Princeton Review MCAT Psych/Soc Glossary, MCAT Kaplan Psychology/Sociology Vocabulary, MCAT Psychology and Sociology (Kaplan)
Operant Conditioning
(B.F. Skinner) Negative reinforcement: increase frequency of behavior by removing unpleasant something Positive punishment; add unpleasant consequence
Learning (Behaviorist) Theory
(B.F. Skinner) language acquisition by operant conditioning and reinforcement
Basic model of emotional expression
(Charles Darwin) emotional expression involves a number of components like facial expressions, behavior, postures, vocal changes, and physiological changes
Dramaturgical approach
(Erving Goffman) Front stage: conforms to image he wants others to see Back stage: free to act like his true self
Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft
(Ferdinand Tonnies) Gemeinschaft: refers to groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography Gesellschaft: refers to groups that are formed because of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal
Second sickness
(Howard Witzkin) exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice
Nativist (Biological) theory
(Noam Chomsky) existence of some innate capacity for language Transformational grammar: changes in words that retain the same meaning (Ex. I took the MCAT vs. the MCAT was taken by me) Language acquisition device (LAD): theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules Critical period: language acquisition between two years and puberty Sensitive period: time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability
Hypomania
(bipolar related disorder) patient does not have significantly impaired functioning or are there psychotic features but individual may be more energetic and optimistic
Catecholamine theory of depression/monoamine
(bipolar related disorder) too much norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse leads to mania and too little leads to depression
reporting bias
(epidemiology) selective revealing/suppression of info by subjects, e.g. about past medical history, smoking, sexual experiences
Conflict theory
- A theoretical framework that emphasizes the role of power differentials in producing social order - Social order is maintained by power and dominate rather than conformity and consensus - A society is in constant conflict over competition for limited resources - Two opposing positions would merge to create a new society where both are content
Broadbent's early selection theory
- All info in environment goes into sensory register - Gets transferred to selective filter right away which filters out stuff in unattended ear and what you don't need to understand it (accents etc.) - Perceptual processes identifies friend's voice and assigns meaning to words - problem: if you filter out everything in the unattended air, that would mean the cocktail party effect can't happen
Interactionist approach
- Biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language - Children's desire to communicate with adults makes them learn language - Associated with Vygotsky
Learning (behaviorist) theory (language)
- Children aren't born with anything, only acquire language through reinforcement - Child learns to say "mama" because every time they say that, mom reinforces child - Doesn't explain how they can produce words they've never heard before
Conservation ("of mass" concept)
- Concept seen in quantitative analysis performed by a child - Develops when a child is able to identify the difference between quantity by number and actual amount, especially when faced with identical quantities separated into varying pieces.
Treisman's attenuation theory
- First all environmental info goes to sensory register - Instead of complete selective filter, have an attenuator - weakens but doesn't eliminate input from unattended ear - Some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority. - Switch if something important.
Deutch and Deutch's late selection theory
- First all environmental info goes to sensory register where it goes through a selective filter - Next, perceptual process - assigning meaning - Places broadband selective filter after perceptual processes. Selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness - problem: Given limited resources and attention, seems wasteful to spend all that time assigning meaning to things first
Basic model
- First established by Charles Darwin - States that emotional expression involves a number of systems: facial expression as well as behavioral and physical response - Claims that emotions are universal and should be similar across cultures
Caffeine
- Inhibits adenosine receptors
Source-monitoring error
- Memory error - Person remembers the details of an event but confuses the context by which the details were gained - Often causes a person to remember events that happened to someone else as having happened to him- or herself
Prefrontal cortex
- Responsible for many higher-order functions, everything that distinguishes humans - Executive control - solve problems, make decisions, how you act in social situations. - Involved in reducing emotion
Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)
- Technique used to record patterns of neural activity based on blood flow to different areas of the brain - Measures using detection of inhaled radioactive markers.
Karen Horney
-personality is result of interpersonal relationships -primary concept is basic anxiety -Neurotic needs: each needs is directed toward making life and interactions bearable -Basic anxiety vs. basic hostility: vulnerability and helplessness vs. neglect and rejection
Formal organizations
1. Continue despite departure of an individual member 2. expressed goals recorded in a written format and guide the members and their activities 3. seek to control activities of their members 4. hierarchical allotment of formal roles or duties to members
Impression management strategies
1. Self-disclosure: give info about oneself to establish an identity 2. Managing appearances: use props, appearance, emotional expression, etc with others to create a positive image 3. Ingratiation: use flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over 4. Aligning actions: make questionable behavior acceptable through excuses 5. Alter-casting: imposing an identity onto another person
Information processing model
1. Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli 2. Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision-making 3. Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (called situational modification) 4. Problem-solving is dependent not only on the person's cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem
Depression (biological causes)
1. abnormally high glucose metabolism in in amygdala 2. hippocampal atrophy after long duration of illness 3. abnormally high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol) 4. decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine
Alzheimer's disease (biological markers)
1. diffuse atrophy of brain on CT/MRI 2. Flattened sulci in cerebral cortex 3. enlarged cerebral ventricles 4. deficient blood flow in parietal lobes -> cognitive decline 5. reduction in levels of acetylcholine 6. reduction in choline acetyltransferase (produces acetylcholine) 7. reduced metabolism in temporal and parietal lobes 8. senile plaques of B-amyloid 9. neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein
Bipolar disorders (biological causes)
1. increased norepinephrine and serotonin 2. higher risk if parent has bipolar disorder 3. higher risk for persons with MS
Alzheimer's disease (genetic component)
1. mutations in presenilin genes on chromosomes 1 and 14 2. mutations in apolipoprotein E on c'some 19 3. Beta amyloid precursor protein gene on c'some 21
sensorimotor stage
1st stage of Piaget's developmental theory from birth to age 2 where babies learn object permanence and demonstrate stranger anxiety 4.2
semicircular canals
3 loop-like structures in the inner ear that contain sensory receptors to monitor balance 3.5
Agents of socialization
4 most important influences: mass media, family, peers, and school
Cognitive dissonance theory
4 things we do to reduce that discomfort of having two opposing opinions: 1. Modify our cognitions - ex. smoker might say, I really don't smoke that much. 2. Trivialize - make less important, ex. evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer. 3. Add - adding more cognitions, ex. I exercise so much it doesn't matter 4. Deny - denying the facts, ex. smoking and cancer are not linked.
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning which form the basis of ethical behavior, the pre-conventional (level 1) contains: •the 1st stage (obedience and punishment orientation •and 2nd stage (self-interest orientation), the conventional (level 2) contains: •the 3rd stage (interpersonal accord and conformity) •and 4th stage (authority and social-order maintaining orientation) the post-conventional (level 3) contains: •the 5th stage (social contract orientation) •and 6th stage (universal ethical principles) 7.1
universal emotions
6 major emotions that appear to be universal across cultures •happiness •sadness •surprise •anger •fear •disgust 4.4
Amphetamine
A CNS stimulant that increases activity of both dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain.
Benzodiazepine
A CNS suppressant that is often used to reduce anxiety and promote sleep. - Enhance your brain's response to GABA - 3 types: short, intermediate, and long-acting. - Short and intermediate are usually for sleep - Long acting are for anxiety
Labeling Theory
A behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant - Primary deviance - no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild. Individual behaves in same way without feeling wrong. - Secondary deviance - more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that results in stigmatizing behavior
Innate behavior
A behavior that is genetically programmed or instinctive.
Aggression
A behavior with the intention to cause harm or increase relative social dominance; can be physical or verbal.
Broca's area
A brain region located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe (usually in the left hemisphere); largely responsible for the motor function of speech.
Wernicke's area
A brain region located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe (usually the left hemisphere); largely responsible for language comprehension.
Pineal gland
A brain structure located near the thalamus that secretes melatonin.
Parasympathetic nervous system
A branch of the ANS that promotes resting and digesting; associated with related states, reductions in heart and respiration rates, and promotion of digestion.
Arcuate fasciculus
A bundle of axons that connects Wernicke's area with Broca's area
Compliance
A change of behavior of an individual at the request of another.
Neurotransmitter
A chemical that transmits signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse.
Halo effect
A cognitive bias in which judgment of an individual's character can be affected by the overall impression of the individual.
Confirmation bias
A cognitive bias in which one focuses on information that supports a given solution, belief, or hypothesis, and ignores evidence against it.
Wernicke-Korsakoff's Syndrome
A condition resulting from chronic thiamine (vitamins B1) deficiency, which is common in alcoholics; characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of coordination.
Recognition-primed decision model
A decision-making model in which experience and recognition of similar situations one has already experiences play a large role in decision-making and actions; also one of the explanations for the experience of intuition.
Habituation
A decrease in response caused by repeated exposure to a stimulus.
Adaptation (in perception)
A decrease in stimulus perception after a long duration of exposure.
Regression
A defense mechanism by which an individual deals with stress by reverting to an earlier developmental state.
Projection
A defense mechanism by which individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others.
Rationalization
A defense mechanism by which individuals explain undesirable behaviors in a way that is self-justifying and socially acceptable.
Reaction formation
A defense mechanism by which individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites.
Repression
A defense mechanism by which the ego forces undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious mind.
Sublimation
A defense mechanism by which unacceptable urges are transformed into socially acceptable behaviors.
Displacement
A defense mechanism by which undesired urges are transferred from one target to another, more acceptable one.
Parkinson's disease
A disease characterized by slowness in movement, resting remorse, pill-rolling tumor, mask like faces cogwheel rigidity, and a shuffle gait; caused by destruction of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra.
Opiates
A drug family consisting of naturally occurring, highly addictive, pain-reducing drugs used in both medical and recreational settings; opioids are synthetic versions of these drugs.
Barbiturate
A drug that acts as a CNS depressant; often used for anxiety and insomnia - Side effects are reduced memory, judgement and concentration, with alcohol can lead to death
Stimulant
A drug that causes an increase in CNS arousal.
Emotion
A feeling and state of mind derived from circumstances, mood, or relationships.
Stereotype threat
A feeling of anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group.
Sulcus
A fold in the cerebral cortex.
Operant conditioning
A form of associative learning in which the frequency of a behavior is modified using reinforcement or punishment.
Deductive reasoning
A form of cognition that starts with general information and narrows down that information to create a conclusion.
Inductive reasoning
A form of cognition that utilizes generalizations to develop a theory.
Altruism
A form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at a cost to himself to herself.
Observational learning
A form of learning in which behavior is modified as a result of watching others.
Avoidance learning
A form of negative reinforcement in which one avoids the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen.
Escape learning
A form of negative reinforcement in which one reduces the unpleasantness of something that already exists.
Spatial inequality
A form of social stratification across error-ties and their populations that can involve residential, environmental, or global components.
Bureaucracy
A formal organization with the goal of performing complex tasks as efficiently as possible by dividing work among a number of bureaus.
Classical conditioning
A from of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus such that the neutral stimulus alone produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus thus becomes a conditioned stimulus.
Family group
A group determined by birth, adoption, and marriage rather than self-selection (as in a peer group).
Hallucinogens
A group of drugs that cause distortions of reality in users, including lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin-containing mushrooms.
Primary group
A group wherein the interactions are direct, with close bonds, providing relationships to members that are very warm, personal, and intimate.
Linguistic relativity hypothesis
A hypothesis suggesting that one's perception of reality is largely determined by the content, form, and structure of language; also known as the Whorfian hypothesis.
Transformational grammar
A linguistic theory that focuses on how changes in word order affect meaning.
Polygyny
A matinee system in which a male has exclusive relationships with several females.
Promiscuity
A mating system in which a member of one sex mates with any member of the opposite sex.
Polyandry
A mating system in which female have exclusive relationships with several males.
Polygamy
A mating system in which one member of a sex has multiple exclusive opposite-sex relationships.
Inclusive fitness
A measure of reproductive success; depends on the number of offspring an individual has, how well they support their offspring and how well their offspring can support others.
System for multiple level observation of groups (SYMLOG)
A method of studying group dynamics; focuses on three fundamental dimensions of interaction: dominance vs. submission, friendliness vs. unfriendliness, and instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive.
Game theory
A model that explains social interaction and decision-making as a game, including strategies, incentive, and punishments.
Interneuron
A neuron found between sensory and motor neurons; involved in the reflex arc.
Motor neuron
A neuron that transmits motor information from the spinal cord and brain to the periphery.
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter associated with mood, sleep, eating, and dreaming.
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with smooth movements, steady posture, and the reward pathways and psychosis.
γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
A neurotransmitter associated with stabilizing and quelling brain activity.
Epinephrine
A neurotransmitter associated with the fight-or-flight response.
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter associated with voluntary muscle control - primary neurotransmitter in the parasympathetic nervous system
Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter associated with wakefulness and alertness.
Manic episode
A period of at least one week with prominent and persistent elevated or expansive mood and at least two others maniac symptoms.
Depressive episode
A period of at least two weeks in which there is a prominent and persistent depressed mood or lack of interest and at least four other depressive symptoms.
Attribute substitution
A phenomenon observed when individuals must make judgments that are complex but instead substitutes a simpler solution or perception.
Identity
A piece of an individual's self-concept based on the groups to which that person belongs and his or her relationship to others.
Hindbrain
A portion of the brain that controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes. - cerebellum - pons - medulla oblongata
Forebrain
A portion of the brain that is associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes such as emotion and memory.
Midbrain
A portion of the brainstem that manages sensorimotor reflexes to visual and auditory stimuli and gives rise to some cranial nerves
Medulla oblongata
A portion of the brainstem that regulates vital functions, including breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
Pons
A portion of the brainstem that relays information between the cortex and medulla, regulates sleep, and carries some motor and sensory information from the face and neck.
Projection area
A portion of the cerebral cortex that analyzes sensory input.
Frontal lobe
A portion of the cerebral cortex that controls motor processing, executive function, and the integration of cognitive and behavioral processes. - motor function, problem solving, spontaneity, memory, language, initiation, judgement, impulse control, and social and sexual behavior
Occipital lobe
A portion of the cerebral cortex that controls visual processing.
Temporal lobe
A portion of the cerebral cortex that controls: - auditory processing - memory processing - emotional control - language
Parietal lobe
A portion of the cerebral cortex that controls: - somatosensory - spatial processing.
Limbic system
A portion of the cerebrum that is associated with emotion and memory and includes the amygdala and hippocampus.
Hypothalamus
A portion of the forebrain that controls homeostatic and endocrine functions by controlling the release of pituitary hormones. - part of the limbic system - regulates ANS (fight or flight, rest and digest)
Basal ganglia
A portion of the forebrain that coordinates muscle movement and routes information from the cortex to the brain and spinal cord. - also involved in cognition and emotion
Thalamus
A portion of the forebrain that serves as a relay and sorting station for sensory information, and then transmits the information to the cerebral cortex. - smell is only sense that bypasses thalamus - part of the limbic system - emotion contingent on senses
Cerebellum
A portion of the hindbrain that maintains posture and balance and coordinates body movements.
