Praxis ESL

Indefinite article

"Indefinite" means "not specific". Use A(AN) when you are talking about a thing in general, NOT a specific thing. Examples: I need a phone. Not a specific phone, any phone

Positive feedback

'receive praise for something you knocked out of the park'

Fossilization

-Getting stuck at a specific stage ("I can get by so why bother" syndrome)

Authentic Writing Task

-Rooted in a real life context (ex. Asking students to write an email to a classmate about what they plan to do over the weekend.)

The Input Hypothesis

-Stresses that learner input should be based slightly beyond learners current receptive level so that the learner can progress. The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language - how second language acquisition takes place. The Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. We can then define 'Comprehensible Input' as the target language that the learner would not be able to produce but can still understand. It goes beyond the choice of words and involves presentation of context, explanation, rewording of unclear parts, the use of visual cues and meaning negotiation. The meaning successfully conveyed constitutes the learning experience.

ELLSs with different educational backgrounds

-Students may lack background knowledge depending where they came from

How to address important social issues within an ELL classroom

-Teacher can ask students to discuss reactions about several biased statments. ("Cats are better than dogs.) (ex. going over the negative effects of stereotyping.)

Communicative language teaching

-authentic, real world resources - ex. photo copies of advertisements from English magazines

Stressed syllables

1 Stress on first syllable rule example Most 2-syllable nouns PRESent, EXport, CHIna, TAble Most 2-syllable adjectives PRESent, SLENder, CLEVer, HAPpy 2 Stress on last syllable rule example Most 2-syllable verbs to preSENT, to exPORT, to deCIDE, to beGIN

Benefits of self correction

1. Students can take more ownership in their learning 2. By making corrections on their own, students are more prone to acquiring/internalizing new language

Circumlocation

1. The use of unnecessarily wordy language, especially in being vague or evasive. 2. A roundabout or evasive expression: Circumlocutions like "go to the bathroom" are often used in place of words that are considered vulgar or indelicate.

Recasting

A Recast is what the teacher says with the purpose of helping a student notice his or her mistakes and repair it on his or her own. Several different types of recasts are listed below.

Pronouns

A pronoun (I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who, whoever, whose, someone, everybody, etc.) is a word that takes the place of a noun. In the sentence Joe saw Jill, and he waved at her, the pronouns he and her take the place of Joe and Jill, respectively.

Short vowel sound

A short vowel sound is a vowel sound that does not follow this rule. When reading a word that uses a short vowel sound, will say the sound that the letter can make that is not its actual name. So in the case of "A," the word "main" might have a long "A" sound because we pronounce the "A" as /ā/, whereas the word "man" has a short vowel sound.

Foreigner talk

A simplified version of a language that's sometimes used by native speakers when addressing non-native speakers. "Foreigner talk is closer to baby talk than to pidgin," says Eric Reinders. "Pidgins, creoles, baby talk, and foreigner talk are quite distinct as spoken but nonetheless tend to be perceived as similar by those adult native speakers who are not fluent in pidgin" (Borrowed Gods and Foreign Bodies, 2004).

Superlative adjectives

A superlative adjective compares three or more nouns. This takes the comparison of nouns to the highest degree. An example would be: "My mother's cooking is the best."

Word stress

A word is normally stressed on the first syllable, unless there is a reason to put the stress somewhere else.

Aspiration

Aspiration is also a feature of phonation. The airstream mechanism is how the air moves through the vocal tract during articulation. Most languages have exclusively pulmonic egressive consonants, but ejectives, clicks, and implosives use different mechanisms.

Assimilation

Assimilation is a general term in phonetics for the process by which a speech sound becomes similar or identical to a neighboring sound. In the opposite process, dissimilation, sounds become less similar to one another. Assimilation is the influence of a sound on a neighboring sound so that the two become similar or the same. For example, the Latin prefix in- 'not, non-, un-' appears in English as il-, im-. and ir- in the words illegal, immoral, impossible (both m and p are bilabial consonants), and irresponsible as well as the unassimilated original form in- in indecent and incompetent.

3 types of learning styles

Audio, Visual, Kinesthetic

Selective error correction

Being mindful about what errors to correct. Which are the most important to point out?

Student collaboration

Collaborative learning is a situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together.

Collectivist cultures

Collectivist cultures, such as those of China, Korea, and Japan, emphasize family and work group goals above individual needs or desires. Collectivism and individualism deeply pervade cultures. People simply take their culture's stance for granted.

