Praxis 5623 (PLT 5-9)

Interpreting research

- Is the intended purpose of the research aligned with the intended use? - Do I understand statistical terminology, such as measures of central tendency (mean, mode, median), range, variance, and distribution? - To what degree is inferencing used by the researcher to draw conclusions? - Was inductive or deductive reasoning used to connect data to the conclusion? - Is this usable?

Developmental milestone #3

4-7 years: - able to communicate using language - begins to understand other perspectives, but unable to be empathetic - beginning to think rationally/remember past events - continues to think through mental pictures - want to make more of their own decisions - typical attention span: 4-15 minutes - motor skills improving - more controlled movements/demonstrate better coordination and balance - changes friends frequently - structured play/rules provide sense of security, although rules sometimes change - still need structured routine but are better able than toddlers to be flexible if changes occur - strong sense of justice, begins to understand consequences/expectations

Cognitive dissonance theory

A student feels uneasy when the student has conflicting thoughts about a given topic.

Vocal tone

A way of sounding that expresses meaning. Can convey feeling, but can also be misinterpreted.

Independent instruction strategies

- Learning contract: Defines expectations when working independently, provide some degree of creativity on part of student but also keep focus on mastery of learning objectives - Research projects: Give students opportunity to study specific concepts in depth using scientific principles for gathering information - Learning centers: Segments of classroom are set aside for independent learning activities

Indirect instruction strategies

- Problem-solving - Inquiry - Case studies - Concept mapping (graphic organizers to present thoughts on subject) - Reading for meaning - Cloze procedures (omitting words for reading comprehension)

Higher Levels of Thinking

- Provide students with opportunities to reflect, including developing metacognitive skills as well as providing wait time for students to absorb information and integrate it with prior knowledge. - Help students develop schema as they compare, contrast, and search for connections between different pieces of information. - Needs to begin with looking at validity and relevance of the information they have been provided. - Need to challenge their beliefs with evidence that supports/changes the way they think. - Need to be able to think creatively to find more than one solution to a problem.

Fair use

May copy excerpts from a book, article, short story, or essay that compromise: - less than 10 percent of the work; - copy up to 250 words of a poem; copy a graphic from a book, magazine, or newspaper. May not: - duplicate a work in lieu of purchasing a class set - copy the same work for more than one class - use the same work more than nine times in a semester - use the work for commercial purposes - fail to attribute the author - use movies for student entertainment

Lev Vygotsky

Russian psychologist who researched what has become the social development theory; more knowledgeable other (MKO) and zone of proximal development (ZPD) are the two main tenets

Qualitative research

Tends to be more subjective since it uses observations, interviews, and case studies

social domain

The affective or social-emotional domain and includes emotions, motivation, and attitudes

Reliability

The consistency of similar results if the test were repeated. A test can be reliable even if it is not valid--for example, a test can produce multiple bad scores, but the validity might be off because it is not measuring what students have learned.

self-motivation

The drive from within that inspires a person to work toward something

Copyright

The exclusive right to intellectual or creative works, such as literary or musical pieces.

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development - stage 1

Trust vs. Mistrust (birth-18 months): If primary caregivers and nurturing, children will be hopeful. If they are unpredictable, children will become anxious. Children need caregivers to answer their cries, or they will not feel safe of trust other people.

Interdisciplinary units

Units of study in which content from all subject areas is integrated. Helps students combine information from multiple different classes. Teachers from multiple disciplines can collaborate to teach learning standards from each content area using similar language

self-efficacy

When a person believes that he/she is capable of achieving a learning goal

Quantitative research

Attempts to analyze findings through statistics

Concept learning

Classifying information by topic, such as classifying geography of Europe based on cities, countries, and continents and sorting from countries in other continents

Code-switching

Code-switching happens when students slip into their native language while speaking their second language, and vice versa.

Cognitive disabilities

Cognitive disabilities are impairments in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior.

Creative thinking

Cognitive process, such as brainstorming, that is designed to generate NEW thoughts, ideas, and solutions to existing problems.

Due process

Everyone must be treated fairly and the rights of all must be respected. Laws are in place to ensure that each person's rights to life, liberty, and property are not violated without providing that person the opportunity to have his or her side of the story heard. Also protected under IDEA as a means of resolving conflicts between parents and the school district.

Bloom's taxonomy - affective

Five levels: - Level 1: Awareness (learning about something) - Level 2: Responding (sharing information/identify behaviors) - Level 3: Valuing (integrated beliefs within his/her character) - Level 4: Organization (prioritized a new belief system/begin leading others in the same direction) - Level 5: Characterization (belief has become defining part of the person)

Reflective listening

Hearing a speaker and then repeating back the meaning behind their words to clarify understanding

Behavior scale

Helps teacher gather information about challenging behaviors. Teacher should clearly identify behavior to be observed (one-three behaviors). Then, a method for measuring the behavior is developed (frequency? Duration? Intensity?) Next, a baseline is established by measuring the behavior before intervention. From there, goals are set and then measured.

High context cultures vs. low context cultures

High context (Middle East, Asia, Africa, and South America) communicate through relationships, context, and nonverbal cues. Low context (English- and German- speaking countries) rely more on direct messages

Physical disabilities

Impairments that require assistance during the school day

Abraham Maslow

Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs, which are the unconscious desires that motivate people.

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

verbal-linguistic (language) logical-mathematical (abstractions/patterns) spatial-visual (thinks in pictures) bodily-kinesthetic (movement) musical (rhythm, pitch, and timber) interpersonal (empathy) intrapersonal (self-aware) naturalist (plants/animals) existential (deep thinker)

John Watson

Created the term behaviorism, which objectively measures behavior in response to stimuli

Erik Erikson

Created theory of psychosocial development focusing on reconciling individual needs with the needs of society through stages.

Jerome Bruner

Bruner was a constructive theorist who contributes the three modes of representation to the field of cognitive development

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS)

Conversational English

Modeling

Teachers show students how to solve problems. Instruction can be scaffolded to meet student needs as they enter guided practice.

Steps to action research

#1: Develop a guiding question that is clear and will likely yield results that can be used to develop a solution #2: Decide how to gather evidence to answer the guiding question (anecdotal records, observations, work samples, interviews, conferences, surveys, and journals) #3: Organize data and display graphically using a chart, table, or graph to demonstrate patterns #4: Analyze the data to draw a conclusion.