Amygdala
A portion of the limbic system that is important for memory and emotion, especially fear. - agression center: when stimulated, produces anger/violence or fear/anxiety
Hippocampus
A portion of the limbic system that is important for memory and learning. - convert short-term to long-term memory - if destroyed, still have old memories but can't make new ones
Telencephalon
A portion of the prosencephalon that becomes the cerebrum.
Diencephalon
A portion of the prosencephalon that becomes the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland.
Arousal
A psychological and physiological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli; nearly synonymous with alertness.
GAD (Generalized Anxiety Disorder)
A psychological disorder characterized by tension or anxiety much of the time about many issues, but without the presence of panic attacks. 6.3
Schizophrenia
A psychotic disorder characterized by gross distortions of reality and disturbances in the content and form of thought, perceptions, and behavior.
Circular reaction
A repetitive action that achieves a desired response; seen during Piaget's sensorimotor stage. - Primary: repetitive behavior the child find soothing (e.g. repeating a syllable) - Secondary: repetitive behavior that affects the environment
State-dependent memory
A retrieval cue by which memory is aided when a person is in the same state of emotion or intoxication as when encoding took place.
Context effect
A retrieval cue by which memory is aided when person is in the location where encoding took place.
Priming
A retrieval cue by which recall is aided by a word or phrase that is semantically related to the desired memory - exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus even if we haven't been paying attention to it
Interference
A retrieval error caused by the learning of information; can be proactive (old information causing difficulty learning new information) or retroactive (new information interferes with older learnings).
Incentive
A reward intended to motivate particular behaviors.
Gyrus
A ridge of the cerebral cortex
Heuristic
A rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to make decisions.
Melatonin
A serotonin derivative secreted by the pineal glad that is associated with sleepiness.
Bisexual
A sexual orientation wherein individuals are attracted to members of both sexes.
Heterosexual
A sexual orientation wherein individuals are attracted to members of the opposite sex.
Homosexual
A sexual orientation wherein individuals are attracted to members of the same sex.
Cultural syndrome
A shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors organized around a central theme and found among people who speak the same language and share a geographic region.
Representational heuristic
A shortcut in decision-making that relies on categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category.
Availability heuristic
A shortcut in decision-making that relies on the information that is most readily available, rather than the total body of information on a subject.
Appraisal model
A similar theory to the basic model, accepting that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced; accepted that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression - Appraisal of a situation causes an emotional or affective response based on the appraisal
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by a lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep; also involves cataplexy and hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations.
Parasomnia
A sleep disorder characterized by abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep.
Dyssomnia
A sleep disorder in which one has difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or avoiding sleep.
Race
A social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people; these may be either real or perceived differences.
Ethnicity
A social construct that sorts people by cultural factors, including language, nationality, religion, and other factors.
Group
A social entity that involves at least two people, usually those sharing common characteristics.
In-group
A social group to which a person experiences a sense of belonging or one in which he or she identifies as a member.
Out-group
A social group with which an individual does not identify.
Meritocracy
A society in which advancements up the social ladder is based on intellectual talent and achievement.
Organization
A specific type of group characterized by five traits; formality, hierarchy of ranked positions large size, complex divisions of labor, and continuity beyond its members.
Conduction aphasia
A speech disorder characterized by the inability to repeat words with intact spontaneous speech production and comprehension; usually due to injury to the arcuate fascicles. - Ability to conduct between listening and speaking is interrupted
Meditation
A state of consciousness entered voluntarily, characterized by a decreased level of physiological arousal and a quieting of the mind.
Learned helplessness
A state of hopelessness and resignation resulting from being unable to avoid repeated negative stimuli; often used as a model of depression.
Anomie
A state of normlessness; anomie conditions erode social solidarity by means of excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation.
Achieved status
A status gained as a result of direct, individual action.
Ascribed status
A status that one is given at birth, such as race, ethnicity, or sex.
Master status
A status with which a person is most identified.
Dishabituation
A sudden increase in response to a stimulus, usually due to a change in the stimulus or addition of another stimulus; sometimes called resensitization.
Interaction process analysis
A technique of observing and immediately classifying the activities of small groups.
Overconfidence
A tendency to interpret one's decisions, knowledge, or beliefs as infallible.
Mental set
A tendency to repeat solutions that have yielded positive results at some time in the past.
Attitude
A tendency toward expression of positive or negative feelings or evaluations of a person, place, thing, or situation.
Network
A term used to describe the observable pattern of social relationships among individual units of analysis.
Electroencephalography (EEG)
A test used to study the electrical patterns of the brain under varying conditions; consists of multiple electrodes placed on the scalp.
Functionalism
A theoretical framework that explains how parts of society fit together to create a cohesive whole - looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning - everyone is required to have a responsibility
Symbolic interactionism
A theoretical framework that studies the way individuals interact through shared understandings of words, gestures and other symbols. - focuses on the individual and significance they give to objects, events, symbols, etc. in their lives
Elaboration likelihood model
A theory in which attitudes are formed and changed through different routes of information processing based on the degree of deep thought given to persuasive information. - More cognitive approach - focuses on the why/how of persuasion. 2 ways info is processed: 1. central (depends on quality of arguments by persuader) - results in lasting attitude change 2. peripheral (superficial/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader) - creates temporary attitude change
Cannon-Bard theory
A theory of emotion that states that a stimulus is first received and is then simultaneously processed physiologically and cognitively, allowing for the conscious emotion to be experienced. - first response: nervous system arousal and conscious emotion - second response: action
James-Lange theory
A theory of emotion that states that a stimulus results in physiological arousal, which then leads to a secondary response in which emotion is consciously experienced - first response: nervous system arousal - second response: conscious emotion
Schacther-Singer theory
A theory of emotion that states that both physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal must occur before emotion is consciously experienced. - first response: nervous system arousal and cognitive appraisal - second response: conscious emotion
Social construction model
A theory of emotional expression that assumes there are no biologically wired emotions; rather, they are based on experiences and situational context alone.
Arousal theory
A theory of motivation that states there is a particular level of arousal required in order to perform actions optimally; summarized by the Yerkes-Dodson law.
Signal detection theory
A theory of perception in which internal (psychological) and external (environmental) context both play a role in the perception of stimuli
Weber's law
A theory of perception that states that there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a just noticeable difference and the magnitude of the original stimulus.
feature detection theory
A theory of visual perception that proposes that certain neurons fire for individual and specific features of a visual stimulus such as shape, color, line, movements, etc. 3.5
Learning (behaviorist) theory
A theory that attitudes are developed through forms of learning (direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction, and conditionings).
Social cognitive theory
A theory that attitudes are formed through observation of behavior, cognition, and the environment.
Drive reduction theory
A theory that explains motivation as being based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable internal states.
Correspondent inference theory
A theory that states that people pay closer attention to intentional behavior than accidental behavior when making attributions, especially if the behavior is unexpected.
Implicit personality theory
A theory that states that people tend to associate traits and behaviors in others, and that people have the tendency to attribute their own beliefs, opinions, and ideas onto others.
Opponent-process theory
A theory that states that the body will adapt to counteract repeated exposure to stimuli, such as seeing afterimages or ramping up the sympathetic nervous system in response to a depressant. - e.g. seeing an image for a long time then looking at a white wall and you will see the complement
Gestalt psychology
A theory that the brain processes information in a holistic manner, especially for visual information, the brain tends to make assumptions in order to detect the whole, instead of serially processing all of the individual parts. 3.5
Meninges
A thick layer of connective tissue that covers and protects the brain; composed of the dura mater, arachnid mater, and pia mater.
Critical period
A time during development during which exposure to language is essential for eventual development of the effective use of language; occurs between two year of age and puberty.
Sensitive period
A time during which environmental input has a maximal impact on the development or a particular ability
Attachment
A very deep emotional bond to another person, particularly a parent or caregiver.
operant conditioning
AKA 'instrumental conditioning'; a form of associate learning based on *consequences*, in which rewards increase the frequency of behaviors associated with them and punishments decrease their frequency 5.1
five-factor model
AKA Costa and McCrae's Five-Factor Model A model developed to explain personality using five overarching personality traits which include: •extroversion, •neuroticism, •openness to experience, •agreeableness, and •conscientiousness 6.1
mindfulness-based stress reduction
AKA MBSR protocol involving mindfulness meditation, shown to be effective for helping individuals with pain, stress and anxiety 4.3
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
AKA OCD a psychological disorder characterized by: •obsessions (repeated intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause distress or anxiety); •compulsions (repeated physical or mental behaviors that are done in response to an obsession or in accordance with a set of strict rules in order to reduce distress or prevent something dreaded from occurring) or both
Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder
AKA OCPD a psychological disorder characterized by accumulation of money or worthless objects 6.3
parasympathetic nervous sytem
AKA PNS the division of the autonomic nervous system AKA "resting and digesting" system. it causes a general decrease in body activities such as heart rate, and blood pressure and an increase in blood flow to the GI tract and an increase in digestive function; because the paraganglionic neurons all originate from either the brain or the sacrum, it is AKA the craniosacral system 3.4, 4.4
polysomnography
AKA PSG multimodal technique for measuring physiological processes during sleep, including EEG, EMG and EOG 4.3
posttraumatic stress disorder
AKA PTSD disorder characterized by 3 clusters of symptoms: 1) re-experiencing of traumatic events through flashbacks or nightmares 2) hypervigilance of one's surroundings 3) avoidance of situations related to stressful events 4.5, 6.3
reticular formation
AKA Reticular Activating System or RAS structures in the brainstem that are important for alertness and arousal as in wakefulness 4.3
sympathetic nervous system
AKA SNS subdivision of the autonomic nervous system directing what is known as the "fight or flight" response to prepare the body for action it increases HR, BP, and blood sugar levels and directs the adrenal glands to release stress hormones 3.4, 4.5
prison study
AKA Stanford Prison Study a psychological experiment conducted by Philip Zimbardo designed to elucidate the extreme effects of role-playing on human behavior. 24 male students were isolated and asked to play the role of prisoners and guards. The participants adapted to their roles well beyond Zimbardo's expectations. The guards enforced extreme measure including psychological torture and many of the prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and readily harassed other prisoners who attempted to prevent it. 6.4
cult
AKA a new religious movement a religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle 8.2
self-actualization
AKA actualizing tendency according to humanistic psychology, individuals have an innate drive to maintain and enhance themselves or realize their human potential as long as no obstacle intervenes
basal nuceli
AKA basal ganglia these structures in the brain help to smooth coordinated movement by inhibiting excess movement 3.4
dramaturgical approach
AKA dramaturgical perspective assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage; just as actors project a certain on-screen image, people in society choose what kind of image they want to communicate verbally and nonverbally to others. 7.3, 8.1
mere-exposure effect
AKA familiarity principle the phenomenon where people develop a preference for things because they have been exposed to them sometimes repeatedly; e.g. listening to a song sounds better the second time; 7.3
episodic memory
AKA flashbulb memories clear memories of unique and often highly emotional events, such as where you were and what you were doing during the 9/11 terrorist attacks Autobiographical memory for information of personal importance 5.4
identity formation
AKA individuation the development of a distinct individual personality 7.1
posterior pituitary gland
AKA neurohypophysis; it is made up of nervous tissue/neurons and stores and secretes 2 hormones made by the hypothalamus (oxytocin and ADH); it is controlled by action potentials from the hypothalamus 3.6
group pressure
AKA peer pressure pressure exerted by a group that causes one to change behaviors, values, attitudes, or beliefs 7.2
dysthymic disorder
AKA persistent depressive disorder (PDD) or dysthymia a psychological disorder characterized as a less intense, chronic form of depression. felt milder symptoms of depression most days for at least two years, with symptoms never absent for more than two months, and without experiencing a major depressive episode 6.3
eidetic memory
AKA photographic memory the ability to perfectly recall images, sounds, or objects without the use of memory aids, such as mnemonics
multiculturalism
AKA pluralism a perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions; it promotes the idea of cultures coming together in a true melting pot, rather that in a hierarchy 7.1
implicit memory
AKA procedural memory memory that involves conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do things 5.4
hallucinogens
AKA psychedelics a class of drugs distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input creating hallucinations or altered sensory perceptions (e.g. LSD, marijuana) 4.3
functional amnesia
AKA psychogenic and dissociative amnesia a memory disorder characterized by sudden retrograde autobiographical memory loss, said to occur for a period of time ranging from hours to years, These gaps involve an inability to recall personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature consciously, but subconscious recall (sweating and increased HR) is common
self-concept
AKA self identity broadly defined as the sum of an individual's knowledge and understanding of his/herself including physical, psychological, and social attributes, which can be influenced by the individual's attitudes, habits, beliefs, and ideas 6.1, 7.1
impression management
AKA self-presentation the conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others; this is achieved by controlling the amount of type of information or the social interaction 7.2
moro reflex
AKA startle reflex in response to a loud sound or sudden movement, an infant will startle the baby throws back its head and extends its arms and legs, cries, then pulls the arms and legs back in this reflex is present at birth, and lasts until about six months 5.3
functionalism
AKA structural functionalism the oldest of the main theories of sociology, conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different parts/organs, each of which has a distinct purpose (Prominent theorists include: Herbert Spencer, Talcott Parsons, Auguste Comte, Davis and Moore, Robert Merton, Almond and Powell) 8.1
auditory tube
AKA the Eustachian tube, connects the middle ear cavity with the pharynx. It functions to equalize middle ear pressure with atmospheric pressure so that pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane is equal 3.5
anterior pituitary gland
AKA the adenohypophysis made of glandular tissue. It makes and secretes six different hormones: •FSH •LH •ACTH •TSH • prolactin •growth hormone. controlled by releasing and inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus 3.6
tympanic membrane
AKA the eardrum the membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear 3.5
difference threshold
AKA the just noticeable difference, JND this threshold is the minimum noticeable difference between any two sensory stimuli 50% of the time 3.5
Dispositional theory
AKA trait theory Personality theory explores your traits and how many traits you have. Defines your personality in terms of stable and enduring behavioral patterns.
person-situation controversy
AKA trait-vs-state controversy this controversy stems from a disagreement about the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality (trait) or is due to a situation itself (state) 6.1
observational learning
AKA vicarious, social learning a type of learning that occurs when a person watches another person's behavior and its consequences, thereby learning rules, strategies, and expected outcomes in different situations 6.1
Intuition
Ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence; people may have beliefs that are not necessarily supported by evidence, but that person "feels" to be correct
Cocktail party effect
Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd or when someone calls your name.