Comparative adjectives

Comparative adjectives are used to show what quality one thing has more or less than the other. They normally come before any other adjectives. (ex. The man on the left is taller than the man on the right. The man on the right is shorter than the man on the left.)

Primary aspects of cultural assimilation

Cultural assimilation is the process by which a person or a group's language and/or culture come to resemble those of another group.

Deductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning is a logical process in which a conclusion is based on the concordance of multiple premises that are generally assumed to be true. Deductive reasoning is sometimes referred to as top-down logic. Its counterpart, inductive reasoning, is sometimes referred to as bottom-up logic.

Diagnostic assessment

Diagnostic assessment is an essential device in a teacher's "tool kit". It can be used to diagnose strengths and areas of need in all students. Diagnostic assessment involves the gathering and careful evaluation of detailed data using students' knowledge and skills in a given learning area.

Lau v. Nichols

Equal educational opportunities for ELLs can be provided only when schools work to overcome the language & educational barriers that ELLs encounter in a school setting. Simply providing them access to the same facilities is NOT enough.

Figurative language

Figurative language is language that uses words or expressions with a meaning that is different from the literal interpretation. (ex. Poised between going on and back, pulled Both ways taut like a tight-rope walker)

Formative assessment

Formative assessment including diagnostic testing is a range of formal and informal assessment procedures conducted by teachers during the learning process in order to modify teaching and learning activities to improve student attainment.

Negative effects of stereotyping

Give students real world example. (ex. Cats are better than dogs.) to lead into a discussion

How to relay important school info (guidelines & protocols) to ELLS and their families?

Go over relevant guidelines and protocols of the school system. (ex. Families may be unfamiliar with how things work in the US such as a bus system)

Kinesthetic learners

Hand on/touching

How to teach ELLs about register, or the use of language within a specific social setting.

How language used is different in formal & informal settings (ex. Having students role play activity where they simulate speaking with their boss or going out with friends)

How to interpret ELLs assessment results?

If the majority scores between 90-100%, teachers can continue to build on knowledge that students evidenced in the assessment while exploring new content and skills.

Devoicing

In PHONETICS, the process by which SPEECH sounds that are normally voiced are made voiceless immediately after a voiceless obstruent: for example, the /r/ in cream /kriːm/ and the /w/ in twin /twɪn/. VOICE is slow to build up at the onset of speaking and fades at the end, so that voiced obstruents (stop and fricative consonants) are partly or wholly devoiced in initial and final position, as with the initial and final /d/ in dead /dɛd/ when spoken in isolation.

Determiner-noun co-occurrence

In grammar, a determiner is a word or a group of words that introduces a noun. Determiners include articles, demonstratives, quantifiers, and possessive determiners.

Displacement

In linguistics, a characteristic of language that allows users to talk about things and events other than those occurring in the here and now.

Consonant clusters

In linguistics, a consonant cluster or consonant sequence is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups /spl/ and /ts/ are consonant clusters in the word splits.

Register

In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.

Code switching

In linguistics, code-switching occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language varieties, in the context of a single conversation. Multilinguals—speakers of more than one language—sometimes use elements of multiple languages when conversing with each other.

Overgeneralization

In linguistics, overgeneralization is the application of a grammatical rule in cases where it doesn't apply. The term overgeneralization is most often used in connection with language acquisition by children. For example, a young child may say "foots" instead of "feet,"

Dipthong

In phonetics, a diphthong is a vowel in which there is a noticeable sound change within the same syllable.From greek- 2 sounds "If you say the words hat and lip, you can hear that the vowel sound in each is singular in nature; that is, each contains only one kind of sound. But if you say the words out, bite, and toil, you will hear that the vowel sound of each, though restricted to one syllable, is composed of two different kinds of sound. These dual vowels are called diphthongs (literally, 'two voices' or 'two sounds'), as opposed to the singular vowels, which are monophthongs ('one voice' or 'one sound')."

Flapping

In phonetics, a flap or tap is a type of consonantal sound, which is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that one articulator (such as the tongue) is thrown against another.

Nasalization

In phonetics, nasalization (or nasalisation) is the production of a sound while the velum is lowered, so that some air escapes through the nose during the production of the sound by the mouth. An archetypal nasal sound is [n].