Incident analysis steps

#1: Write a detailed description #2: Write down reactions, emotions, and thoughts about the event #3: Apply critical thinking skills to evaluate/assess the situation. Be prepared to challenge thinking patterns and widely held beliefs about how things are traditionally done

Examples of formative assessments

- Anecdotal records - Observation - Pop quizzes - Ticket out the door (exit tickets) - Think-pair-share - Learning logs - Discussion - Questioning - Signaled responses - Choral responses

Stages of SLA

- Beginning: Learn through pictures, diagrams, and body language; students listen more than they speak and will become fatigued from being immersed in a new language. Choral reading, peer tutoring, and total physical response (TPR). Should use authentic language - Emerging: Approximately six months after students begin to learn receptive language. Begin using short phrases. Use of graphic organizers, charts, graphs, and labeling. - Developing: May initiate conversations with peers and can understand modified curriculum. Has developed BICS (conversational English). May be confused for being more ready for academic independence than reality. Flashcards/choral reading - Expanding: Becoming fluent speakers but struggle with writing/sentence structure. Learning activities should focus on writing/comprehension - Bridging: Exited from ELL program, but continue to need teacher support for several years. Takes 5-7 years to develop CALPS (cognitive academic language proficiency)

Interactive instruction strategies

- Brainstorming - Cooperative learning groups - Interviews - Discussions - Peer practice: Uses social interaction among students to promote learning goals - Debates

Considerations for Instructional Models

- Depth of standard - Background knowledge/experiences of students - Time/materials available

Activities to help students develop cognitive skills

- Differentiate between fact/opinion - Decision making - Consider appropriate sources of information - Consider precision by which processes are implemented

Productive work environment

- Each student should feel included and safe both physically and emotionally - Routines, schedules, and behavioral expectations contribute to making the classroom feel safe for all students - Explicit instruction that fosters mutual respect among students, staff, and guests is appropriate at all grade levels - Fostering responsibility in students. Must learn to be responsible for themselves, their learning, and the classroom. Materials should be cared for and space kept tidy. Classroom should contribute to student wanting to come to school and learn.

Experiential/virtual instruction strategies

- Field trips - Experiments - Games - Observations - Simulations: model real-world process - Role-playing: playacting to demonstrate concepts in ways that make learning more memorable

Ways to indirectly support learners

- Helping students develop self-regulation skills to monitor their progress - Helping students take an active role in developing and assessing their learning goals - Differentiating instruction to provide learning experiences that meet the learning needs of each student/address different learning styles, achievement levels, and/or student preferences. Also promotes student engagement - Coaching

Steps to selecting an instructional strategy

- Identify the objective and how that objective will be assessed to determine mastery - Determine which strategies will net the desired results. If the result is... - Transmit facts/clear up misunderstandings: direct teaching strategies (lectures, demonstrations, explicit instruction) are effective; - Support students in becoming independent and give opportunity for in-depth studying: independent study (research projects) - Help students benefit from each other's background knowledge: interactive strategies (group discussions, cooperative learning groups, pair-share) - Help students think critically and respond to the learning environment in a real-world setting: experiential learning (field trips, labs, learning centers)

Necessary steps in problem-solving

- Infer - Synthesize - Predict - Evaluate - Analyze - Detect bias - Generalize

Monitoring student learning

- Questioning techniques - Monitoring seatwork/homework while providing extra help to those who need it - Informal assessments, like checklists, pop quizzes, periodic learning probes, and exit tickets - Summative assessments, like weekly tests, end-of-unit tests, benchmarks, and standardized tests, provide information for remediation after learning, but limited ability to guide instruction - 75-80% understand: interventions for others using small group, individual, or computer-based instruction; if more than 75% are struggling, indication that concepts need to be retaught.

Effective questioning techniques

- Questions should develop critical thinking skills, assess understanding, increase engagement, and activate prior knowledge. - Questions in higher levels of Bloom's are more thought-provoking and interesting and should make up more than half of the questions asked. - Questions that stimulate prior learning experiences and useful when working with older kids because they prepare students for connecting to learning. - Need both think time and wait time for a question before responding. Think time: processing time that learner takes to reflect on new information before responding to it; wait time: processing time that is intentionally provided by the teacher after asking a question. Quality improves when students are given think & wait time. - Response to student answers are successful when they a). validate correct answers by repeating them, b). build on student responses by asking additional questions, and c). redirect, rather than admonish, incorrect responses. - Feedback: constructive, specific, and positively phrased - Increase student engagement by randomly selecting students to answer questions through pair-share, whiteboards, and signaled responses - Teach students to use active listening, which helps them gain more background knowledge

Steps in self-regulation

- Teacher/student work together to set learning goals. - Student sets subgoals that may be celebrated along the way. As students reach subgoals, they begin to feel accomplished/capable - During goal setting, students should also be coached on how to manage their time efficiently and stay organized - Opportunities should be set aside at regular intervals to reflect on outcomes/determine whether or not learning is moving in the right direction

Evaluating instructional effectiveness

- Video recording instruction to critique - Peer observation to provide feedback - Focus on only a few elements of instruction they want to improve - Survey data from students, parents, and colleagues - Student achievement data focused on growth - Putting instructional strategies into practice: watching other teachers

Student grouping

- Whole class instruction: All students, at same time, in same way - Small-group instruction: Group composed of learners with similar instructional needs - Independent-learning experiences: Completed autonomously by the student. Will need significant monitoring/coaching to stay on target - One-on-one instruction: Teacher works with one individual student on a concept. Used as additional intervention when small group is not successful or when a student's abilities stand apart from those of other students

Developmental milestone #1

0-2 years: - beginning to understand object permanence - learn through imitation and through action - end: use two-word phrases and identify some pictures - know a few people by name and be able to follow simple directions - typical attention span: three minutes or less - learn to walk by end of first year; may be able to climb stairs by end of second - build simple towers/identify some body parts - throw/kick a ball and run by age two - draw lines and circles - attached to parent, may suffer from separation anxiety - engages in parallel play/imitation - become willful/throw tantrums - judges right/wrong based on feeling

Effective listening steps

1. Pay attention without forming a response or wandering off topic. 2. Check for understanding by restating the speaker's key points in the listener's own words to clarify any misinterpretations. Can further clarify by asking questions. 3. Interpret information within listener's context to form a response that is both supportive and respectful.