Fluid intelligence
Ability to quickly identify relationships and connections, and then use those relationships and connects to make correct deductions. - able to reason things out quickly - peaks at young adulthood and decreases as we get older
Parasomnias
Abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep including night terrors and sleep walking
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow sought to explain human behavior by creating a hierarchy of needs (demonstrated by a pyramid) at the base of this pyramid are physiological needs or the basic element necessary to sustain human life; in order, the rest of the needs include: •safety, •love and belongingness, •esteem, •and self-actualization; lower-level needs must be met before higher-level needs 6.2
superego
According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory the superego inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic rather than realistic goals based on societal values as learned from one's parents, the superego makes judgments of right and wrong and strives for perfection the superego seeks to gain psychological regards such as feelings of pride and self-love, and to avoid psychological punishment such as feelings of guilt and inferiority 6.1
Social action
Actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and performing because others are around.
Relative deprivation theory
Actions of groups oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy. - e.g. Civil Rights Movement, a response to oppression to people of color. - 3 things needed for social movement: 1. relative deprivation 2. deserving better 3. belief conventional methods are useless to help
Marijuana
Active chemical known as THC; exerts effects on cannabinoid, glycine, and opioid receptors, increases GABA and dopamine activity
Phonology
Actual sound of language; composed of building blocks called morphemes
Esteem support
Affirming qualities and skills of the person as part of social support.
Stages of Sleep
Alpha: awake but relaxing with eyes closed -Waves slower than beta waves Beta: high frequency and occur when person is alert or attending mental task that requires concentration Stage 1 Theta: Dozing off; slower frequencies and higher voltages Stage 2 shows theta waves along with sleep spindles and K complexes Stage 3 and 4 Delta: low frequency, high voltage sleep wave; becomes difficult to rouse someone from sleep
Sigmund Freud
An Australian neurologist who is considered the founding father of psychoanalytic theory 6.1
Belief
An acceptance that a statement is true or that something exists.
Hypnosis
An altered state of consciousness in which a person appears to be awake but is, in fact, in a highly suggestible state in which another person or event may trigger action by the person.
Biomedical approach
An approach in the psychological disorders that considers only pathophysiological causes and offers pharmaceutical and medical solutions for symptoms alleviation.
Biopsychosocial approach
An approach to psychological disorders that considers conditions and treatments to be dependent on biological, psychological, and social causes.
Reciprocity
An aspect of interpersonal attraction based on the idea that we like people who we think like us.
Symbolic ethnicity
An ethnic identity that is only relevant on special occasions or in specific circumstances and that does not impact everyday life.
Attitude to behavior process model
An event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object). Then attitude + outside knowledge together determines behavior. - e.g. Tommy has attitude that junk food is unhealthy, because many of his relatives have diseases. So when he's at home he does not eat chips/soda/candy.
Night terror
An experience of intense anxiety during sleep, causing the sleeper to scream in terror with no recall of the event in the morning occurs during SWS.
Alter-casting
An impression management strategy in which one imposes an identity onto another person.
Aligning actions
An impression management strategy in which one makes questionable behavior acceptable through excuses.
Managing appearances
An impression management strategy in which one uses props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with other to create a positive image.
Ingratiation
An impression management strategy that uses flattery to increase social acceptance.
Dramaturgical approach
An impression management theory that represents the world as a stage and individuals as actors performing to an audience.
Primary stress appraisal
An initial evaluation of the environment to determine if there is an associated threat. - irrelevant, benign/positive, stressful. - - If primary appraisal is negative, move forward with secondary appraisal.
Instinct
An innate behavioral response to stimuli.
Language acquisition device (LAD)
An innate capacity for language acquisition that is triggered by exposure to language; part of the nativist (biological) perspective of language acquisition.
Prejudice
An irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, formed prior to actual experience.
Reflex arc
An neural pathway that control reflex actions. Sensory neuron → spinal cord → effector neuron.
Schema
An organized pattern of thought and behavior; one of the central concepts of Piaget's stages of cognitive development.
Jung - Anima vs. animus
Anima: feminine Animus: masculine Shadow: responsible for appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness sex-inappropriate qualities (ex. feminine behaviors in males and masculine behaviors in females)
Barbiturates
Anxiety-reducing and sleep medications; increase GABA activity which causes relaxation
Depressant
Any substance that reduces the nervous system function.
Exchange theory
Application of rational choice theory to social interactions - Interactions are determined by weighing rewards and punishments of each action
Peg-word
Associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers
Family studies
Assumes that genetically related individuals are more similar genotypically than unrelated individuals
projection
Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another person ("I'm not angry, you are!")
Dispositional (internal) attributions
Attributions that relate to the decisions or personality of the person whose behavior is being considered.
Impression management
Authentic self Ideal self: who we would like to be under optimal circumstances Tactical self: who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us
Rooting reflex
Automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek such as a nipple during feeding
Heuristics
Availability heuristic: used when we try to decide how likely something is (ex. students who do not truly problem-solve on MCAT questions will be tempted by familiar-sounding answers merely because they can recall the statement being mentioned in the passage)
Consciousness
Awareness of oneself; can be used to describe varying levels of awareness that occur with wakefulness, sleep, dreaming, and drug-induced states.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Base: most primitive, essential, and important needs First four levels: physiological needs, safety, security, love and belonging, and self esteem Highest level: self-actualization
Behaviorist perspective
Based heavily on concepts of operant conditioning; Token economies used as rewards for positive behavior (ex. privileges, treats, other reinforcers)
Freud's stages of psychosexual development
Based on tensions caused by the libido, with failure at any given stage leading to fixation Oral Stage (0-1) - oral, mouth orientated - sucking, swallowing, biting, breastfeeding Anal Stage (1-3) - potty training Phallic Stage (3-5/6) - concentration on genitals - gender and sexual identification - Oedipus and electra complexes Latency Stage (5/6-puberty) - no further psychosexual development - no libido - social development Genital Stage (puberty-adult) - adolescent sexual experimentation - mature sexuality
Flat affect
Behavior characterized by showing virtually no signs of emotion or affective expression.
Prototype Willingness Model
Behavior is a function of 6 things: 1. past behavior 2. attitudes 3. subjective norms 4. our intentions 5. our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior 6. prototypes/models - a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping/modeling
Behaviorist perspective
Behavior is based on reinforcement and punishment
Impression management
Behaviors that are intended to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object, or event.
Cultural capital
Benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities, and skills, for example using one's background or other intangible assets such as a college degree
Posterior chamber
Between the iris and the lens
Kluver-Bucy syndrome
Bilateral destruction of amygdala, can result in hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality, and disinhibited behavior
Heroin
Body metabolizes heroin to morphine
Long-term memory
Capacity is unlimited - 2 main categories: 1. explicit (declarative) - facts and events you can clearly describe 2. implicit (non-declarative) - things you may not be able to articulate (e.g riding a bike)
Gordon Allport
Cardinal traits: traits around which a person organizes his or her life Central traits: major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, like honesty and charisma Secondary traits: other personality characteristics that are more limited in occurrence: aspects of one's personality that only appear in closer groups or specific social situations
Representativeness heuristic
Categorizing items on a basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category (ex. a standard coin that is flipped ten times in a row and lands on heads every time. What is the probability of the coin landing on heads the next time? Probability is still 50% but people will overestimate or underestimate the prediction)
Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
Caused by a deficiency of thamine and characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills
Sleep deprivation
Causes REM rebound, which is earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal
Neuroplasticity
Change in neural connections caused by learning or a response to injury.
Accommodation
Changes the shape of the lens
sublimation
Channeling aggressive or sexual energy into positive, constructive activities, such as producing art
Freud - Defense mechanisms
Clash of id and superego Main defense mechanisms: 1. repression - ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to unconscious 2. suppression - deliberate, conscious form of forgetting 3. regression - faced with stress, older children return to earlier behaviors like thumb-sucking, throwing temper tantrums, clinging to their mothers 4. reaction formation - individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites 5. projection - attribute their undesired feelings to others 6. rationalization - justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society 7. displacement - describes transference of undesired urge from one person or object to another 8. sublimation - transformation of unacceptable urges into socially accepted behavior
Auditory pathway
Cochlea → vestibulocochlear nerve → medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) in thalamus → auditory cortex
Crystallized intelligence
Cognitive capacity to understand relationships or solve problems using information acquired during schooling and other experiences. - Ability to use accumulated knowledge/experience/verbal skills - Gets better the older you are or stays the same
Neologism
Coining a new word; seen in schizophrenia.
Ganglia
Collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the CNS.
Ecstasy
Common name for MDMA; a CNS stimulant with effects similar to both amphetamines and hallucinogens.
Group conformity
Compliance with a group's goals, even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to an individual's goals.
Secondary reinforcer
Conditioned reinforcer
Role conflict
Conflict between two different statuses e.g. someone who's a parent, friend, husband, and worker
Arcuate fasciculus
Connects Broca's area and Wernicke's area; it is a bundle of axons allowing appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production
Implicit (nondeclarative) memory
Consists of our skills and conditioned responses
Hawk Dove Game
Cooperation: both the donor and recipient benefit from cooperating Spite: both donor and recipient are negatively impacted Selfishness: donor benefits while recipient is negatively impacted
Display Rules
Cultural expectations of how emotions can be expressed.
Global aphasia
Damage to the left side of the brain - damage to Broca's and Wernicke's areas
Cocaine
Decreases re-uptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin; anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties, can cause heart attacks and strokes
Drives
Deficiencies that activate particular behaviors focused on a goal.
Immediate networks
Dense with strong ties, composed of friends
Gender identity
Describes a person's appraisal of him or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity
Vygotsky's theory of cultural and biosocial development
Describes development of language, culture, and skills - learning takes place through interactions with others that promote acquisition of culturally valued behaviors and beliefs - current developmental level, zone of proximal developmental, beyond current potential
Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning development
Describes the approaches of individuals to resolving moral dilemmas in a predictable sequence Level 1 - Preconventional stage - Stage 1: punishment - Stage 2: reward Level 2 - Conventional stage - Stage 3: social disapproval - Stage 4: rule following Level 3 - Postconventional stage - Stage 5: social contract - Stage 6: universal ethics
Cognitive development
Development of one's ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan
Theory of differential association
Deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others that violate norms and laws - learn from observation of others
Gardner's idea of 8 intelligences
Differentiates intelligence into different modalities
Instinctive drift
Difficulty overcoming instinctual behaviors
Institutional discrimination
Discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution.
Discrimination
Discrimination is a behavior while prejudice is an attitude
Dyssomnias
Disorder that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep
Dissociative disorders
Disorders that involve a perceived separation from identity or the environment.
Personality disorders
Disorders that involve patterns of behavior that are inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress or impaired function in at least two of the following: cognition, emotion, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control.
Anxiety disorders
Disorders that involve worry, unease, fear, and apprehension about future uncertainties based on real or imagines events that can impair physical and psychological health.
Catatonia
Disorganized motor behavior characterized by various unusual physical movement or stillness.
Schizophrenia: negative symptoms
Disturbance of affect: expression of emotion Blunting: severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression Flat affect: no signs of emotional expression Inappropriate affect: (ex. schizophrenic starts laughing when talking about someone's death) Avolition: decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions
Nonmaleficence
Do no harm; physician has responsibility to avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit
Recognition-primed decision model
Doctor's brain is actually sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern. Over time, the doctor has gained an extensive level of experience that he or she is able to access without awareness
Ecclesia
Dominant religious organization that includes most members of society - e.g. Lutheranism in Sweden and Islam in Iran
Problem-solving dream theory
Dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping
Activation-synthesis theory
Dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry; activation can mimic incoming sensory information, but consist of pieces of stored memories, current and previous desires, met and unmet needs, and other experiences
Cognitive process dream theory
Dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness
Drive Reduction Theory
Drive: internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals ex. person feels very hungry and stomach is uncomfortable so he goes and buys food to reduce hunger
Hallucinogens
Drugs include LSD interact with various neurotransmitters especially serotonin
Functional fixedness
Duncker's candle problem: you walk into a room and see a box of matches, some tacks, and a candle. Your task is to mount the candle on the wall so that it can be used without the wax dropping on the floor. Definition: inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner
Myelencephalon (becomes medulla oblongata in fetus)
During embryonic development, the rhombencephalon divides to form the myelencephalon and metencephalon (pons and cerebellum from fetus)
Central trait
E.g. honesty, sociability, shyness. Less dominant than cardinal
Alcohol myopia
Effect of alcohol where it is in the inability to recognize consequences of actions, creating a short-sighted view of the world
Behaviorist (language)
Empiricists, believe language is just a conditioned behavior
Instinctual drift
Established habits are eventually replaced by innate food-related behaviors
Iron rule of oligarchy
Even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few. - Once person gains leadership role they might be hesitant to give it up
Modified semantic network
Every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge
Glutamate
Excitatory neurotransmitter
Lazarus Theory
Experience of emotion depends on how the situation is appraised (labelled). Step 1: labelling situation (cognitive) Step 2: emotion + physiological response. - How we label event is based on cultural/individual differences.
rationalization
Explaining and intellectually justifying one's impulsive behavior
Exchange theory
Extension of rational choice theory; focuses on interactions in groups where an individual will carry out certain behaviors because of anticipated rewards and avoiding certain behaviors because of anticipated punishments
Extrinsic Motivation
External forces, coming from outside oneself; rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desired behavior is not achieved
Jung - dichotomies of personality
Extraversion vs. introversion Sensing vs. intuiting Thinking vs. feeling
Misinformation effect
False memories created by outside sources like use of severity in language or given false information
Type II error
False negative
Type I error
False positive
Mary Ainsworth
Famous for her "strange situation experiments" where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment to see how they would react. Studies suggested a distinction between securely attached infants and insecurely attached infants 5.3
A-beta fibers
Fast fibers that are thick and covered in myelin - less resistance - high conductance
Optic chiasm
Fibers from the nasal half field of each retina cross paths
Reticular formation
Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the reticular formation, a neural structure located in the brainstem, to keep the cortex awake and alert
Delusions
Fixed, false beliefs that are discordant with reality and not shared by one's culture, and are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary.
Social cognitive perspective
Focus on how our environment influences our behavior and how we interact with the environment
denial
Forceful refusal to acknowledge an emotionally painful memory
Algorithmns
Formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem. This can be mathematical or a set of instructions, designed to automatically produce a desired solution
Frustration-aggression model
Frustration creates anger which can spark aggression. Higher temperatures can lead to frustration
Modernization theory
Globalization theory that all countries follow similar path of development to modern society. With some help traditional countries can develop similarly to today's developed countries did
Transformationalist perspective
Globalization theory that doesn't have specific cause or outcome. - Believe national governments are changing, perhaps becoming less important but difficult to explain change - They see the world order is changing. Just a new world order is being designed. Outcome unknown.