Indirect feedback

Indicates where mistake is made but does not actually correct the mistakes. (ex. circling an error and having student correct it)

Principles of individualist cultures

Individualistic culture is a society which is characterized by individualism, not collectivism.

Inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning is a logical process in which multiple premises, all believed true or found true most of the time, are combined to obtain a specific conclusion. Inductive reasoning is often used in applications that involve prediction, forecasting, or behavior.

Plural Inflection

Inflection is the name for the extra letter or letters added to nouns, verbs and adjectives in their different grammatical forms. Nouns are inflected in the plural, verbs are inflected in the various tenses, and adjectives are inflected in the comparative/superlative. Here are some of the most important inflection rules:

Informal register

Informal language is more common when we speak. However, there are times where writing can be very informal, for example, when writing postcards or letters to friends, emails or text messages.

Rising intonation

Intonation describes how the voice rises and falls in speech. (ex. Would you like coffee?)

Students placement in & exit from ELL program

It is most important to consider national, state and local mandates when exiting students from an ESOL program

Stephen Krashen

Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses: the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the Monitor hypothesis, the Input hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, and the Affective Filter hypothesis.

L1 Interference

Language transfer (also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference, and crosslinguistic influence) refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from one language to another language.

How to facilitate communication between home and school for ELLS?

Make handouts accessible to ELLS & their families, translate to native language. Give handouts at a back to school night

Performance assessment

Performance assessment, also known as alternative or authentic assessment, is a form of testing that requires students to perform a task rather than select an answer from a ready-made list.

Pidginization

Pidginization is a linguistic process that occurs when people who do not speak the same language come into contact. It involves the simplification of the contacting language and the exploitation of linguistic common denominators.

Planning instruction that supports different learning styles

Planning for audio, visual & kinesthetic learning. (ex. labeling different tables in classroom as different food groups & then asking students to place appropriate foods at different tables.

Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns refer to something which belongs to someone or something. They can take the place of both the pronoun and the noun which is possessed, and they're generally found at the end of the clause or sentence. The possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs and whose. ex. The green shirt is mine; the red one is his.

Relative clauses

Relative clauses are clauses starting with the relative pronouns who*, that, which, whose, where, when. They are most often used to define or identify the noun that precedes them. (ex. Do you know the girl who started in grade 7 last week? Can I have the pencil that I gave you this morning?)

How to assess ELLs productive language skills?

Skills involving speaking and writing. Language ELLs are asked to produce. (ex. Asking a pair of ELLs to stand in front of the class, select a topic from a fish bowl & discuss)

Comprehensive error correction

Specifically making errors easily understood to students. The old school way of correcting.

Direct feedback

Specifically pointing out errors. (ex. circling an error and saying exactly what was wrong with it and what to fix)

Falling intonation

Standard unemphatic falling intonation is the most common type of intonation in English. It is used in statements (declarative sentences), special questions, commands (imperative sentences), exclamatory sentences, in the first part of disjunctive questions and in the last part of alternative questions. (Different types of sentences are described in Basic Word Order in the section Grammar.) The final fall in English is used on the last stressed syllable of a sentence and falls stronger and deeper than the fall in Russian. (ex. We live in \MOScow. She is ten years \OLD.)

Standardized assessment

Standardized assessment is a lens into the classroom. It sheds light on why a child might be struggling, succeeding, or accelerating on specific elements of their grade-level standards. Results from standardized tests help inform the next step in learning for our students. (At the end)

Student centered instruction

Student-centered learning, also known as learner-centered education, broadly encompasses methods of teaching that shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to the student.

Discourse analysis approach

Students become aware of different texts written for native speakers that serve for different purposes. Students can then familiarize themselves with various linguistic and cultural features that exist within the target language. The first step would be to expose students to a variety of written genres.

Subject-Verb Agreement

Subject verb agreement simply means the subject and verb must agree in number. This means both need to be singular or both need to be plural. (ex. Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the room. Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends, not roses lend)

Definite article

THE is called a definite article. "Definite" means "specific". Use THE when talking about something which is already known to the listener or which has been previously mentioned, introduced, or discussed. Examples: I have a cat. The cat is black.

Language & content based learning

Teaching English skills as well as content at the same time. (ex. Math, Science, Social Studies)

Avoidance

The action of keeping away from or not doing something:

Comparative structures

The analysis and comparison of the grammatical structures of related languages or dialects.