Developmental milestone #5

12-18 years: - able to think logically and draw conclusions - abstract thinking/metacognition begins - understands/considers perspectives of others - emotions influence cognition - attention span: 20 minutes - marked by hormonal changes - begin to distance from parents/conform to peers - choose friends and adults based on loyalty, respect, and honesty - adolescents tend to be self-conscious about their appearance enjoy dramatic, intense experiences - overreact to questions/criticism from parents - being to form a positive self-image - place more importance on peer over adult opinions/develop own value system - may experiment in an effort to find best fit - younger (12-15) may be mood/argumentative with adults - older (15-18) are more concerned about future, more independent, and have fewer conflicts with their parents

Developmental milestone #2

2-3 years: - egocentric/illogical - difficult time differentiating reality/fantasy - vocabulary improves, but receptive vocab is better than expressive language - unaware of other's perspectives - learn through mental pictures - follow two- to three- step instructions - know own name/age, can communicate using 2-3 sentences; - attention span: 2-8 minutes - hard time sitting still - hop, jump, climb, and ride tricycles - cut with scissors/draw basic shapes - toilet trained by 3.5 years - do simple puzzles/turn book pages - alternate feet when walking up and down stairs - begins to have empathy for others/independently show affection - may have security object, but by end, should be able to separate from parents - begins to cooperate, share, take turns with peers; understand + use possessive pronouns - feels badly if disappoint his/her parents - begin to control own emotions, but prefer routine and may act out if changed - right/wrong based on what other people tell him/her

Bloom's learning domains

3: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor

Developmental milestone #4

8-11 years: - beginning to understand other perspectives and understands difference between "on purpose" and "by accident" - able to learn through abstractions, such as language and similarities - reciprocal relationships make sense - writing: several paragraphs/may be edited by child for grammatical/spelling errors - typical attention span: 15-20 minutes - children begin to enter puberty - depth perception/ability to predict movement improve - child strictly follows rules but begins to see them as negotiable toward the end - takes on more responsibility at home - structured activity preferred to fantasy play - question authority/strong sense of justice - identifying with social groups becomes important for the first time - begin to be able to delay gratification - may have questions about pregnancy/sex

Albert Bandura

A Canadian psychologist who developed the social learning theory (SLT)

Reciprocal determinism

A combination of cognitive factors, the environment, and stimuli determines behavior

Liability

A legal responsibility

Standard deviation

A mathematical calculation that indicates the variability of scores in comparison with the average. A large degree of variability in scores is in an indicator that the test measures a wide range of performance levels. Scores with a low standard deviation may indicate that the test is either too difficult or too simple, but it could also mean that all students mastered the content knowledge.

Tenure

A person has been given a permanent position, but have really only earned the right to due process.

skills

Abilities to apply what has been learned

Accommodations

Accommodations provide students access to the same curriculum as their grade-level peers, but information is presented in a different way. (Think graphic organizers/vocabulary words prior to a reading exercise)

Knowledge

Acquired intellectual information

Experiential learning

Acquiring knowledge through experiences, including hands-on learning. Highly engaging and gives students opportunities to categorize their learning according to their schema. Tend to remember experiences and be able to apply them better than with other types of instruction.

Remediation

Additional support provided to regular education students to bridge gaps in learning specific objectives. Targeted instruction based on the needs of the individual student. May involve small-group instruction, one-on-one instruction, peer tutoring, computer-based intervention, or a combination of settings. Teacher may use error analysis or formal or informal assessments to determine areas for remediation. Grouping should be flexible and based on student learning needs.

Standardized tests

Administered to all students in a consistent way and then graded in the same way so that score comparisons may be made. District benchmark assessments can be considered standardized if testing measures are consistent. Standardized tests may be used to measure achievement, aptitude, or ability.

Affective vs emotionally neutral

Affective (Italy, France, the US, and Singapore): Typically condone some expression of emotion Neutral (Japan, Indonesia, the United Kingdom, Norway, and Netherlands): Expression of emotion is irrational and unacceptable in most situations

Physical domain

Also called the psychomotor domain; deals with all aspects of motor skill development

Individualized Education Plan (IEP)

An annual meeting for each special education student that outlines the student's learning goals and identifies the accommodations and modifications that will be offered to the student

remediation

Assess the learning needs of each student and provide targeted instruction for gaps in a student's background that prohibits him/her from moving forward at the expected rate.

Self-assessment (teacher)

Assessment teacher uses alone to address goals regarding classroom environment, classroom management, parental involvement, collaboration, lesson plans, student engagement, grading practices, or any other area that the teacher may want to reflect upon. Like student versions, teachers need to be careful about being subjective and missing their own blind spots.

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development - stage 2

Autonomy vs. Shame (18-36 months): If caregivers are supportive and patient: independent, but if critical: overly dependent. Toilet training = more control over lives and bodies. Children want to do things for themselves, like making choices and dressing themselves.

Single-point rubric

Break down categories similarly to an analytic rubric. Outline only necessary criteria for meeting proficiency. If a student exceeds or do not meet proficiency, anecdotal notes are included that describe the reason for the score. Grading can be time-consuming because it requires a lot of writing, but the open-ended opportunities for feedback have been shown to improve student work over time.

Analytical scoring

Breaks down the general scoring categories into more specific parts. Allows students and teachers to review strengths and weaknesses with more precision so that feedback is targeted. It is challenging because the creator must anticipate all possible errors as well as all ways that students could exceed expectations. Can also become lengthy, which may limit their usability, but provide detailed feedback that can be used to justify a score and as a tool for guiding students toward making improvements. Can easily be converted into a scoring guide by adding multipliers to the criteria.

Synthesize

Bring together knowledge from various learning experiences to apply to a new challenge

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)

CALP is a student's ability to comprehend academic vocabulary in English. Typically takes 5-7 years for students to reach this level.

Grade-equivalent scores

Calculated using the average score of students who fall into that grade level.

Digital resources

Cameras, software, and Internet sites that contains electronic materials. Can be used to enhance learning experience. Technology can help monitor student progress and adjust to the level of each student.

Professional portfolio

Can help assess professional growth and performance. Provides a more comprehensive view of professional practice than other forms of evaluation. Creates unique opportunity for teachers to document, reflect, and share professional experiences. Can include lesson plans, student work, formal evaluations, anecdotal records, and clips of teaching. Intended to reflect professional practice, not a storage for keepsakes. Should document accomplishments and growth opportunities. Also generally contain a combination of artifacts and reflections of teacher's belief about education and his/her goals for growth

Occupational therapist

Certified professional who assesses and provides treatment for the development of life skills among disabled individuals

Speech therapist

Certified professional who diagnoses and treats communication disorders

Physical therapist

Certified professional who evaluates and treats mobility issues

Vocal inflection

Change of pitch/tone to express meaning (statement vs. question inflection)

Modifications

Changes made to the curriculum because students are so far behind that they are unable to use the same curriculum as their peers

Motor disabilities

Characterized by loss of movement, may be caused by injury/disease

Peer observation

Collaborative approach to professional development in which teachers improve their practice by watching each other and offering feedback. Beneficial for the person who is observing, who will inevitably pick up on new techniques, and also benefit the one who is being observed if followed by a meaningful, professional conversation. Requires a degree of mutual trust/respect. Practical rather than philosophical, but if not immediately followed by a discussion and a plan to apply what has been learned, then not helpful

Portfolio assessments

Collect a variety of artifacts as evidence of learning to be evaluated. Written work, photographs of projects, and video evidence may be used as artifacts. Have the advantage of providing a holistic view of student learning but are time-consuming and difficult to grade. Portfolio assessment might be used in technology class in which students are asked to submit their best work from each application

Two-way communication

Communication in which both parties are given the opportunity to speak and listen to one another. Phone calls, home visits, conferences, emails, interactive journals, planners, and take-home folders provide two-way communication.