Skeptical perspective
Globalization theory that is critical, considers it as being regionalized instead of globalized. Third world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits
World systems theory
Globalization theory that places importance of world as a unit, divides world into 3 countries: core, periphery, and semi-periphery. - Core = Western Europe and US. - Periphery = Latin America and Africa. Greatly influenced by and depend on core countries and transnational corporations. - Semi-periphery = India and Brazil, middle-ground
Hyperglobalist Perspective
Globalization theory that sees it as a new age in human history - countries become interdependent and nation states themselves are less important. Don't agree if good or bad
Dependency theory
Globalization theory that's a reaction to Modernization theory. Uses idea of Core + Periphery countries to look at inequalities. Periphery countries export resources to Core countries, and don't have means to develop
Secondary group
Group wherein interactions are based on weaker, interpersonal bonds.
Hypnopompic hallucinations
Hallucinations that occur when awakening from sleep; seen in narcolepsy
Hypnagogic hallucinations
Hallucinations that occur when going to sleep; seen in narcolepsy
Hypnagogic/hypnompic hallucinations
Hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening
Ecstasy
Hallucinogen and amphetamine; causes increased heart rate, blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, and hyperthermia
Somatosensation
Have four modalities: pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature
Ipsilaterally
Hemispheres communicate on the same side of the body
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Higher needs do not produce drives until lower needs are met - lowest to highest: 1. physiological 2. safety 3. intimacy/love 4. self-esteem - feel confident/sense of achievement 5. self-actualization - reaching max potential
Hierarchical semantic network
Higher order to lower order categories. - e.g. Animal -> bird -> ostrich. - Later replaced with the modified semantic network
Binet's idea of mental age
How a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years
Magnocellular pathway
How eye detects motion - high temporal resolution - poor spatial resolution - no color
Nonverbal communication
How people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without using words; examples include body language, gestures, and facial expressions.
Parvocellular pathway
How the eye detects form - good at spatial resolution - poor temporal resolution
TrypV1 receptors
How we sense temperature (thermoception) - also sensitive to pain
Galton's idea of hereditary genius
Human ability is hereditary
Social constructivism
Human development is socially situated and knowledge is constructed through interactions with others
Problem-solving
Humans and chimpanzees alike will often avoid trial and error learning and instead take a step back, observe the situation, and take decisive action to solve the challenges they face
Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytic Perspective
Id: primal, inborn urges to survie and reproduce -Pleasure principle: aim to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension -Primary process: id's response to frustration -Wish fulfillment: mental imagery like daydreaming to fulfill need for satisfaction Ego: operations to reality principle (taking into account objective reality) -Secondary process: guides or inhibits activity of id and id's pleasure principle -Superego: personality's perfectionist, judging actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures Conscience: collection of improper actions for which a child is punished Ego-ideal: proper actions for which a child is rewarded
Ego depletion
Idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it it can get used up, and less to use in the future
Spontaneous recovery
If an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited
Strain theory
If person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may turn to deviance. Pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have legitimate ways to achieve success
Extensor plantar reflex
If you take a hard object and scrape along bottom of foot, normal response is flexor - toes will come down on the object. But with extensor, toes extend up.
Belief perseverance
Ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts - e.g. During elections ignore facts about someone you like
Defense mechanism
In Freudian psychoanalysis, a technique used by the ego that denies, falsifies, or distorts reality in order to resolve anxiety caused by undesirable urges of the id and superego.
Superego
In Freudian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious mind focused on idealism, perfectionism, and societal norms.
Ego
In Freudian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious mind that mediates the urges of the id and superego; operates under the reality principle.
Id
In Freudian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious resulting from basic, intrinsic urges for sexuality and survival; operates under the pleasure principle and seeks instant gratification.
Fixation
In Freudian psychoanalysis, the result of overindulgence or frustration during a psychosexual stage causing a neurotic pattern of personality based on that stage.
Libido
In Freudian psychoanalysis, the sex or life drive.
Archetype
In Jungian psychoanalysis, a thought or image that has an emotional element and is a part of the collective unconsciousness; a typical example of a certain person or thing
Collective unconscious
In Jungian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious mind that is shared among all humans and is a result of our common ancestry.
Tactical self
In impression management, the person one markets him- or herself to be when adhering to others' expectations.
Back stage
In the dramaturgical approach, the setting where players are free from their role requirement and not in front of the audience; back stage behaviors may not be deemed appropriate or acceptable and are thus kept invisible from the audience.
Front stage
In the dramaturgical approach, the setting where players are in front of an audience and perform roles that are in keeping with the image they hope to project about themselves.
Reciprocal determinism
In the social cognitive perspective, the notion that thought, feelings, behaviors, and environment interact to determine behavior in a given situation.
Neuroticism
In the trait theory, the degree to which an individual is prone to emotional arousal in stressful situations.
Psychoticism
In trait theory, the measure of nonconformity or social deviance of an individual.
Extraversion
In trat theory, the degree to which an individual is able to tolerate social interaction and stimulation.
In-group and Out-group
In-group: social group with which a person experiences a sense of belonging or identifies as a member Out-group: social group with which an individual does not identify Negative feelings towards an out-group are not based on a sense of dislike, but favoritism for the in-group and absence of favoritism for the out-group
Belief perseverance
Inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to contrary
Amphetamines
Increase dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin levels at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake; increases heart rate and blood pressure, euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions of grandeur, and paranoia
Depressants
Increases GABA receptor activity causing inhibition and increases dopamine levels
Identity
Individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong
External locus of control
Individuals are more likely to attribute things to environmental rather than internal factors
superego
Inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic and idealistic goals rather than just realistic goals
Resource mobilization theory
Instead of looking at deprivation of people, focuses on factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources. - Need money, materials, political influence, media, and strong organizational base to recruit members
spatial summation
Integration by a postsynaptic neuron of inputs (EPSPs and IPSPs) from multiple sources 3.2
Fixed mindset
Intelligence is biologically set and unchanging
Growth mindset
Intelligence is changeable if you learn more - people with this type of intelligence usually accomplish more than people with fixed intelligence
PTSD
Intrusion symptoms: recurrent reliving of the event, flashbacks, nightmares, and prolonged distress Avoidance symptoms: deliberate attempts to avoid memories, people, places, activities, and objects associated with trauma Negative cognitive symptoms: inability to recall key features of the event, negative mood or emotions, feeling distanced from others Arousal symptoms: increased startle response, irritability, anxiety, self-destructive or reckless behavior
Attribute substitution
It occurs when an individual has to make a judgment (of a target attribute) that is computationally complex, and instead substitutes a more easily calculated heuristic attribute.
Dual coding hypothesis
It's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone
Object permanence
Knowledge that an object does not cease to exist even when the object cannot be seen; a milestone in cognitive development.
Hunger is controlled by the hypothalamus
Lateral hypothalamus: promotes hunger Ventromedial hypothalamus: cues that we are full and promote satiety
C. Robert Cloninger
Linked personality to brain systems involved in reward, motivation, and punishment; proposed that personality is linked to the level of activity of certain neurotransmitters in three interacting systems
Emotional support
Listening to, affirming, and empathizing with someone's feelings as part of social support.
Fornix
Long projection from the hippocampus that connects to other nuclei in the limbic system.
Materialist (language)
Look at what happens in brain when people think/speak/write.
Biological perspective
Looking at psychological issues by studying the physical basis for animal and human behavior
Wernicke's aphasia
Loss of language comprehension, resulting in fluid production of language without meaning.
Cataplexy
Loss of muscle control with intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger.
Broca's aphasia
Loss of the motor function of speech, resulting in intact understanding with an inability to correctly produce spoken language
Self-discrepancy theory
Maintains that each of us has three selves: actual, ideal, and ought self (representation of the way others think we should be)
Manifest vs. latent function
Manifest functions: action intended to help some part of a system Latent: unintended positive consequences on other parts of society Ex. Annual meetings of medical societies have the manifest function of educating a group of physicians, sharing research findings, and setting goals for the next year. Latently, they create stronger interpersonal bonds between physicians and provide a sense of identity for the group.
Cultural transmission/cultural learning
Manner at which a society socializes its members
premenstrual dysphoric disorder
Many of the symptoms of a major depressive episode are present, with the caveat that they intensify in the final week before the onset of menstruation and then improve and in many cases disappear in the week after menstruation has ended
Conformity
Matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to societal norms
Kinsey scale
Measures hetero vs. homosexuality; significant portions of the population fell somewhere between them
Misinformation effect
Memories are altered by misleading information provided at the point of encoding or recall
Semantic network
Memory is a network of interconnected ideas and organizes ideas in which concepts are linked together based on similar meaning
Implicit memory
Memory that does not require conscious recall; consists of skills and conditioned behaviors.
Explicit memory
Memory that requires conscious recall, divided into facts (semantic memory) and experiences (episodic memory); also known as declarative memory.
Chunking
Memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning (ex. ENALPKCURTRACKSUB into BUS CAR TRUCK PLANE)
Eustachian tube
Middle ear is connected to the nasal cavity, which equalizes pressure between the middle ear and environment
Errors of growth
Misuse of grammar characterized by universal application of a rule, regardless of exceptions; seem in children during language development.
filter model
Model of selective attention that suggests that information from a sensory buffer is put through a filter that allows only selected inputs through (Broadbent) 4.1
Language
Most highly developed symbolic system
Controlled (effortful) processing
Most new or complex tasks require undivided attention
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation that comes from within oneself; driven by interest in a task or pure enjoyment
Extrinsic motivation
Motivation that is external, or outside the self, including rewards and punishments.
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation that is internal or that comes from within.
Suspensory ligaments
Muscles contract and pulls this to change the shape of the lens
Acetylcholine
NT found in both central and peripheral nervous systems and used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles Used mostly by the parasympathetic nervous system
Endorphins
Natural painkillers produced by the brain.
Endorphins
Natural painkillers that are peptide NT
Immediate networks
Networks that are dense with strong ties; generally overlap with distinct networks.
Distant networks
Networks that are looser and composed of weaker ties.
Neuroplasticity
Neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli
Classical conditioning
Neutral stimuli: stimuli do not produce a reflexive response
Intelligence Quotient
Numerical measurement of intelligence, usually accomplished by some form of standardized testing.
Five factor model
OCEAN 1. Openness (independent vs. conforming, imagining vs. practical) 2. Conscientiousness (careful vs. careless, disciplined vs. impulse, organized or not) 3. Extroversion 4. Agreeableness (kind vs. cold, appreciative vs. unfriendly) 5. Neuroticism
discrimination (scientific)/ stimulus discrimination
Occurs when the conditioned stimulus is differentiated from other stimuli 5.1
Olfactory pathway
Odor -> olfactory nerves in olfactory epithelium -> olfactory bulb -> olfactory tract
Disengagement theory
Older adults and society separate, assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age. But considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well, which is debatable.
Contralateral
On the opposite side of the body, relative to something else (usually a side of the brain).
Ipsilateral
On the same side of the body, relative to something else (usually a side of the brain).
Endogenous cue
One of the two cues that can direct our attention that requires internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it - e.g. mouse arrow, cocktail party effect
Exogenous cue
One of the two cues that can direct our attention that we don't have to tell ourselves to look for - e.g. bright colors, loud noises, "pop-out effect"
Individual discrimination
One person discriminating against a particular person or group.
Extinction
Organism become habituated to a conditioned stimulus
Discrimination
Organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli
Semantic network
Organization of information in the brain by linking concepts with similar characteristics and meaning.
visuospatial sketchpad
Part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that allows for the repetition of visuospatial information (images) to aid with encoding it into memory 4.2
Abraham Maslow's Humanistic Theory
Peak experience: self-actualizers more likely to have profound and deeply moving experiences in a person's life that have important and lasting effects on the individual
Modeling
People learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them
Reciprocal liking
People like others better when they believe the other person likes them
Rational choice theory
People not only motivated by money, but do what's best to get more good - Main assumption is the idea that everything people do is fundamentally rational - a person is acting as if they were weighing costs and benefits of each action
Yerkes-Dodson Law
People perform best when they are moderately aroused
David McClelland's N-Arch
People rated high in N-Arch tend to be concerned with achievement and have pride in their accomplishments; they set realistic goals, and stop striving toward a goal if success is unlikely
Conjunction fallacy
People tend to think the probability of 2 events occurring together is higher than the probability of one alone - ex. Feminist bank teller vs. bank teller - people think it's more likely she's a feminist bank teller - but actually more likely she's just a bank teller
Continuity theory
People try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives. As they age make decisions to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging
Neuromodulators
Peptide neurotransmitter where the synaptic action involves more complicated chain of events in the postsynaptic cell and are therefore slower and have longer effects on the postsynaptic cell than NT
Subliminal perception
Perception of a stimulus below a threshold (usually the threshold of conscious perceptions).
Whorfian hypothesis/Linguistic relativity hypothesis
Perception of reality is determined by the content of language
Intuition
Perceptions about a situation that may or may not be supported by available evidence, but are nonetheless perceived as information that may be used to make a decision.
Hallucinations
Perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality.
State-dependent memory
Person's mental state affect recall
Carl Jung
Personal unconscious: similar to Freud's unconsciousness Collective unconscious: powerful system that is shared among all umans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors Archetypes: images invariably have an emotional element
Behaviorist theory
Personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment - deterministic: people begin as blank states and the environment completely determines their behavior/personalities
REM rebound
Phenomenon in which one spends an increased time in REM sleep following a period of sleep deprivation.
preoperational stage
Piaget's 2nd stage in his developmental theory from ages 2-7; during this stage, children learn pretend play and the idea that a symbol can represent something else, they remain egocentric in this stage 4.2
formal operational stage
Piaget's 4th stage of his developmental theory, from age 12-adulthood. During this stage, people learn abstract and moral reasoning 4.2
concrete operational stage
Piaget's third stage of his developmental theory where children aged 7 to 11 learn to think logically and learn the principle of conservation as well as mathematical concepts 4.2
IQ
Pioneered by Alfred Binet
affirmative action
Policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions; these policies have been used to benefit those believed to be current or past victims of discrimination 7.2
Pull factors
Positive attributes of the new location that attract the immigrant
Upward/Downward Mobility
Positive or negative change in a person's class
Reinforcement modeling
Positive reinforcement can lead to aggression. Parents who give into temper tantrums lead to more temper tantrums in future. Also if parents yell/hit each other, child will pick up on behavior too
Pigiat's Theory of Development
Posits that all children develop cognitively by experimenting with their environment and passing through same set of developmental stages. 0-2 years: Sensorimotor - Children learn to separate themselves from the world - Learn object permanence 2-7 years: Preoperational - Children learn to use language - Children think literally and egocentrically - Children unable to take on perspectives of others 7-11 years: Concrete Operational - Children develop inductive reasoning - Understand conservation of mass - Understand feelings of others 11 years +: Formal Operational -Children develop deductive reasoning -Can think theoretically and philosophically -Children at this stage are able to reach post-conventional moral reasoning
Relative poverty
Poverty wherein one is poor in comparison to the larger population.
