity against bacteria and viruses like HIV and respiratory virus)(help prevent infection and help with heart diseases, cancer, and anti-oxidant properties) - Anthocyanins (superoxide radicals scavenging effects in vitro and in vivo) - Tannins (bind and precipitate proteins, reduce nutrient absorption in predators) In TM tannins used for astringent propertis, anti-diarrheic, antidote, antimicrobial, algicidal) - Coumarins (e.g. fragrant organic chemical compound often used in perfumes - Quinone & anthraquinones (purgative, anti-microbial and anti-parasitic, anti-cardiovascular disease, antibacterial) - Lignans (building blocks of plant cell wall)

Echinacea angustifolia - (Coneflower)

• Family Asteraceae [formerly Compositae] -Many echinacea species (e.g. E. angustifolia, E. pallida, E. purpurea) -source of caffeic acids (polyphenolics and polysacharides) -Bioactive parts: roots and above ground parts TM -colds and influenza, headaches, pain medication, snakebites, wounds, burns, swollen lymph nodes and insect bite Uses/Benefits -Thought to fortify the immune system and deter respiratory infections (not enough research available) -natural antibiotic -antiseptic, treats viral infections, and faster wound healing MOA -immuno-stimulant -Used for urinary and upper respiratory tract infections (e.g. common cold, influenza) because it is reported to have antiviral & immune stimulant properties -Several compounds including phenolics polysaccharides & alkaloids seem to be involved in stimulating immune response and might activate phagocytosis, induce macrophages production, activate various anti inflammatory cell signaling proteins (cytokines) -might inhibit various viruses Side affects -overuse will weaken immune system -headache, dizziness, nausea, constipation, GI upset, rash, anaphylaxis Toxicology -appear safe, but some allergic reactions reported

Ayahuasca- Banisteriopsis spp. (liana) bark + Psychotria spp. Shrub (with variations/various species)

• Hallucinogenic bark • Used ritually by shamans in S. America for centuries (myth of creation) • Patent Granted 1986, rejected 1999, reinstated 2001, expired 2003 -DMT is an alkaloid from shrub -TM:used as antidepressant • The liana contains several alkaloids that act as monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) • MOAIs allow DMT (primary psychoactive compound from the shrub) to travel to neurons • Without MAOIs found in the vine, DMT would be oxidized (become biologically inactive) by MAO enzymes in the GI tract.

Glycosides-Main characteritics

• Heterogeneous group - always contain a sugar molecule • Molecule consist of : 1. sugar - glycone (if sugar is glucose = glucoside) bonded to a 2. non-sugar compound - aglycone (i.e. terpene, flavonoid, phenolic etc.) - often responsible for the toxic or medicinal potential (bioactive) - Can contain nitrogen (i.e. cyanoglicosydes) - Many glycosides remain bio-inactive (pro drug) until they are hydrolized and the aglycone released Cyanogenic Glycosides contain Nitrogen (can break down into toxic substances) Cardiac Glycosides • E.g. Digitalis Purpurea - Purple Foxglove (Family Plantaginaceae) • The entire plant is toxic (including the roots and seeds) • Remedy against congestive heart failure • Other uses of the plant (and glycoside) include being used as arrow poisonings • Cardio tonics • Congestive heart failure • Rheumatic heart disease • Atherosclerosis • Diuretics -Saponins ( used in birth control, steroid) -Alcoholic Glycosides (ex: salicin- analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory effects) Coumarin Glycosides • Best known for their antithrombotic, anti-inflammatory & vasodilator activity. • Coumarins also used in treatment of eczema & psoriasis

Terpenes and Terpenoids-main characteristics

• Terpenes are unsaturated compounds (secondary metabolites) formed by joining together isoprene units. • Terpenes are components of a wide variety of fruit and floral flavors & aromas. Terpene derivatives are responsible for the distinctive aroma of spices. • Often have anti-microbial, anti-viral, anthelmintic, anti-parassites properties. • Used in perfumes, essential oils and medicines. • Terpenoids - oxygen-containing terpenes (alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, etc) -denatured by oxidation -chemically modified by addition of functional groups - Limonene - in essential oils - main odor constituent of citrus - Farnesol - in many essential oils such as citronella, lemon grass, rose - Pinene - in many essential oils of conifers - Eucalyptol - in Eucalyptus spp. & many species such as camphor laurel, lavender, tea tree, sweet basil, rosemary, sage, oleander, Cannabis spp. • Common spices containing terpenes include cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger. • Essential oils often contain a mixture of terpenes used in TM (anecdotal claims) not always validated, such as: • Lavender oil - used to relieve tension • Lemon oil - aids good circulation • Eucalyptol oil - respiratory conditions • Linalool & - used to treat anxiety