Deductive reasoning

Conclusions are drawn by using known information and narrowing it to a specific circumstance. More absolute. Ex: Rational numbers are numbers that can be written as a ratio (general concept) --> The number one can be written as a ratio (1:1) (specific concept) --> Therefore, one is a rational number (specific, absolute.)

Reading, listening, and viewing guides

Contain statements or questions that provide instructional focus while reading text, listening to a lecture, or viewing media

Benjamin Bloom

Contributed to the taxonomy of educational objectives and the theory of mastery learning.

Affective domain

Controls development of emotions, values, and attitudes. May have strong feelings about work ethic, human rights advocacy, or environmental protection. How students align their priorities and form opinions about things that matter most are included in affective domain. Also includes student motivation and engagement.

Psychomotor domain

Controls motor skill development (kinesthetic). Designed to specifically improve motor or perceptual skills. Examples: playing soccer, writing letters of the alphabet, creating art take place within this domain.

Cognitive domain

Controls the development of intellect; includes ways students process new information, store knowledge, and retrieve it to apply to new circumstances. Most academic knowledge learn in school takes place within this domain.

Visual aids

Devices that can be shown to students to accompany text or speech to clarify meaning. Visual learners and ELLs find visual aids particularly beneficial. PowerPoint clips, videos, and props are all examples of visual aids.

Improving student achievement

Developing strong assessments is integral, however, frequent monitoring and quality feedback are some of the most effective ways to improve student achievement. An assessment will only be an accurate measure if it is aligned with the instructional objectives and learning activities.

Audio aids

Devices that amplify the teacher's speech so that it can be heard clearly by students regardless of student's position in classroom. Helps students with hearing deficits and also helps all students stay attentive

Artifacts

Created by a person and tell the story of a past event. Might be objects from history, but can also be created by students to document a learning experience

Moral domain

Deals with the acquisition of morals/values

Learning theories

Describe how genetics, development, environment, motivation, and emotions affect a student's ability to acquire/apply knowledge

Bloom's taxonomy - cognitive

Designed to move students to more rigorous thoughts processes. Classifies cognitive processes from simple to abstract. Levels: - Level 1: Remembering; - Level 2: Applying; - Level 3: Making inferences/drawing conclusions; - Level 4: Evaluating/defending opinions; - Level 5: Creating unique solutions

speech disorders

Difficulty forming words, such as apraxia, stuttering, vocal disorders, dysprosody, dysarthria

Workshops

Discussions or meetings in which a small number of participants exchange information about best practices.

Redirect

Distract students from negative behavior by channeling their attention into something positive

Divergent thinkers

Divergent thinkers are people who think more deeply and differently from other people. Things that seem like common sense may not make sense to a divergent thinker, and there may be differences in thought processes. Finds it difficult to multitask. Hard to understand what teacher expects. Need support building relationships and understanding formatted vs flexible forms of assignments

standards-based education

Effort taken since the early 1990s to improve learned outcomes. Involves clearly set goals that all students are expected to achieve. US DOE encourages high standards and accountability; however, it is the responsibility of the state to adopt curriculum standards and develop a system of accountability. Will usually contract with a standardized testing company to develop/score testing materials based on state's curriculum standards.

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development - stage 8

Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65+): Reflecting on life: If proud, feel wise/face death without fear. If dissatisfied: will become depressed

Vocal stress

Emphasizing a word or words in a sentence to express meaning. (I NEVER accused Rebecca of lying... vs I never accused REBECCA of lying...)

self-determination theory

Everyone has a perceived locus of causality

Exceptionality

Exceptionality is strength/weakness in academic functioning that requires extra attention to meet the needs of the student

B.F. Skinner

Expanded on operant conditioning but focused on responding to environment in lieu of responding to stimuli.

Summarize

Explain the process and the outcome of their experience in a condensed form. Good strategy for metacognition

Motivation theory

Explains the driving forces behind conduct

Extrinsic motivation

External rewards (treats, teacher, etc.)

Extrinsic rewards

External rewards such as trinkets, praise, or recognition bestowed upon someone for doing a good job and can be used to motivate students

Rubric

Fixed scale that measures performance with detailed descriptions of criteria that define each level of performance. Define the expectations of an assignment, and clarifies expectations of quality work. Improves consistency and reliability compared with more subjective evaluation. Measures not only student progress but also can be used as a learning tool to outline what it takes for students to see exemplars that demonstrate the work at each level. Work best with writing, projects, and performance-based learning activities.

Explicit teaching

Focused and unambiguous teaching of a specific skill or standard

Applied research

For the purpose of proving a point, usually to sell a product.

Direct teaching

Form of teacher-centered instruction in which the teacher focuses on disseminating facts to students. Lecture-style; less effective because students are passive receivers to information rather than constructing knowledge

Teacher conferences

Formal meetings in which large number of members of a particular profession learn from one another and discuss important topics within the field.

Summative assessments

Formal or informal and evaluate student achievement after learning takes place. Formal summative examples include standardized state tests. Informal summative assessments include end-of-unit tests and benchmark tests. These assessments may be used for accountability and grades because they are a measure of student performance in relation to the objectives.

Incident analysis

Formally reviews a situation to determine why it happened and how to reduce the likelihood of another similar event.

Schema

Frameworks for understanding

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development - stage 7

Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65): Successful careers, families, and community involvement = care; failure = stagnation.

Diagnostic assessments

Given before a learning experience to provide teachers with a baseline of students' skills. Can be formal or informal. Examples of formal diagnostics include the Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA), Dynamic Indicator of Basic Early Learning Skills (DIBELS), and the Comprehension Attitude Strategies Interests (CASI). Informal diagnostic assessments can include student self-assessments, anticipation guides (ask students questions about the content they are going to learn to spark student interest/activate prior knowledge), KWL charts, and pretests.