Absolute poverty
Poverty wherein people do not have enough resources to acquire basic life necessities such as shelter, food, clothing, and water.
Kohlberg
Preconventional morality -Obedience: avoiding punishment -Self-interest: gaining rewards (instrumental relativist stage) Conventional morality -Conformity: emphasis on "good boy, nice girl" seeking approval of others -Law and order: maintain social order in highest regard Postconventional morality -Social contract: views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure greater good with focus on individual rights -Universal human ethics: decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles
Preparedness
Predisposition to learn behaviors based on their own natural abilities and instincts (ex. bird pecks when searching for food)
Ageism
Prejudice or discrimination on the basis of a person's age.
Whole report
Presented 3x3 array of letters and participant is asked to list all the letters she say, she was able to identify 3 or 4
Partial report
Presented 3x3 array of letters and participant is asked to list the letters of a particular role, she can do so with 100% accuracy
Avoidance learning
Prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen
Accommodation
Process by which existing schemata are modifies to encompass new information.
Controlled (conscious) processing
Processing method used when a task requires complete attention.
Perception
Processing of sensory information to make sense of its significance
Marxist Theory
Proletariat: "have-nots" Bourgeoisie: "haves"
Hans Eysenck
Proposed that a person's level of extroversion is based on individual differences in the reticular formation; proposed that a person's level of neuroticism is based on individual differences in the limbic system
Jeffrey Alan Gray
Proposed that personality is governed by interactions among three brain systems that respond to rewarding and punishing stimuli
Information processing model
Proposes our brains are similar to computers. We get input from environment, process it, and output decisions
Meninges
Protect the brain, keep it anchored within the skull, and resorb cerebrospinal fluid
Network support
Providing a sense of belonging as part of social support.
Material support
Providing economic or other physical resources to aid a person as part of social support.
Needs
Psychological and physiological requirements that motivate and influence behavior.
Schizophrenia: Positive Symptoms
Psychotic disorder; associated with high dopamine levels Positive symptoms Delusions of reference: (ex. person believes characters in a TV show are talking to him directly) Delusions of persecution: (ex. person believes he is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, threatened) Delusions of grandeur: (person is remarkable in some significant way such as being a historical figure or religious icon) Thought broadcasting: believe one's thoughts are broadcast directly from one's head to external world Thought insertion: belief that thoughts are being placed in one's head) Hallucinations: hearing voices Disorganized thought: loosening of associations; ideas shift from one thought to another; word salad; schizophrenics invent new words (neologisms) Disorganized behavior: inability to carry out activities of daily living; patient will either spontaneously move or remain rigid (catatonia)
Eysencks' PEN model
Psychoticism: nonconformity or social deviance Extraversion: tolerance for social interaction and stimulation Neuroticism: emotional arousal in stressful situations
Nativists (language)
Rationalist, language must be innate
Top-down processing
Recognition of an object by memories and expectations, with little attention to detail - Faster, but more prone to mistakes
Bottom-up processing
Recognition of objects by parallel processing and feature detection - slower but less prone to mistakes
Cultural sensitivity
Recognizing and respecting the differences between cultures.
Dishabituation
Recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred
displacement
Redirecting aggressive or sexual impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one (as when a person goes home and kicks the dog instead of expressing anger at a boss)
Ethnic identity
Refers to one's ethnic group in which members typically share a common ancestry
Perception
Refers to the processing of this information that make sense of its significance
Prospective memory
Remembering to perform a task at some point in the future; remains mostly intact when it is event-based (ex. remembering to buy milk while passing by grocery store)
Habituation
Repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response
Rote rehearsal
Repeating something over and over again to remember it - least effective way to encode
Maintenance rehearsal
Repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory or to store it.
Harlow, Harry, and Margaret
Researchers known for their controversial experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort rather than simply food, also showed that monkeys raised in isolation developed severe mental and social deficits 5.3
Medulla oblongata
Responsible for breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
Visual pathway
Retina → optic nerve → optic chasm → optic tracts → lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus → visual radiations → visual cortex
regression
Reverting to an earlier, less sophisticated behavior (as when a child reverts to bed-wetting after a trauma)
Escape learning
Role of behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists like a headache
Mass society theory
Scepticism about groups, said they only form for people seeking refuge from main society. - e.g Nazism
Piaget's terms
Schema: organized patterns of behavior and thought; can include a concept, a behavior, or a sequence of events Adaptation: as a child proceeds through the stages, new information has to be placed into the different schemata -Assimilation: process of classifying new information into existing schemata -Accommodation: process by which existing modified to encompass this new information
Neurocognitive models of dreaming
Seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes
Cocktail party phenomenon
Selective attention is probably more of a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background (ex. talking to a friend at a loud party and hear your name being called)
Egocentrism
Self-centered view of the world in which one is not necessarily able to understand the experience of another person; seen in Piaget's preoperational stage
Explicit memory: semantic memory and episodic memory
Semantic: facts that we know (names of bicycle parts) Episodic: our experiences (time patient learned to ride a bike)
Perception vs. sensation
Sensation is the conversion of physical stimuli into neurological signals, while perception is making sense of the significance of the sensory information
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage: -Circular reactions (Primary and Secondary) -Primary: repetition of body movement that originally occurred by chance (ex. sucking thumb) -Secondary: manipulation is focused on something outside the body (ex. throwing toys from a high chair) -Object permanence: marks beginning of representational thought, child understands objects continue to exist outside of view Preoperational stage: -Symbolic thinking: ability to pretend, make-believe, have imagination -Egocentrism: inability to imagine what another person may think or feel -Centration: tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, inability to understand conservation Concrete operational stage: -Children understand conservation and perspectives of others; ability to engage in logical thought working with concrete objects or information Formal operational stage: ability to think about abstract ideas
Glycine
Serves as an inhibitory NT in the CNS by increasing chloride influx
Deductive reasoning (Top-down)
Set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Seven defined types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal
Group
Share common characteristics such as values, interests, ethnicity, social background, family ties, and political representation; sociologists see social interaction was the most important characteristic
Self-disclosure
Sharing one's fears, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met with non-judgmental empathy
Proximity
Simply being physically close to someone
Spearman's idea of general intelligence
Single g factor responsible for intelligence that underlies performance on all cognitive tasks
Social network creates social inequality
Situational: socioeconomic advantage Positional: based on how connected one is within a network or one's centrality within network
Insomnia
Sleep disorder characterized by either an inability to fall asleep or difficulty staying asleep.
Sleep apnea
Sleep disorder in which a person may ease to breathe while sleeping; may be due to obstruction or central (neurological) cause.
Somnambulism
Sleep disorder in which one carries out actions in his or her sleep; also called sleepwalking.
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
Sleep stage in which the eyes move rapidly back and forth and physiological arousal levels are more similar to wakefulness than sleep; dreaming overs during this stage.
C-fibers
Small in diameter, unmyelinated
Foot-in-the-door technique
Small request is made and after gaining compliance, larger request is made
Norms
Societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior. - reinforced by sanctions: awards or punishments for behaviors that go according to or against norms
Auditory pathways
Sound -> vestibulocochlear nerve -> medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) -> auditory cortex -> superior olive -> inferior colliculus
Left hemisphere
Speech production and language are located in this dominant hemisphere
Language
Spoken or written symbols (verbal and nonverbal symbols), which are regulated according to certain rules of conduct or social norms and used for communications.
Non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM)
Stages 1 through 4 of sleep; contains ever-slowing brain waves as one gets deeper into sleep.
Alertness
State con consciousness in which one is aware, able to think, and able to respond to the environment nearly synonymous with arousal.
Androgyny
State of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine
Erikson's stages of psychological development
Stem from conflicts that are the result of decisions we are forced to make about ourselves and the environment around us at each phase of our lives Stage 1: Trust vs. mistrust Stage 2: Autonomy vs. shame, doubt Stage 3: Initiative vs. guilt Stage 4: Industry vs. inferiority Stage 5: Identity vs. role confusion Stage 6: Intimacy vs. isolation Stage 7: Generativity vs. stagnation Stage 8: Integrity vs. despair
Generalization
Stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response
Chunking
Strategy for encoding by grouping information into meaningful categories we already know
Method of loci
Strategy for encoding where you tie information to locations
Adler's Theory
Strives for superiority Inferiority complex: sense of incompleteness, imperfection, inferiority Creative self: force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality Style of life: represents the manifestation of creative self and describes person's unique way of achieving superiority Fictional finalism: individual more motivated by expectations of future than past experiences
Reticular formation
Structure in the brainstem that is responsible for alertness
Functionalism
Study of structure and function of each part of society; when all the parts of society fulfill their functions, society is in a normal state
Symbolic interactionism
Study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols
Token economy
System of behaviour modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behaviour, reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex. Prizes)
Physiological zero
Temperature judged to this normal temperature of the skin
Confirmation bias
Tendency to focus on information that fits an individual's beliefs while rejecting information that goes against them
Traditionalism
Tendency to follow authority
Primacy and recency effect
Tendency to remember early and late items
Pituitary gland
The "master gland" of the endocrine system that triggers hormone release in other endocrine glands.
Divided attention
The ability to attend to multiple stimuli simultaneously and to perform multiple tasks at the same time.
Theory of mind
The ability to sense how another's mind works.
Parallel processing
The ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding multiple aspects of a stimulus, such as color, shape, and motion.
Empathy
The abler to vicariously experience the emotion of another.
Foraging
The act of searching for and exploiting food resources
Circadian rhythm
The alignment of physiological processes with the 24-hour day, including sleep-wake cycles and some elements of the endocrine system.
Elaborative rehearsal
The association of information in short-term memory to information already stored in long-term memory; aids in long-term storage.
Semantics
The association of meaning with a word.
Fertility rate
The average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a population.
Automatic processing
The brain process most closely resembling autopilot, enabling performance of multiple activities at the same time.
Sympathetic nervous system
The branch of the ANS that controls the fight-or-flight response; associated with stressful situations that increase heart and respiration rates and decrease digestion.
Morbidity
The burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease.
Power
The capacity to influence people through the real or threatened use of rewards and punishments; often based on unequal distribution of valued resources.
Cognitive behavioral therapy
The cause of a disorder stems from the interactions between thoughts and behaviors. They correct patterns of conscious thought. - addresses both cognitive and behavioural components
Obedience
The changing of behavior of an individual based on a command from someone seen as an authority figure.
Conformity
The changing of beliefs or behaviors in order to fit into a group or society.
Locus of control
The characterization of the source of influences on the events in one's life; can be internal or external.
Just-world hypothesis
The cognitive bias that good things happen to good people, and bad things happen to bad people.
Extinction (in classical conditioning)
The decrease in response resulting from repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the presence of the unconditioned stimulus. - e.g. sound of fridge opening (conditioned stimulus) but no carrot (unconditioned stimulus). Guinea pig will stop responding to the fridge door opening
Prosencephalon
The embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the forebrain.
Rhombencephalon
The embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the hind brain.
Myelencephalon
The embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the medulla oblongata.
Mesencephalon
The embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the pons and cerebellum.
Multiculturalism
The encouragement of multiple cultures in a society to enhance diversity.
Beneficence
The ethical tenet that the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest.
Nonmaleficence
The ethical tenet that the physician has a responsibility to avoid intervention in which the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit.
Autonomy (in regards to physicians)
The ethical tenet that the physician has the responsibility to respect patients' choices about their own healthcare.
Affect
The experience and display of emotion.
Adaptive value
The extent to which a trait benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species.
genital stage
The fifth of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages, this stage begins in adolescence when sexual themes resurface and a person's life/sexual energy fuels activities such as friendships, art, sports, and careers 6.1
Interpersonal attraction
The force that makes people like each other.
Fundamental attribution error
The general bias towards making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions when analyzing another person's behavior.
Genotype
The genetic makeup of an individual.
genotype
The genetic makeup of an organism 5.2
Reference group
The group to which an individual compares him- or herself for a given identity.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
The guide by which most psychological disorders are characterized, described, and diagnosed; currently in its fifth edition (DSM-5. published May 2013).
Self-serving bias
The idea that individuals will view their own success as being based on internal factors, while viewing failures as being based on external factors.
Multiple intelligences
The idea that intelligence may exist in multiple areas, not just in the areas typically assessed any traditional intelligence quotient tests.
Deindividuation
The idea that people will lose a sense of self-awareness and can act dramatically differently based on the influence of a group.
Disconfirmation principle
The idea that states that if evidence obtained during testing does not confirm a hypothesis, then the hypothesis is discarded or revised.
Functional fixedness
The inability to identify uses for an object beyond its usual purpose.
Alcohol myopia
The inability to think about consequences and possible outcomes of one's actions due to alcohol intoxication.
adrenal medulla
The inner region of the adrenal gland part of the sympathetic nervous system and releases epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine into the bloodstream when stimulated. Epinephrine and norepinephrine prolong and enhance the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the body 3.4
Secondary stress appraisal
The interpretation of primary stress appraisal to determine emotional response to a given threat. - What is material preparedness to deal with stressor - Appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge (how to overcome it)
Mate choice
The intersexual selection of a mate based on attraction and traits.
Social capital
The investment people make in their society in return for economic or collective reward.
Autonomic Nervous System
The involuntary branch of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions such as heart rate, bronchial dilation, temperature, and digestion.
Spacing effect
The longer the amount of time between sessions of re-learning, the greater the retention of the information later on
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
The main active ingredient in marijuana.
Just-noticeable difference (jnd)
The minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this different; also called a difference threshold.
Absolute threshold
The minimum of stimulus energy needed to activate a sensory system.
Brainstem
The most primitive portion of the brain, which includes the midbrain and hindbrain; controls the autonomic nervous system and communications between the spinal cord, cranial nerves, and brain. (Midbrain, Pons, Medulla)
Symbolic culture
The nonmaterial culture that represents a group of people; expressed through ideas and concepts.
Birth rate
The number of births per population in a period of time; usually the number of births per 1000 people per year.
Prevalence
The number of cases of a disease per population in a given period of time; usually, case per 1000 people per year.