Fossilization

The point at which no further learning seems possible. Fossilization in language learning may occur when students feel their communicative needs have already been met ("I can get by so why bother" syndrome).

Verb tense

The tense of a verb is determined by when the action took place. The three tenses are: The Past Tense The Present Tense The Future Tense

Voiceless consonants

Unvoiced consonants do not use this vibration. Instead they make sound using the movement of air through your teeth, tongue, lips and other articulators. Unvoiced consonants in English: /p/ as in pea /t/ as in tea /ʧ/ as in cheap

How to promote ELLs acquisition of content area vocabulary?

Using targeted, context embedded instruction that incorporates receptive language skills, visuals & targeted language instruction

Consonant voicing

VOICED or VOICELESS The distinction is based on whether the vocal chords vibrate when the sound is produced (voiced), or whether they remain still and do not vibrate (voiceless). (See item K. in Figure 1. for the location of the vocal chords within the trachea). Examples of voiced and voiceless consonants include: voiced: b, d, z, g voiceless: p, t, s, k

Word Choice

Word choice refers to a writer's selection of words as determined by a number of factors, including meaning (both denotative and connotative), specificity, level of diction, tone, and audience.

According to federal guidelines, providing equal educational opportunities to ELLs is primarily based on-

Working to overcome the language and educational barriers ELLS face.

Gerund

a form that is derived from a verb but that functions as a noun, in English ending in -ing, e.g., asking in do you mind my asking you?.

Proper noun

a name used for an individual person, place, or organization, spelled with initial capital letters, e.g., Larry, Mexico, and Boston Red Sox.

Prepositions

a word or set of words that indicates location (in, near, beside, on top of) or some other relationship between a noun or pronoun and other parts of the sentence (about, after, besides, instead of, in accordance with).

Conjunctions

a word used to connect clauses or sentences or to coordinate words in the same clause (e.g., and, but, if ).

Demonstrative pronouns

demonstrate (verb): to show; to indicate; to point to A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things: near in distance or time (this, these) far in distance or time (that, those)

Adjective-noun co-occurrence

describing word followed by person place or thing. (ex. black dog)

Epenthesis

epenthesis is the insertion of an extra sound into a word. Adjective: epenthetic. Verb: epenthesize. Also known as intrusion.

Vowels in initial position

ex. /ey/= able

Adverbs

is a word or set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Many adverbs end in "-ly". (ex. Financially Willfully Abruptly Endlessly Firmly)

Metathesis

is the re-arranging of sounds or syllables in a word, or of words in a sentence. Most commonly it refers to the switching of two or more contiguous sounds, known as adjacent metathesis[1] or local metathesis:[2] foliage > **foilage cavalry > **calvary

Secondary stress

is the weaker of two degrees of stress in the pronunciation of a word; the stronger degree of stress being called primary.

Interference

multilingual writers commit errors when they over-generalize the grammatical patterns of their native language (L1) to English. (Similarly, this theory suggests that students will transfer the grammatical patterns of native dialects of English into their school writing.) This theory comes to us courtesy of our colleagues who teach ESL and foreign languages.

Brainstorming

produce an idea or way of solving a problem by holding a spontaneous group discussion.

Adjectives

that it is a word that describes or clarifies a noun. Adjectives describe nouns by giving some information about an object's size, shape, age, color, origin or material. ex. red car

Negative Transfer

the obstruction of or interference with new learning because of previous learning, as when a U.S. tourist in England learns to drive on the left side of the road.

Code Switching

the practice of alternating between two or more languages or varieties of language in conversation.

Word Order

the sequence of words in a sentence, especially as governed by grammatical rules and as affecting meaning.

Metalinguistic feedback

this type of recast shows the students or forces them to think about why something in the language functions the way that it does, ie: "Is that how you would say it in English?"

Elicitation

this type of recast tries to get the students to give you what you are looking for in an answer (specific answer) Elicitation is a technique used to discreetly gather information. It is a conversation with a specific purpose: collect information that is not readily available and do so without raising suspicion that specific facts are being sought.

Vowel reduction

vowel reduction is any of various changes in the acoustic quality of vowels, which are related to changes in stress, sonority, duration, loudness, articulation, or position in the word (e.g. for Creek language[1]), and which are perceived as "weakening". It most often makes the vowels shorter as well.