Norm-referenced tests

Gives information on how schools or students are performing against a national average. These tests measure each student's performance in comparison with other students of the same age or grade. The data helps schools distinguish between high and low students for program placement. They also indicate which students are working at grade level and which need remediation or enrichment. Test items typically range in difficulty and may be pulled from outside of the adopted state curriculum. Scores are either assigned as a percentile or a grade equivalent based on the student's performance in comparison to the norm. They are used to determine academic readiness, academic progress, eligibility for special-education services, or college admission. Norms are determined by calculating the mean, median, or the mode.

Performances

Gives students the opportunity to present their learning while teachers assess mastery of learning goals. Provides students the opportunity to present skills in ways that cannot be assessed in another manner. Performances do not work for all subject areas but are a great way to demonstrate abilities in athletics, history, and the arts. Can be time-consuming and difficult to grade, but they provide opportunities for students to tap into an area of intelligence that may be neglected using other assessment formats.

First Amendment

Guarantees freedom of religion, freedom of expression, freedom of the press, and freedom to peaceably assemble. Limited if it interferes with the educational mission of the school.

Validity

How well an assessment measures its intended purpose. Test items must be aligned to the test goals. The weighting of the questions should also be aligned to the depth and significance of each standard. Theoretically, students should have the same test grade as their class grade if the grade is not based on participation. Additionally, an aspect of validity includes the social consequences of the test, i.e. the implications of passing/failing the test. The goal of testing is to make inferences, not ruin a life.

Lawrence Kohlberg

Identified the stages of moral development

steps to backward design

Identify lesson object > determine the assessment > determine the learning experiences that will provide students with the skills they need to move toward mastery. Materials selected on alignment

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development - stage 5

Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years): Adolescents are trying to find their sexual/occupational identity. Success: acceptance of others; no identity/forced identity: rebellion or identity crisis. Make frequent identity changes as they attempt to "find themselves." Some rebellion is normal, but will end at the end of this stage.

Short-term memory

Includes information that enters the conscious memory but is not stored for recall at a later time. Lasts less than a minute unless a learner consciously attempts to store the information into long-term.

Learning styles

Indicates that children learn in different ways

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development - stage 4

Industry vs. Inferiority (5-12 years): Peer groups/teachers playing role in social development; initiative reinforced, children can achieve goals valued by society: confidence; not reinforced/able to achieve: inferior. Performance, not participation, judged by others (school)

Formative assessments

Informal assessments used throughout the learning experience to form instruction. Helps guide instruction and provides feedback to students. Formative assessments include anecdotal records, questioning techniques, and pop quizzes. Formative assessments do not provide quantifiable data, but they are valuable for providing information necessary to help teachers target instruction based on students' needs.

Feedback

Information about performance

Long-term memory

Information incorporated into long-term memory if teacher makes conscious choice to include activities that will provide opportunities for students to assimilate new information with existing schema by activating prior knowledge. If appropriately encoded, it may be stored in long-term memory and retrieved for use at another time. Long-term is stored for a long period and may be recalled. Appears to have infinite capacity, but memories may become distorted over time. Repetition may also help, but only if done by teaching information using multiple modalities. Help students form connection to learning and offer multiple learning experiences that meet the learning objective

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development - stage 3

Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 years): Allowed to explore: learn to become leaders and decision makers. Overly controlling: feel like a nuisance and lack initiative.

Engage

Inspiring interest/motivation

Thematic units

Integrate curricula across content areas under a general theme that helps students connect different content areas. To create thematic unit: - Select a theme - Design assessments and integrated learning activities related to the theme/aligned to standards - Select resources

Reflective practice

Intentionally thinking about professional practices as part of one's own professional development. Enables teachers to connect the classroom to recent research. Includes a description of a classroom experience but also incorporates the emotions, reactions, and responses of the teacher that either contributed to or detracted from its effectiveness.

Attribution theory

Internal attribution is assumed when other people make mistakes or are victims, since individuals tend to see others as a predictable stereotype. When an individual makes a mistake, he or she tends to view the cause as external.

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development - stage 6

Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40): Successful completion = love; failure = can result in depression

Classical conditioning

Involves learning a response to a stimuli or the environment. (E.g.: Pavlov's dogs -- food/bell)

Manipulatives

Items students are able to move or change during hands-on instruction. Can be purchased or created by students. Especially beneficial when teaching conceptual understanding of mathematics concepts.

Internships

Positions that offer on-the-job training either in addition to or in lieu of a salary

Intrinsic rewards

Learners are internally satisfied by doing work because it is interesting, challenging, or relevant, or makes them feel successful. More beneficial than extrinsic.

Computer-mediated instruction

Learning activities facilitated through computer technology that can target student learning needs and move students forward using highly engaging instruction

Study groups

Learning communities that focus their meetings on learning more about a specific subject, like a book study or assigned research.

Distance learning

Learning from home, becoming popular options for students who are not able to attend school during the school day for various reasons

Social Learning Theory in education

Learning occurs when another more knowledgeable other (MKO) engages in modeling (demonstrations) for duplication by students. Students learn through interactions with others; from consequences and emotions of others, and replicate desirable actions.

Critical thinking

Looking at evidence with deliberate and analytical thought to make inferences or draw conclusions, like critiquing validity of online sources.

self-regulate

Maintain control of one's own emotional responses

Infer

Make conclusions about using prior knowledge and information from a source

Ability tests

Measure a person's ability to perform a particular skill. Difference between aptitude and ability: Aptitude indicates natural talent that can be developed over time, while ability measures how capable a student is to perform a skill without training. CogAT, or Cognitive Abilities Test, measures a student's ability to use reason to solve verbal, quantitative, and nonverbal problems, and is used to place students in gifted programs. IQ tests fall under cognitive abilities tests, and are used to identify and place students in need of special services. Employers use a variety to measure dexterity, speed, and general abilities. They are expensive and can be invalidated if used incorrectly, but they provide more consistent results than more subjective selections.

Formal assessments

Measure a student's progress against a statistical average of other students the same age. Achievement/aptitude tests are examples of formal assessments. May be oral, written, or computer-based. Annual state tests, ACT/SAT tests, and Wechsler Scales are commonly used formal assessments. Usually purchased from a publisher who has specified both administration and scoring procedures. Advantage: Great deal of money and effort put into measuring validity; disadvantage: costly and time-consuming, not practical for daily use. Frequently used to make educational placement decisions and measure effectiveness of educational programs

Achievement tests

Measure acquired knowledge or skills. Intended to determine what students know at the end of a learning experience (a unit, a semester, a year, or some other specified time segment). Examples of well-known achievement tests include the ACT, the Iowa Test of Basic Skills, and the STAR Early Literacy. Achievement tests are popular because they provide a fairly accurate snapshot of student learning that can be used to compare students against the norm. Many criticize emphasis placed on achievement tests, which creates undue stress on students/schools and should be considered only as one of multiple measures that indicate student learning. Cultural biases exist.