Incidence
The number of new cases of a disease per population at risk in a given period of time; usually, new cases per 1000 at-risk people per year.
Bystander effect
The observation that, when in a group, individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need.
Ideal self
The person one would optimally like to be.
Recency effect
The phenomenon in which the most recent information we have about an individual is most important in forming our impressions.
Primacy effect
The phenomenon of first impressions of a person being more important than subsequent impressions.
Spacing effect
The phenomenon of retaining larger amounts of information when the amount of time between sessions of relearning is increased.
Material culture
The physical items one associates with a given cultural group.
PNS (peripheral nervous sytem)
The portion of the nervous system composed of nerve tissue and fibers outside the central nervous system.
Central nervous sytem
The portion of the nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord.
fecundity
The potential reproductive capacity of a female in a population 8.3
Ethnocentrism
The practice of making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture.
Associative learning
The process by which a connection is made between two stimuli or a stimulus and a response; example include classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Assimilation (in psychology)
The process by which new information is interpreted in terms of existing schemata.
Adaptation (in learning)
The process by which new information is processed; consists of assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation (in sociology)
The process by which the behavior and culture of a group or an individual begins to merge with that of another group.
Generalization (in classical conditioning)
The process by which two distinct but similar stimuli come to produce the same response.
Discrimination (in classical conditioning)
The process by which two similar but distinct conditioned stimuli produce different responses
Shaping (in operant conditioning)
The process of conditioning a complicated behavior by rewarding successive approximations of the behavior.
Retrieval
The process of demonstrating that information has been retained in memory; includes recall, recognition, and relearning.
Globalization
The process of integrating the global economy with free trade and tapping of foreign labor markets.
Motivation
The process of psychological and physical requirements, goals, or desires causing behavior.
Encoding
The process of receiving information and prepping it for storage; can be automatic or effortful. - transferring sensory information into memory
Acquisition (in classical conditioning)
The process of taking advantage of reflexive responses to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus.
Ought self
The representation of the way others think one should be.
Storage
The retention of encoded information; divided into sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.
Prosody
The rhythm, cadence, and inflection of speech.
Gender
The set of behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with a biological sex.
Phonology
The set of sounds that compose a language.
Nondominant hemisphere
The side of the brain associated with sensitivity to the emotional tone of language, intuition, creativity, music, and spatial processing; in most individuals, the right hemisphere.
Dominant hemisphere
The side of the brain that provides analytic, language, logic, and math skills; in most individuals, the left hemisphere.
Cognitive dissonance
The simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions.
Characteristic institution
The social structure or institution about which societies are organized.
Demographics
The statistical arm of sociology, which attempts to characterize and explain population by quantitative analysis.
Long-term potentiation
The strengthening of neural connections due to rehearsal or relearning; thought to be the neurophysiological basis of long-term memory.
Eustress
The stress response to positive conditions - Supposed to be beneficial to the person
Distress
The stress response to unpleasant stressors.
Morphology
The structure of words, including their building blocks.
Neuropsychology
The study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain.
Groupthink
The tendency for groups to make decisions based on ideas and solutions that arise within the group without considering outside ideas and ethics; based on pressure to conform and remain loyal to the group.
Self-reference effect
The tendency for individuals to best recall information that they can relate to their own experiences.
Instinctive drift
The tendency of animals to resist learning when a conditioned behavior conflicts with the animal's instinctive behaviors.
Social facilitation
The tendency of people to perform at a different level based on the fact that others are around.
Response bias
The tendency of subjects to respond systematically to stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensory factors.
Serial position effect
The tendency to better remember items presented at the beginning or end of a list; related to the primacy and recency effect.
Reliance on central traits
The tendency to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that matter to the perceiver.
Group polarization
The tendency toward decisions that are more extreme than the individual inclination of the group members.
Justice (in medical ethics)
The tenet that the physician has a responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and to distribute healthcare resources fairly.
Psychoanalytic perspective
The theory of personality developed by Freud that focuses on repression and unconscious forces and includes the concepts of infantile sexuality, resistance, transference, and division of the psyche into the id, ego, and superego - personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and past memories (particularly in childhood)
Cultural relativism
The theory that social groups and cultures must be studied on their own terms to be understood.
Demographic transition
The transition from high birth and mortality rates to lower birth and mortality rates, seen as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system.
Spreading activation
The unconscious activation of closely linked nodes of a semantic network.
Reinforcement (in operant conditioning)
The use of a stimulus designed to increase the frequency of a desired behavior.
Punishment (in operant conditioning)
The use of an averse stimulus designed to decrease the sequence of undesired behavior.
Deviance
The violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society.
Somatic nervous system
The voluntary branch of the PNS, which consists of sensory and motor neurons used to control bodily movements.
Mating system
The way in which a group organizes its sexual behavior and sexual relationships.
Pragmatics
The ways in which use of language can be altered, depending on social context.
Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft
Theory that distinguishes between two major types of groups: communities (Gemeinschaft), which share beliefs, ancestry, or geography; and societies (Gesellschaft), which work together toward a common goal.
Attribution theory
Theory that focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior
Rogers' Unconditional Positive Regard
Therapist accepts client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote positive therapeutic environment
Zone of proximal development
Those skills which a child has not yet mastered but can accomplish with the help of a more knowledgeable other.
Undifferentiated
Those who achieve low scores on both masculine and feminine
Secondary trait
Trait is love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat - more preferences/attitudes
Cardinal traits
Traits are characteristics that direct most of person's activities - the dominant traits. Influence all of our behaviours, including secondary and central traits
Sensation
Transduction of physical stimuli into neurological signals
Colliculi
Two structures in the midbrain involved in sensorimotor reflexes; the superior colliculus receives visual sensory input, and the inferior colliculus receives auditory sensory input.
Primary reinforcer
Unconditioned reinforcer
Hypothesis of relative deprivation
Upsurge in prejudice when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to
Base rate fallacy
Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
Reinforcement Schedules
Variable-ratio schedule has fastest response rate
Trial and Error
Various solutions are tried until one is found that seems to work
Sensory memory
Visual (iconic) and auditory (echoic) stimuli briefly stored in memory; fades very quickly unless attention is paid to the information.
Feature detection
Visual pathways contain cells specialized in detection of color, shape, or motion
stereotype content model
Warm groups: those not in direct competition with the in-group for resources Competent groups: high status within society Paternalistic: inferior, dismissed, ignored Contemptuous: resentment, annoyance, anger Envious: jealously, bitterness, distrust Admiration: pride and other positive feelings
Gestalt principles
Ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete - the mind has an innate disposition to perceive patterns in the stimulus based on certain rules
Inattention blindness
We aren't aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field
Informative social influence
We conform because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us, because we think they know something we don't
Theory of planed behavior
We consider the implications of our intensions before we behave Intensions are based on 3 things: 1. our attitudes towards a certain behavior (ex. I like studying) 2. subjective norms (what we think others think about our behavior) 3. perceived behavioural control (how easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior)
Normative social influence
We do something to gain respect/support of peers, we're complying with social norms. Because of this we might go with group outwardly, but internally believe something differently.
Resource model of attention
We have limited resources in attention. Thus, we cannot multitask well
Linguistic determinism
Weak and strong hypothesis - Weak: language influences thought (reading right to left vs. left to right influences what direction you imagine girl pushing boy) - Strong (aka Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis): people understand their world through language, and language in turn shapes how we experience the world. Ex. tribe called Hopi without grammatical sense - they couldn't think about time in same way.
Max Weber
Weber agreed with Marx's ideas about conflict theory but he did not believe that the collapse of capitalism was inevitable rather, he argued that there could be more than one source of conflict, such as conflict over inequalities in political power and social status Max Weber, Emile Durkeim, and Karl Marx are considered founding fathers of sociology 8.1
Social institutions
Well-established, structural patterns of behavior or relationships that are accepted as a fundamental part of a culture.
Working memory
What you're thinking about at the moment - Magic number 7: can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of info at a time. Why phone #s are 7 digits long
Discrimination ( in sociology)
When individuals of a particular group are treated differently than others based on their group.
Spontaneous recovery (in classical conditioning)
When old conditioned stimulus elicits a response - don't know why this happens
Spreading activation
When one node of our semantic network is activated, like seeing the word "red," the other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated
Decay
When we don't encode something well or don't retrieve it for a while, we can't at all anymore - Connections become weaker over time - Initial rate of forgetting is high but levels off over time
Role strain
When you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status
Covariation model
Whether you attribute something as dispositional or situational 1. Consistency - dispositional 2. Distinctiveness - normally sweet guy but gets mad at a pizza place = situational 3. Consensus - if you arrive late at meeting but if 20 other people are late too, high degree of consensus. Thus, when a lot of people demonstrate same behavior, we are more likely to attribute behavior to situational cause.
Authentic self
Who someone actually is, including both positive and negative attributes.
Arousal Theory
Yerkes-Dodson Law that postulates performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal and optimal at some intermediate level Lower levels are optimal for highly cognitive tasks Higher levels are optimal for activities requiring physical endurance and stamina Simple tasks generally require slightly higher arousal than complex tasks
Near miss
You're "close to winning," not losing
altruism
a behavior that helps ensure the success of survival of the rest of a social group, possibly at the expense of the success or survival of the individual 7.3
negative feedback
a biological process that works by maintaining stability or homeostasis; a system produces a result which feeds back to stop the system and maintain the result within tightly controlled bounds 6.2
intergenerational mobility
a change (increase or decrease) in social class between parents and children of a family (e.g. Trenton's grandparents were immigrants from a foreign country who spent most of their lifetimes working factory jobs so that Trenton's parents could go to school. As adults, Trenton's parents were able to get college degrees and both became teachers. Trenton's mother later retired to be a stay-at-home mom. Trenton was able to develop his skills as a guitar player and become an international star and multi-millionaire.) 8.4
neurotransmitter
a chemical released by the axon of a neuron in response to an action potential that binds to receptors on the post-synaptic cell and causes that cell to either depolarize slightly (EPSP) or hyperpolarize slightly (IPSP) e.g. acetylcholine, norepinephrine, GABA, dopamine, etc. 3.2
pheromone
a chemical signal that causes a social response in members of the same species 3.5
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
a clear fluid that circulates around and through the brain and spinal cord. it helps to physically support the brain and acts as a shock absorber. It also exchanges nutrients and wastes with the brain and spinal cord; HOWEVER, it is NOT concerned with delivering oxygen to the brain. This is the job of red blood cells; it also helps reduces brain ischemia by reducing its own volume to reduce pressure on the blood vessels 3.4
caste system
a closed social stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they are born into 8.4
ganglion
a clump of grey matter (unmyelinated neuron cell bodies) found in the PNS 3.4
group
a collection of any number of people 'as few as two' who regularly interact and identify with each other sharing similar norms, values, and expectations 7.2
global stratification
a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, and power of various countries 8.4
social isolation
a complete/ near complete lack of contact with people and society for members of social spears; not the same thing as loneliness, which is temporary
social institutions
a complex of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contributes to social order by governing the behavior of people; they provide predictability and organization for individuals within a society and mediate social behavior between people 8.2
door-in-the-face technique
a compliance method commonly studied in social psychology. The persuader attempts to convince the respondent to comply by first making a large request that the respondent will most likely turn down, much like a metaphorical slamming of a door in the persuader's face. This is followed by a smaller request which the respondent will now more easily agree to.