Conferences

Meetings between teacher and student in which learning is orally assessed and evaluated. Can be beneficial to students because teachers can prompt students toward the correct answer, but can also be uncomfortable for students who are not accustomed to this method. Conferences can be difficult to grade and do not provide a trail of evidence to justify a grade. Use of rubric or checklist should be used to track student's grade.

Male vs. female communication styles

Men: More direct, authoritative, and confrontational. Sit at an angle to avoid eye contact. Conversation usually for purpose of finding solutions rather than to vent. Women: More likely to be vulnerable, take turns talking, ask for help, and talk about feelings.

Mentor

More experienced professional who guides someone new to the profession. Offers support and guidance as the new teacher gradually becomes more independent.

Interpreting Assessment Results

Most important: Understanding the purpose and limits of the assessment. Big decisions should be based on multiple measures for a comprehensive view of the child's talents and challenges. Educators should know the tests that students take so that they can answer any questions that arise about validity, reliability, and variability. Teachers should be able to provide answers about content being tested and how it will be graded. In conversations with students and parents, teachers should clearly and simply explain the purpose of the test, describe the meaning of student scores, and propose next steps toward applying those scores to the educational context for which the test was intended. Next steps should focus on how the teacher and other professional staff intend to support students both collectively and individually.

Intrinsic motivation

Motivation that comes from an internal reward (self-esteem)

Gestures

Movements that are intended to nonverbally convey meaning

transfer

To apply knowledge to make inferences about new thoughts and ideas

Selected-response tests

Multiple-choice tests that allow students to choose the best answer from the available choices. Easy to grade and versatile, so they're popular; however, questions are difficult to write and leave room for students to guess. Difficult to determine who students make the errors they do, so finding a solution is challenging. Can be used in any subject to provide information about student content knowledge.

Professional associations

Nonprofit organizations that support the members of a particular profession by setting standards and advocating for associates. Memberships and participation in professional associations provide many benefits, like greater networking, chance to connect with and learn from others, providing support, providing job boards for connecting potential employers, providing advice to help job seekers build resumes and improve interviewing, and providing literature and organizing conferences and workshops that help members stay knowledgeable of recent research and best practices. Examples include Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD), the National Education Association (NEA), and the National Council for Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM).

Bloom's taxonomy - psychomotor

Not developed by Bloom, but by three other researchers. 4 levels: - Level 1: Observing (watching); - Level 2: Imitating (copying); - Level 3: Practicing (doing); - Level 4: Adapting (making movement their own)

English Language Proficiency Standards

Objectives that support ESL instruction and increase students' academic readiness in the content areas. - Able to construct meaning from literary/informational texts - Able to exchange info orally/in writing - Able to speak/write about literary/informational texts - Able to construct and defend oral/written statements - Able to solve problems using research - Able to critique the claims of others - Make appropriate word choices orally and in writing - Comprehend the meaning of words - Speak/write clearly - Accurately use English when speaking/writing

Enrichment

Opportunity to learn objectives at a deeper level than outlined in the curriculum standards and will frequently be used when a student masters the required curriculum more quickly than others in the class. Does NOT mean more work/independent study. Does mean questioning students at a higher level of Bloom's taxonomy than is required by the standards.

Analytical checklists

Outline criteria of student performance that teachers can mark as students show mastery of each required skill in standards-based education. Should be student- and parent-friendly language, but based on state standards. Answer simply the yes-or-no question regarding whether students have accomplished the learning goals. Do not provide information regarding the degree to which students have met proficiency. Teacher can date checklists to see progression over time. Work best in activities that require the incremental mastery of skills, such as athletics, instrumental music, languages, math fluency, and prereading skills.

Scope

Outlines which learning objectives will be taught to students, which supporting standards need to be mastered for students to fully understand the objective, and the level of complexity that students need to attain.

Vicarious learning

Part of the stimuli that determines behavior; when learners observe the consequences and emotions of others, they learn.

Punishment

Penalizing a student for the purpose of extinguishing behavior

Stakeholders

People invested in the success of a school, like students, teachers, parents, staff, administrators, and/or community members.

Memory

Place to store information to be retrieved at a later time

Integrative framework

Plan for achieving goals in all subjects areas by combining content across disciplines

John Dewey

Pragmatic philosopher who viewed learning as a series of scientific inquiry and experimentation; wanted real-world experiences and volunteerism

Positive reinforcement

Praise, recognition, or rewards; encourages a behavior to continue or improve by providing the student with something he/she values

Categories of moral domain (Kohlberg)

Preconventional morality: Child behaves in his or her own best interest. Conventional: Child conforms to societal expectations. Postconventional: Person is driven by his/her ethics/morals, even when not popular.

visual impairments

Problems with eyesight, such as blindness

Cognitivism in education

Process by which a learner receives new information and processes it within his/her existing schema (framework of understanding). Development of schema encouraged using mapping, which graphically organizes thoughts by starting with a main idea. Helps students connect new learning to prior knowledge.

Language acquisition

Process by which a new language is learned

Action plan

Process by which goals and the steps toward achieving these goals are determined. Includes objective and shared vision.

assessment

Process of gathering data to determine the extent to which learning goals have been met.

Continuum

Progression of learning progress. While moving on the continuum, students may reach a plateau or even regress slightly before continuing to move forward. Computer-based programs are available that adapt to student progress and regression by providing questions slightly more difficult than the question they just answered correctly or one slightly less complex than the question they missed.

Americans with Disabilities Act

Prohibits discrimination based on disabilities. Includes activities that take both on and off campus, including athletics and extracurricular activities.

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Prohibits discrimination based on race, color, or national origin in programs or activities receiving federal financial assistance. Includes racial harassment, segregation, and denial of language services to ELLs.

Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972

Prohibits gender discrimination based on disabilities for all public entities, including access to educational facilities

Action research

Researching the teachers' own instructional practices to improve student learning. Links new discoveries to existing knowledge as teachers gather evidence to support their conclusions.