addiction
a compulsion to do an act repeatedly; can consist of a psychological dependence and/or a physical dependence as evidenced by drug addiction withdrawal 4.3
learned helplessness
a condition where one has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond even though there are opportunities to avoid unpleasant circumstances or gain positive rewards 4.5, 7.1
reinforcememnt
a consequence that increases the likelihood that the preceding behavior will be repeated: two types are there: positive and negative 5.1
interdependence
a culture in which members contribute to each other and view the collective good as the primary goal. This is closely related to the goals of a transformational leader who seeks to inspire deep loyalty and shared vision across the organization
values
a culture's standard for evaluating what is good or bad 8.3
habituation
a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations 5.1
downward mobility
a decrease in social class 8.4
case study
a descriptive analysis of an individual, group, or an event, which does not involve various experimental groups
personal identity
a distinct sense of self including personally defined attributes 7.1
ecclesia
a dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions 8.2
endocrine gland
a ductless gland hat secretes hormones into the blood 3.6
delusion
a false belief that is not due to culture, and is not relinquished despite evidence that it is false 6.3
hallucination
a false sensory perception that occurs while a person is conscious (not during sleep or delirium) 6.3
egalitarian family
a family system where spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions 8.2
Stranger anxiety
a fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals
rational-legal authority
a form of leadership that is organized around rational legal rules 8.2
charismatic authority
a form of leadership where devotion is reliant upon an individual with exceptional charisma (persuasiveness, charm, and ability to connect with people) 8.2
traditional authority
a form of leadership where power is due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice 8.2
polygyny
a form of marriage in which a man is married to more than one woman 8.2
polyandry
a form of marriage in which a woman is married to more than one man 8.2
polygamy
a form of marriage in which an individual may have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously 8.2
monogamy
a form of marriage in which two individuals are married only to each other 8.2
personality trait
a generally stable predisposition towards a certain behavior 6.1
exocrine gland
a gland that secretes its product into a duct, which ultimately carries the product to the surface of the body or into a body cavity. Example: sweat glands 3.6
society
a group of people who share a culture and live/interact with each other within a definable area 8.1
in-group
a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who they are 7.2
out-group
a group that an individual does not belong to 7.2
reference group
a group that serves as a standard measure that people compare themselves to, such as a peer group 7.2
pupil
a hole in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the eyeball; its diameter is controlled by the iris in response to the brightness of light 3.5
steroid hormone
a hormone derived from cholesterol generally hydrophobic and can easily cross the plasma membrane of cells thus receptors for steroids are found intracellularly once the steroid binds to the receptor, the receptor-steroid complex acts to regulate transcription in the nucleus 3.6
peptide hormone
a hormone made of amino acids, in some cases, just a single modifies amino acid; they are generally hydrophilic and can't cross the plasma membrane of cells; thus receptors for them must be found on the cell surface; an exception is THYROXINE which is hydrophobic enough to enter the cells easily; binding of these hormones to its receptor usually triggers a second-messenger system within the cell 3.6
epinephrine
a hormone produced and secreted by the adrenal medulla that prolongs and increases the effects of the sympathetic nervous system 3.4
parathyroid hormone
a hormone produced and secreted by the parathyroid glands that increase serum calcium levels; •it targets the bones (stimulates osteoclasts), •the kidneys (increases calcium reabsorption), •and the small intestine (increases calcium absorption) 3.6
growth hormone
a hormone released by the anterior pituitary targets all cells in the body and stimulates whole body growth in children and adolescents and increased cell turnover rate in adults 3.6
prolactin
a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that targets the mammary glands stimulating them to produce milk 3.6
tropic hormone
a hormone that controls the release of another hormone 3.6
dual coding hypothesis
a hypothesis that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone 5.4
anomie
a lack of social norms, which leads to a breakdown in the connection between an individual and their community
organization
a large group, more impersonal than a network that comes together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently 7.3
secondary group
a larger and more impersonal group than a primary group which usually interacts for specific reasons for relatively short periods of time; these groups serve pragmatic (practical) needs 7.2
action potential
a localized change in a neuron's membrane potential that propagates away from its point of origin. all-or-none processes mediated by the opening of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels when the membrane is brought to threshold potential; opening Na+ channels causes characteristic depolarization, while opening K+ channels repolarizes the membrane 3.1
axon
a long projection off the cell body of a neuron down which an action potential can be propagated 3.1
method of loci
a memory device that involves imagining moving through a familiar place such as your home and in each place leaving a visual representation of a topic to be remembered 5.4
ennui
a mental state characterized by lethargy and apathy, often associated with depression; it is not a social effect
spreading activation/ theory
a method for searching associative networks, neural networks, or semantic networks. A theory of information retrieval that involves a search process where specific nodes are activated which leads to the activation of related nodes, and so on A node does not become activated until it receives input signals from its neighbors that are strong enough to reach a response threshold. the effect of input signals is cumulative: the response threshold is reached by the summation of input signals from multiple nodes 5.4
symbolic interactionism
a micro-level theory which examines the relationship between individuals and society by focusing on communication, the exchange of information through language and symbols symbolic interactionism suggests that the mind and self emerge through the social process of communication or use of symbols 7.1, 8.1
synaptic cleft
a microscopic space between the axon of one neuron and the cell body or dendrites of a second neuron, or between the axon of a neuron and an organ 3.2
Parkinson's disease
a movement disorder caused by the death of cells that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantia nigra, 2 subcortical structures in the brain; among the symptoms are: •a resting terror (shaking) •slowed movement, •rigidity of movements and the face, •and a shuffling gait 6.3
interneuron
a neuron found completely within the central nervous system typically connect sensory and motor neurons especially in the reflex arcs 3.3
efferent neurons
a neuron that carries information (action potentials) away from the central nervous system; a motor neuron 3.3
synapse
a neuron to neuron, neuron to organ, or muscle cell to muscle cell junction 3.2
multipolar neuron
a neuron with a single axon and multiple dendrites; the most common type of neuron in the nervous system 3.1
bipolar neuron
a neuron with a single axon and single dendrite, often projecting from opposite sides of the cell body. typically associated with sensory organs 3.1
glucagon
a peptide hormone produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas, which primarily targets the liver stimulating the breakdown of glycogen, thus increasing blood glucose level 3.6
illusory correlation
a perceived relationship between two things (people, events, or behaviors) even when none exists (e.g. A man holds the belief that people in urban environments tend to be rude. Therefore, when he meets someone who is rude he assumes that the person lives in a city, rather than a rural area. ) 7.2
long-term potentiation
a persistent increase in synaptic strength between two neurons that occurs following brief periods of their stimulation leads to increased sensitivity of neurons recently stimulated; believed to play a role in learning and the consolidation of memory from short-term memory to long-term memory 5.1
specific phobia
a persistent, strong, and unreasonable fear of a certain object or situation specific phobias are classified into four types depending on the types of triggers they involve, including: •situational type •natural environment type •blood injection injury type •animal type 6.3
derealization disorder
a person experiences a feeling that people or objects in the external world are unreal
attitude
a person's feelings and beliefs about other people or events around him/her, and his/her behavioral reactions based on those underlying evaluations 6.4
mood
a person's sustained internal emotion that colors his/her view of life 6.3
affect
a person's visible emotion in the moment 6.3
groupthink
a phenomenon where within a group, the desire for harmony or conformity results in an easy consensus even if the final decision is not the best one 7.2
iris
a pigmented membrane found just in front of the lens of the eye, in the center of it is the pupil: a hole though which light enters the eyeball; The iris regulates the diameter of the pupil in response to the brightness of the light 3.5
Fisherian/runaway selection
a positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait that has no effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time
conditioned response
a previously unconditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus that becomes a learned response to a conditioned stimulus UR + US --> *LR* + CS 5.1
social dysfunction
a process that has undesirable consequences, and may actually reduce the stability of society 8.1
neural plasticity
a process that refers to the malleability of the brain's pathways and synapses based on behavior, environment, and neural processes 5.4
dendrite
a projection off the cell body of a neuron that receives nerve impulses from a different neuron and sends the impulse to the cell body. Neurons can have one or several dendrites 3.1
conversion disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a change in sensory or motor function that has no discernible physical or physiological cause, and which seems to be significantly affected by psychological factors. The symptoms begin or worsen after an emotional conflict of other stressor 6.3
antisocial personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a history of serious behavior problems beginning in adolescence including significant aggression against people or animals, deliberate property destruction, lying or theft, and serious rule violation 6.3
dependent personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of himself or herself 6.3
mood disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of abnormal mood serious enough to cause significant personal distress and/or significant impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning 6.3
dissociative disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a person's thoughts, feelings, perceptions, memories, or behaviors being separated from conscious awareness and control, in a way that is not explainable as mere forgetfulness 6.3
hypochondriasis
a psychological disorder characterized by a pre-occupation with a fear of having a serious illness 6.3
body dysmorphic diorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a preoccupation with a slight physical anomaly or imagined defect in appearance, often involving the face, hair, breasts, or genitalia 6.3
depersonalization disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detached from one's body or mental processes, as if observing one's self from the outside 6.3
histrionic personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a strong desire to be the center of attention and seeking to attract attention through personal appearance and seductive behavior 6.3
somatization disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a variety of symptoms over an extended time period, including: •pain, •gastrointestinal symptoms, •sexual symptoms, •and pseudoneurological symptoms 6.3
dissociative identity disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by alternating between two or more distinct personality states (or identities), only one of which interacts with other people at any one time 6.3
personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by an enduring rigid set of personality traits that: •deviates from cultural norms, •impairs functioning, •and causes distress either to the person with the disorder, or to those in his or her life 6.3
dissociative amnesia
a psychological disorder characterized by at least one episode of suddenly forgetting some important personal information, usually related to severe stress or trauma 6.3
pain disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by clinically important pain whose onset or severity seems significantly affected by psychological factors 6.3
bipolar disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by cyclic mood episodes at both extremes of "poles," depression and mania. In bipolar I disorder, a person has experiences at least one manic or mixed episode. In bipolar II disorder, the manic phases are less extreme 6.3
borderline personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by enduring or recurrent instability in impulse control, mood, and image of self and others. Impulsive and reckless behavior, together with extreme mood swings, reactivity, and anger, can lead to unstable relationships and to damage both of the person with the disorder and of others in his or her life 6.3
narcissistic personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of grandiosity with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power 6.3
avoidant personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, and undesirability, and a preoccupation with fears of criticism and rejection; resulting in the person becoming socially withdrawn 6.3
schizoid personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by little interest or involvement in close relationships, even those with family members 6.3
paranoid personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by mistrust and misinterpretation of others motives and actions and suspicion of harm/betrayal 6.3
major depressive disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by one or more major depressive episodes where a person has felt worse than usual for most of the day, nearly every day for at least two weeks 6.3
paranoid-type schizophrenia
a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of hallucinations and/or delusions usually relating to a certain theme 6.3
catatonic-type schizophrenia
a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of catatonic behavior (including extremely retarded/ inhibited or excited motor activity) 6.3
schizotypal personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including: •constricted or inappropriate affect; •magical or paranoid thinking; •and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and perceptions 6.3
schizophreniform disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by symptoms of schizophrenia present for a period of 1-6 months during which the symptoms may or may not have interfered with functioning 6.3
undifferentiated-type schizophrenia
a psychological disorder characterized by the basic criteria for schizophrenia, but symptoms that do not fit into one of the other subtypes 6.3
Schizoaffective disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by the combination of mood and psychotic symptoms; in this disorder, both the symptoms of schizophrenia and a major depressive, manic, or mixed episode are experienced for at least one month 6.3
somatoform disorder
a psychological disorder characterized primarily by physical symptoms and concerns, which may mimic physical (somatic) disease However, the symptoms are not explainable medically and do not improve with medical treatment 6.3
panic disorder
a psychological disorder that is characterized by panic attacks which can be cued by certain situations but are more often uncued or "spontaneous", occuring frequently and unexpectedly 6.3
disorganized-type schizophrenia
a psychological disorder that is characterized by psychosis in the form of flat or inappropriate affect, disorganized speech, and disorganized behavior 6.3
schizophrenia
a psychological disorder that is chronic and incapacitating and is characterized by psychosis and material impairment in social, occupational, and personal functioning 6.3
cyclothymic disorder
a psychological disorder that is similar to bipolar disorder but the moods are less extreme. experienced cyclic moods, including many hypomanic episodes, as well as many episodes of depressed mood that are milder than a major depressive episode for at least two years 6.3
dissociative fugue
a psychological disorder where someone suddenly goes on a journey, during which he or she cannot recall personal history prior to the journey 6.3
residual-type schizophrenia
a psychological disorder where the acute phase of schizophrenia has resolved and the criteria for schizophrenia are no longer met, but some symptoms are still present in milder forms 6.3
attachment theory
a psychological model that attempts to describe the dynamics of long-term and short-term interpersonal relationships between humans which depends on the person's ability to develop basic trust in their caregivers and self. (joint work of Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby)
humanistic psychology
a psychological perspective developed partially in response to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization. Carl Rogers is most associated with this kind of psychology 6.1
Philip Zimbardo
a psychologist best known for his prison study elucidated the extreme effects of role-playing on human behavior A group of 24 male students were isolated and asked to play the role of prisoners and guards the participants adapted to their roles well beyond Zimbardo's expectations the guards enforced extreme measures, including psychological torture and many of the prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and readily harassed other prisoners who attempted to prevent it 6.4
Raymond Cattell
a psychologist interested in personality, used factor analysis with hundreds of surface traits to identify which traits were related to each other. By this process, he identified 16 source traits by factor analysis reduced 15 of these into 5 global factors: •extroversion •anxiety •receptivity •accommodation •self-control 6.1
saltatory conduction
a rapid form of action potential conduction along the axon of a neuron in which the action potential appears to jump from node of Ranvier to node of Ranvier 3.1
thermoreceptor
a receptor that responds to changes in temperature 3.5
proprioceptor
a receptor that responds to changes in the body position such as stretch on a tendon, or contraction of a muscle; the receptors allow us to be consciously aware of the position of our body parts 3.5
photoreceptor
a receptor that responds to light 3.5
reciprocal determinism
a reciprocal interaction between a person's behaviors (conscious actions), personal factors (cognitions, motivations, personality), and environmental factors 5.2
reflex arc
a relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement 3.3
sect
a religious organization that is distinct from the parent religion from which it was formed 8.2
exogamy
a requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives 8.2
decoy
a research technique often used as part of deception, generally to intentionally mislead or confuse participants
unconditioned response
a response that automatically follows an unconditioned stimulus, without necessitating learning and conditioning to create the link 5.1
neobehaviorism
a school of psychology based on the general principles of behaviorism but broader and more flexible in concept. It stresses experimental research and laboratory analyses in the study of overt behavior and in various subjective phenomena that cannot be directly observed and measured, such as fantasies, love, stress, empathy, trust, and personality; psychologists belonging to this school believe that behavior can be modified by rewards or punishments
critical theory
a school of thought that stresses the reflective assessments and critique of society and culture ...by applying knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities; it focuses on changing, rather than understanding, society
subculture
a segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differs from that of the larger society 7.1
baroreceptor
a sensory receptor that responds to changes in pressure; for example, there are baroreceptors in the carotid arteries and the aortic arch that monitor blood pressure 3.5
mechanoreceptor
a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical disturbances such as: •shape changes, •being squashed, bent, pulled; they include touch receptors in the skin, hair cells in the ear, muscle spindles, and others 3.5
chemoreceptor
a sensory receptor that responds to specific chemicals. Some examples are: •gustatory (taste) receptors, •olfactory (smell) receptors, •and central chemoreceptors (which respond to changes in CSF pH) 3.5
psychological disorder/illness or mental illness
a set of behavioral and/or psychological symptoms that are not keeping with cultural norms and that are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or sufficient impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning 6.3
Psychological disorder
a set of thoughts, feelings, or actions which are considered deviant by the culture at hand and which cause noticeable distress to the sufferer.