Recall

Retrieve facts and information from memory

Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)

Protects confidentiality of a student's education records. According to FERPA: - Parents/students have right to review educational records - Schools may charge a fee to make copies - Parents/students have right to request inaccurate or misleading records be changed - A student/parent has right to attach a statement to the record - Must have written permission from parent/student to release records except to certain entities (school administration, other school if the student transfers, financial aid, auditors, accreditors, authorities, EMTs) - May publish directory information without consent but must notify parents of the right to have information withheld - Parents/students have reasonable right to privacy

Coaching

Provides a student training toward achieving a goal while keeping the learner as the leader in the learning process

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

Provides guidelines to schools to help address the individual needs of special education students. Part B: Serves students aged 3 to 22; helps schools address individual needs of special education students. Framework for ID, parental rights, placement decisions, modifications/accommodations, behavior supports, transitioning to adulthood, handling disputes between parents/schools. Part C: Provides state-run early intervention services for children from birth to three years of age.

enrichment

Provides more challenging experiences to broaden the learning of students who have mastered standards; not more work, but more meaningful, higher order work.

Operant conditioning

Provides rewards/punishment as a motivation for desired performance

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act

Provides services to all students in federally assisted programs who have physical/mental impairments that substantially limit one/more life activities. ID comes from combination of assessments, teacher recommendations, and doctor's statements. Classroom legally required to provide all accommodations/modifications

Differentiation

Providing curricula for students based on their individual needs, including learning styles and level.

Equal access

Providing procedural safeguards to ensure that all students receive the same benefits of public education regardless of disabilities

Essential questions

Putting learning objectives into a question to help students understand what they are supposed to learn and be able to evaluate their own level of mastery by the end of the lesson. Introduced at the beginning of a lesson and reviewed at the end of the lesson to motivate, help set learning goals, and check for understanding.

Categorizing

Putting things into groups by characteristic. Helps organize new information in his/her schema

Intellectual freedom

Right to receive information from various perspectives without censorship. Decisions are based on sound educational principles rather than on the desire to conform to popular political or religious viewpoints. Included: removing materials already available in the library based on objects to the material.

Assessment questions

Questions used at the end of a lesson to assess mastery of the learning goal, provide closure through summarization of information, and challenge students to further research a topic on their own. Questions such as "What two things have you learned?" and "How will you apply this information" can help students see value in the learning experience and move information from short-term to long-term.

Percentile scores

Rank students by indicating the percentage of students who measured higher and the percentage who measured lower.

Informal assessments

Regularly used to assess classroom performance and drive instruction. Includes teacher-made tests, anecdotal records, portfolio assessments, error analysis, interest inventories, and project-based assessments. Usually created by teachers or committees of teachers but have no endured rigorous validation process of formal assessments. Used to help districts, schools, and teachers make informed classroom decisions.

Interactive learning

Relies heavily on social interaction/cooperative grouping. Social experience/ability to formulate learning into words while working within a group are highly engaging for some students and tend to develop schema and commit information into long-term memory.

Drill and practice

Repetitive practicing of skills to promote memorization of facts

Models

Representations of something, like an exhibit in a museum where historic animals are displayed

Independent research

Researching a topic in education that one is interesting in finding out more about

Sequential vs synchronic thinking

Sequential (United States, Canada, and Northern Europe): One thing at a time and place a large amount of value in being on time and not wasting time. Synchronic (Asia, South America, and Mexico): Less value on being on time and are more likely to multitask

Scoring guides

Similar to a rubric because they outline criteria for quality work and define levels of proficiency. Differ from rubrics because each criterion is weighted with a multiplier. Rubric may measure writing scores based on mechanics, word choice, and organization.

Learning communities (PLCs)

Small groups of professionals who share common goals that meet to collaborate about instructional practices. During first meeting, teachers will identify SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, timely) goals and develop a plan that focuses on essential questions that will be reviewed at each meeting. PLC must include members who are willing to share leadership, take ownership of the collective improvement of student learning, and be vulnerable when students do not meet expectations.

Critical friend

Someone who supports growth by providing objective and honest feedback. Philosophy aligned with finding a critical friend contradicts the outdated notion that teachers work in isolation. Request and provide constructive criticism to one another to help each other learn and grow.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Space between what a child can do independently and the learning goal

Discussion promoting

Step #1: Choose a topic and some resources that inspire them to consider ideas in the text. Step #2: Provide information that will be discussed and help students prepare for the discussion by modeling how to dive into the text and note key points. Step #3: Students should formulate a few open-ended questions before the discussion. Step #4: Expectations should be set, including using evidence from the test for support, asking clarifying questions, listening without interrupting, and creating judgment-free zones for discussions. Step #5: Teachers or students can lead discussions using pre-developed open-ended questions Step #6: Reflect on learning that took place and also on the discussion process itself. Need to evaluate both the process and their own part in the discussion.

lesson objective

Student learning goals for a lesson and the timeline for achieving the goals and subgoals as identified through state standards.

Indirect teaching

Student-centered instruction in which teacher facilitates opportunities for students to construct their own learning. Can be independent, experiential, or interactive.

Independent learning

Student-centered instruction that focuses on developing autonomy with minimal teacher support. Some guided instruction precedes autonomous learning. Accessory - not replacement for other types of instruction

Inductive reasoning

Students draw likely conclusions by putting together specific circumstances and applying their conclusions to general circumstances. Does not always provide an accurate result. Important for students to realize conclusions are approximation, not absolute. Ex: Salmon are fish (specific) --> Salmon are pink (specific) --> Fish are pink (general, not absolute; not all fish are pink.)

Language impairments

Students have difficulty with comprehension

Self-assessment

Students monitor their own progress toward learning goals. Must have a clear understanding of their learning goals to determine whether they are making adequate progress. Goals should be SMART (specific, attainable, relevant, and time-bound). Learning contracts help students and teachers to work together to determine how students will monitor their own progress. Students may use checklists or rubrics as they develop a portfolio to document growth. Self-assessment is frequently used with writing assignments and projects to help students internalize the criteria for the assignment. Give students an opportunity to reflect on their work/use critical thinking skills. Drawbacks include the amount of effort by teacher to train students to be reliable evaluators.

Intellectually gifted

Students with an IQ greater than 130

Jean Piaget

Swiss psychologist who was the first to study cognition in children. He identified stages of development and contributed to schema learning.

Pair-share

Teacher pauses instruction to give students he opportunity to work with a partner to discuss learning that has just taken place

Demonstration

Teacher shows the students evidence to an observable conclusion

Lecture

Teacher talks about a subject while students listen and/or take notes

Observation

Teacher watches a student engaged in a learning activity to find evidence of learning. Does not leave a paper trail and is difficult to grade but can provide information to make instructional decisions. Anecdotal records, checklists, and rubrics should be used when using this method.

Restatement

The learner/listener repeats what has been learned using his/her own wording

Raw scores

The number of questions a student answered correctly without calculations made directly to the scores and independent of how others scored.

Sequence

The order in which learning objectives are taught to maximize student success. The sequence might include a suggested window of instruction and a pacing guide, as well as embedded opportunities to reteach related material.

Foundational theorists

The people who provided the framework by which all current knowledge of cognitive processes is based

Constructivism in education

Theory that students construct own knowledge through learning experiences. Supportive of problem-based learning (teacher facilitates activities using open-ended questions, or inquiries, for students to solve), and discover learning (students perform experiments/research information as means for comprehending new concepts). Scaffolding is used within ZPD to move students higher and higher in mastery.

Metacognition

Thinking about the learning process

Edward Thorndike

Thorndike's research initially led to operant conditioning; Thorndike's learning laws include the law of effect, the law of readiness, and the law of exercise

Paraprofessional

Trained teacher assistants. NOT responsible for developing curriculum/instruction

Teachable moment

Unplanned event occurs, triggering interest in learning something more about the event or a related topic. May sidetrack traditional lesson plan, so need to realize a teachable moment and respond to it without losing sight of learning goals. Teachable moments will enhance learning goals and keep students engaged in learning, which will expand students' knowledge base for future learning opportunities and show students that the teacher cares about them and what matters to them.

Behaviorism in education

Use of rewards and punishments conditions students to behave and learn. Can use reinforcements (rewards/punishments) to strengthen behavior. Rewards can be extrinsic or intrinsic, though intrinsic are more beneficial. Punishment also a factor, but may interfere with student motivation by diminishing student's self-efficacy. Behaviorism typically used during lesson planning as teacher considers types of instruction, like engagement, motivation, transitions, and classroom management.

Age-equivalent scores

Use the average scores of students within an age group.

Basic academic research

Used for the purpose of finding out information, which is typically the goal of university researchers and professional associations

Socratic questions

Used to generate discussions and help students think both creatively and critically. Probing questions that prompt students to critically evaluate a topic and provide clear responses that are fully developed, supported by evidence, and explored from multiple points of view.

Aptitude tests

Used to measure a person's ability to develop a particular skill if properly trained. May measure academic ability, clerical speed, or mechanical reasoning. Often used to guide high school students to careers where they will be successful. Examples include the Differential Aptitude Test and the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery. Employers in technical fields have started using aptitude tests when choosing new hires. Some assess many skills; some is specific to a specific program/occupation. Provide some objectivity, but does not always translate into ability because work ethic and training also contribute.

Criterion-references tests

Used to measure students according to performance on preset standards. May be given as a pretest and/or a posttest to indicate students' mastery of the learning objectives. The items come from state-adopted curriculum with several items of similar difficulty from each objective included for reliability. Student's score is based on mastery, not on how well other students score. Better for understanding how well students do academically since it measures what students actually know.

Adaptive behavior scales

Used to measure the ability of a person with an identified disability, such as an intellectual disability, to become self-sufficient. Adaptive behavior scales may include information about reading, money, time, social skills, ability to follow rules, ability to stay safe, and ability to work. Some examples include Scales of Independent Behavior-Revised (SIB-R), Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, and American Association on Mental Retardation Adaptive Behavior Scale: 2nd edition (AAMR ABS). Generally produce results based on age equivalency.

Rating scales

Used to rate attitudes and opinions on a continuum. Will ask participants to rate an idea or an experience on a number scale or category (Likert scale). Should be analyzed using mode rather than mean and then displayed using a bar graph. Students are required to rate the degree to which they feel a certain way. Disadvantage: Students are not always honest. Can be used for self-assessment/peer assessment, or for student input to evaluate learning activities and overall understanding of concepts.

Holistic scoring

Uses general categories to rate overall outcome. Has between three and five levels of performance with general statements that indicate achievement at each level. Provides limited feedback.

Nonverbal prompting

Using gestures or other physical prompts to assist students. Pointing, head shaking, facial expressions, and body language are examples. Sentence stems can help guide students' thinking in order to help students focus their communication.

Prior knowledge questions

Using questions to determine what students already know about a topic. Can generate interest, give students and opportunity to share their background knowledge, serve as a review of previously learned material, and help the teacher assess whether or not the students are prepared for the new learning experience. Teachers use questions intended to kindle the interest of students and motivate them to learn. Open-ended questions that give students opportunity to reflect on their own thoughts, feelings, and knowledge can help students who are losing interest to be redirected.

Verbal prompting

Using words or beginning phonemes to assist students, such as prompting students to remember a term by suggesting the letter or sound the word starts with.

Content selection guides

When selecting appropriate materials, teachers must: - Check that the activities are aligned with the standards and assessments; - Have an understanding of the students' developmental levels, cultural contexts, and background knowledge to select materials that are engaging, not distracting. (Too low: put off; too high: overwhelmed) - Check for validity based on current research (planets in 1984 do not match planets in 2017) - Check for availability of school resources. Must know the standards, the students, and the content to understand any constraints that may exist.

Peer assessment

When students evaluate one another and offer feedback. Need great deal of training to properly use peer assessment. Students should participate in guided practice using a sample of writing provided by the teacher before their first independent peer assessment. Rubrics, checklists, and rating scales can be used to help students. Safe learning environment is necessary to provide critical feedback. Usually used as part of group work and may improve participation. Improves critical thinking skills by evaluating other's work and articulating and defending the reasons behind the scores they assign. Students may feel a greater sense of responsibility for the achievement of their classmates. Teachers should be mindful that students may feel pressure to mark students higher/lower than the accurate score/may be reluctant to provide any type of feedback.

Reflective journals

Written records of a learning experience that are frequently used to provide an opportunity for students to articulate their process as they progress through their learning goals, but the journals also can be used by teachers as a PD tool. Can be written formally or informally and can be used for personal use/shared with colleagues. May contain reflections about lesson delivery, student achievement, classroom management, content questions, and/or ideas regarding remediation or enrichment of students. Been proven to be a useful metacognitive tool for improving practice.

Essay tests

Written responses that provide students the opportunity to fully articulate their learning. Easy to write, but time-consuming and subjective to grade. More likely to be based on knowledge and creativity rather than best guesses. Demonstrate depth rather than breadth of knowledge. More practical to use either as a summative assessment with five or fewer questions or in conjunction with other types of questions. Can also be used as formative assessments that can be quickly reviewed.