culture
a shared way of life, including the beliefs and practices that a social group shares 8.3
excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell closer to the threshold for an action potential 3.2
IPSP
a slight hyperpolarization of a postsynaptic cell moving the membrane potential of that cell further from the threshold 3.2
social construct
a social mechanism or practice that is constructed by society; essentially everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value, e.g. the idea of gender, social class 8.1
class system
a social stratification where people are grouped together by similar wealth, income, education, and the like, but the classes are open, meaning that people can strive to reach a higher class (or fall to a lower one) 8.4
meritocracy
a social stratification where people's social standing's are judged based on merit (or personal effort) alone; this is an idealized system - no society solely stratifies based on effort 8.4
matriarchy
a social system where females, esp. mothers within families are the primary authority figures 8.2
patriarchy
a social system where males are primary authority figures, and where fathers hold authority over women and children in a family 8.2
ethnicity
a socially defined concept referring to whether of not people identify with each other based on shared social experience or ancestry 8.3
status
a sociological term that refers to all the socially define positions within a society 7.3
social constructionism
a sociological theory that argues that people actively shape their reality through social interaction; it is therefore something that is constructed, not inherent; it looks to uncover the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the construction of their perceived social reality 8.1
source monitoring error
a specific type of error of recollection where a memory is incorrectly attributed to the wrong source 5.4
physical attractiveness stereotype
a specific type of halo effect bias; people tend to rate attractively individuals more favorable for personality traits and characteristics than they do those who are less attractive 7.2
algorithm
a step-by-step detailing of steps that aids with problem solving 4.2
progesterone
a steroid hormone produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary during the second half of the menstrual cycle. Progesterone maintains and enhances the uterine lining for the possible implantation of the fertilized ovum. It is the primary hormone secreted during pregnancy 3.6
neutral stimulus
a stimulus that does not elicit any intrinsic response in the absence of outside interference (conditioning) 5.1
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response automatically, without necessitating learning and conditioning to create the link 5.1
self-handicapping
a strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly 7.3
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
a strategy that involves enticing people to take small actions, and then gradually asking for larger and larger commitment 6.4
phobia
a strong unreasonable fear that almost always causes general anxiety or a full panic attack; can be specific or social 6.3
meta-analytic study
a study that involves contrasting and combining results from different studies, with the aim of finding patterns among the results that might bring about new information
secure attachment
a style of relating to to others that forms whe an infant has caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to needs, in Ainsworth's experiments, securely attached infants were found to be willing to explore surroundings in the presence of the mother; they were upset, but consolable when the mother left and then returned to the room 5.3
language
a symbolic system that is codified for communication 4.2
state capitalism
a system in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations 8.2
welfare capitalism
a system in which most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society 8.2
endocrine system
a system of ductless glands that secrete chemical messengers (hormones) into the blood 3.6
patrilineal descent
a system of lineage in which relatives on the father's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their father's lineage 8.2
bilateral descent
a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side and father's side are considered equally important 8.2
matrilineal descent
a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their mother's lineage 8.2
parallel processing
a system whereby many aspects of a stimulus are processed simultaneously instead of in a step-by-step or serial fashion. e.g. visual processing in the brain 3.5
distraction
a technique in which researchers attempt to redirect the brain while conducting an experiment, usually in order to allow a previously acquired memory to be encoded
rehearsal
a technique of repeating verbal information in one's phonological loop to promote the encoding of sensory information into memory 5.4
halo effect
a tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures rather than looking at individual characteristics 7.2
primacy effect
a tendency to better recall the first items on a list 5.4
belief bias
a tendency to draw conclusions based on what one already believes rather than sound logic 4.2
mental set
a tendency to fixate on ideas and solutions that have worked in the past even if they may not have applied to the current situation 4.2
misinformation effect
a tendency to misremember an event, particularly when misleading information is presented between the event and the mental encoding of the the event (e.g. if an interrogator questions an individual about an event using leading questions, the person's perception of the event will change to fit the question) 5.4
functional fixedness
a tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging 4.2
recency effect
a tendency to recall the last item presented in a list 5.4
confirmation bias
a tendency to search only for information that confirms a preconceived conclusion 4.2
Drive Reduction Theory
a theory about the impact of motivation on human behavior that suggests that a physiological need (a drive) creates an aroused state that motivates the organism to reduce that need by engaging in some behavior 6.2
attribution theory
a theory that attempts to explain how individuals view behavior - both our own behavior and the behavior of others - by attributing behavior to either internal or external causes; it is the idea that individuals make inferences in order to understand the causes of various behaviors or actions 7.2
signal detection theory
a theory that attempts to predict how and when someone will detect the presence of a given sensory stimulus (the signal), amidst all of the other sensory stimuli in the background (noise), there are 4 possible outcome: •a hit (signal present and detected), •a miss (signal present but not detected), •a false alarm (signal not present but person thought it was), •and a correct rejection (signal not present and the person did not think it was) 3.5
cognitive dissonance theory
a theory that explains that we feel tension ("dissonance") whenever we hold two thoughts or beliefs ("cognitions") that are incompatible, or when attitudes and behaviors don't match. When this occurs, we try to reduce this unpleasant feeling of tension by making our views of the world match how we feel or what we've done. 6.4
inclusive fitness
a theory that suggests that cooperation among organisms (including altruistic behaviors) promotes genetic success, meaning that even if not all of the organisms survive to reproduce, some of their genes will still be passed to the next generation (e.g. a lapwing will fake injury to distract a hawk from its young, thereby acting altruistically toward its offspring) 7.3
incentive theory
a theory that suggests that incentives (objects or events in the environment that either help induce or discourage certain behaviors) motivate human behavior 6.2
conflict theory
a theory that views society as being in competition for limited resources. society is a place where there will be inequality in resources, therefore individuals will compete for social, political, and material resources like: money, land, power, and leisure 8.1
game theory
a theory used to try and predict large complex systems such as the overall behavior of a population 7.3
vitreous humor
a thick, gelatinous fluid found in the posterior segment of the eye (between the lens and the retina) only produced during fetal development and helps maintain intraocular pressure (the pressure inside the eye) 5.3
cerebral cortex
a thin (4 mm) layer of gray matter on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres. the conscious mind functionally divided into 4 lobes: •the frontal lobes •parietal lobes •temporal lobes •occipital lobes 3.4
aqueous humor
a thin, watery fluid found in the anterior segment of the eye (between the lens and cornea). constantly produced and drained helps bring nutrients to the lens and cornea, as well as remove metabolic wastes 3.5
luteinizing hormone (LH)
a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the gonads; in females, it triggers ovulation and the development of corpus luteum during the menstrual cycle; in males, it stimulated the production and release of testosterone 3.6
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the adrenal cortex, stimulating it to release cortisol and aldosterone 3.6 and 4.5
exposure therapy
a type of cognitive-behavioral therapy whereby the individual is introduced to the specific anxiety-inducing situation gradually and in a controlled environment until his or her anxiety level decreases through adaptation; it has been found to be the most effective form of treatment for agoraphobia (fear of crowded spaces)
top-down processing
a type of information processing that occurs when the brain applies experience and expectations to interpret sensory information note that the brain in fact uses a combination of bottom-up processing and top-down processing 3.5
retroactive interference
a type of memory interference that occurs when newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously 5.4
proactive interference
a type of memory interference that occurs when previously learned information interferes with the recall of information learned more recently 5.4
bottom-up processing
a type of sensory processing that beings with the sensory receptors and works up to the complex integration of information occurring in the brain; note that the brain in fact uses a combination of bottom-up processing and top-down processing 3.5
chemical synapse
a type of synapse at which a chemical (a neurotransmitter) is released from the axon of a neuron into the synaptic cleft, where it binds to receptors on the next structure (either another neuron or an organ) 3.2
electrical synapse
a type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore the action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell 3.2
cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
a type of therapy that addresses thoughts and behaviors that are maladaptive by using goal-oriented and systematic techniques 6.1
humanistic psychotherapy
a type of therapy that focuses upon the more positive aspects of human beings in general and rejects the medical model, the psychoanalytic emphasis upon mal-adaptive personality traits, and the labeling of individuals as pathological. Accordingly, it places considerably less emphasis upon dis-positional factors than does psychoanalysis
deviance
a violation of society's standards of conduct or expectations 7.2
social network
a web of social relationships including those in which a person is directly linked to others, as well as those in which people are directly connected through others 7.3
Power
ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite any obstacles and their ability to control resources
intelligence
ability to learn from experience, problem solve, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations 5.2
Divided attention
ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time
Theory of mind
ability to sense how another's mind works (ex. friend is interpreting story while you tell it)
Parallel processing
ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion
Perceptual organization
ability to use these two processes (Bottom-up, top down) to create a complete picture or idea
parasomnia
abnormal behaviors during sleep including somnambulism and night terrors; usually occur during stage 3 or slow wave sleep 4.3
psychological fixation
acc. to Freud, adult personality is largely determined during the first 3 psychosexual stages; if parents either frustrate or overindulge the child's expression of sensual pleasure at a certain stage so that the child does not resolve that stage's developmental conflicts, the child becomes fixated at that stage and will, as an adult, continue to seek sensual pleasure through behaviors related to that stage 6.1
Appraisal model
accepts that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression
ego
according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the ego is ruled by the reality principle, and uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id (the unconscious driving force ruled by the pleasure principle) 6.1
id
according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the largely unconscious id is the source of energy and instincts ruled by the pleasure principle, the id seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure; it does not use logical or moral reasoning and it does not distinguish mental images from external objects; according to Freud, young children function almost entirely from the id 6.1
psychosexual stages
according to Freud's psychoanalytical theory, individuals progress through 5 psychosexual stages, one corresponding to the part of the body that is the focus of sensual pleasure; the 5 psychosexual stages are: •the oral stage, •the anal stage, •the phallic stages, •the latent stage, •and the genital stage 6.1
manifest content
according to Freud, the overt story lines of dreams 4.3
latent content
according to Freud, the unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express and underlie dreams (e.g. falling in a dream might have to do with feeling out of control in your life or failing at something. It might even represent giving in to sexual temptation) 4.3
libido
according to psychoanalytic theory, it is the life instinct which drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain, avoidance, and seeking pleasure 6.1
death instinct
according to psychoanalytic theory, drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself or others 6.1
behaviorism
according to this perspective, personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment. deterministic, proposing that people begin as blank slates, and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual's subsequent behavior and personalities 6.1
social cognitive perspective
according to this perspective, personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors 5.2, 6.1
psychoanalytic theory
according to this theory, personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. the classical version of this theory was developed by Sigmund Freud 6.1
habit
action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic 5.1
Secondary drives
additional drives not directly related to biological processes (ex. getting into medical school, becoming a physician, desire for love, achievement)
cultural transmission
addresses how culture is learned. Culture is passed along from generation to generation through various childrearing practices including (ex): when parents expose children to music
Indirect therapy
aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and friends of affected individual
peripheral nervous sytem
all the parts of the Nervous System except for the brain and the spinal cord 3.4
amygdala
almond-shaped structure deep within the brain that orchestrates emotional experiences 4.4
food desert
an area typically in a highly populated, lower income urban environment, where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find 8.2
capitalism
an economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned and goods/services are produced for a profit 8.2
socialism
an economic system where resources and production are collectively owned; it includes a system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs (goods/services are produced for direct use instead of for profit) 8.1
priming
an effect of implicit memory whereby exposure to a given stimulus "primes" or prepares the brain to respond to a later stimulus 5.4
manic episode
an experience of an abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood with at least three of the following symptoms: •grandiose, exaggerated, or delusional self-esteem, •high energy with little need for sleep, •increased talkativeness and pressured speech, •poor judgement, •increase psychomotor and goal-directed activity, •and distractibility with flight of ideas or racing thoughts 6.3
deindividuation
an explanation of people's startling and often uncharacteristic behavior when situations provide a high degree of arousal and a very low sense of responsibility 7.2
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories 5.4 and 6.3
relative poverty
an inability to meet the average standard of living within a society 8.4
upward mobility
an increase in social class 8.4
sensitization
an increase in the strength of a response with repeated presentation of a stimulus 5.1
ostrich effect
an individual avoiding an apparently risky financial situation by pretending it does not exist; not a social effect
That's-not-all technique
an individual is made an offer but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than she expected
Huntington's Disease
an inherited (autosomal dominant) disease that causes the progressive breakdown (degeneration) of nerve cells in the brain; it has a broad impact on a person's functional abilities and usually results in movement, thinking (cognitive) and psychiatric disorders
myelin
an insulating layer of membranes wrapped around the axons of almost all neurons in the body; it is essentially the plasma membranes of specialized cells: in the PNS they are Schwann cells and in the CNS they are Oligodendrocytes 3.1
utilitarian organization
an organization in which members get paid for their efforts, such as businesses 7.3
normative organization
an organization where membership is based on morally relevant goals 7.3
conditioned stimulus
an originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it can produce the conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus being present NS + US --> CR + NS *(no US)* 5.1
mind-body dualism
an outdated framework on which schizophrenia is based
overconfidence
an overestimation of the accuracy of one's knowledge and judgments 4.2
withdrawal
an uncomfortable and often painful experience that may accompany the discontinuing of a drug immediately alleviated if the user takes the substance (thus reinforcing the addiction) or dissipates slowly over time (as in the case with detoxification) 4.3
social phobia
an unreasonable paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is watched by others even while performing routine activities such as eating in public or using a public restroom 6.3
drive
an urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness. can be useful for alerting an organism that it is no longer in a state of homeostasis, an internal state of equilibrium 6.2
instrumental conditioning
another term for operant conditioning 5.1
mental retardation
another way of saying intellectual disability 5.2
prefrontal cortex
anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain involved in complex behaviors such as planning, sequencing, social responses, and decision-making; directs behavioral aspects of emotion, including approach and avoidance behaviors; damage to this area may lead to inappropriate social behavior, impulsivity, and trouble with initiation 4.4
gonadotropins
anterior pituitary tropic hormones, follicles stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) which stimulate the gonads (ovaries and testes) to produce gametes and to secrete sex steroids 3.6
Specific phobias
anxiety produced by a specific object or situation
Social anxiety disorder
anxiety that is due to social situations and persistent fear when exposed to social or performance situation that may result in embarrassment
mnemonic
any memory technique used to promote the retention and retrieval of information 5.4
Mindguards (Irving Janis's Groupthink)
appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views
Association area
area that integrates input from diverse brain regions ex. multiple inputs may be necessary to solve a complex puzzle, to plan ahead for the future, or reach a difficult decision
Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia
argues that delusions, halucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain
REM sleep (rapid eye movement)
arousal levels reach wakefulness, but muscles are paralyzed Paradoxical sleep: one's heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but individual is still asleep
Synaptic pruning
as we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered increasing the efficiency of our brains' ability to process information
linguistic relativity hypothesis
asserts when the language one speaks determines their thoughts and perceptions of the world 4.6
Method of loci
associating each item in the list with location along a route through a building that has already been memorized
Semantics
association of meaning with a word
Peer group
association of self-selected equals around similar interests, ages, and statuses; provide opportunity for friendship and feelings of belonging
Social construction model
assumes there is no biological basis for emotions but are based on experiences and situational context alone
Ego-defensive
attitudes that protect our self esteem or justify actions that are wrong
Inferior colliculus
auditory system
reflex
automatic behaviors that occur without thinking 5.3
self-consciousness
awareness of oneself 7.1
consciousness
awareness of self, internal states, and the environment 4.3
System for multiple level observation of groups
based on the belief that there are three fundamental dimensions of interaction: dominance vs. submission, friendliness vs. unfriendliness, and instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive
universal grammar
basic rules of language presumed to be innate that allow the human mind to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during sensitive developmental years in early childhood 4.6
Schizophrenia: prodromal phase
before diagnosis, patient goes through evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences
Functional autonomy
behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior
aggression
behavior that is forceful, hostile, or attacking. considered something that is intended to cause harm or promote social dominance within a group 7.3
Personality disorder
behavior that is inflexibile and maladaptive causing distress or impaired functioning ego-syntonic: individual perceives her behavior as correct, normal, or in harmony with her goals Ego-dystonic: individual sees illness as something thrust upon her that is intrusive and bothersome
Fad
behavior that is transiently viewed as popular and desirable by a large community
Role partner
behaviors and expectations change with the person with whom one is interacting
self-enhancement
behaviors that an individual engages to elicit a more favorable response from others
instinct
behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species 6.2
Dodson law of social facilitation
being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at and hinders performance of less familiar tasks (complex tasks)
selective priming
being predisposed to observe something because it has previously been encountered frequently or is expected 4.1
Illusion of morality (Irving Janis's Groupthink)
belief that the group's decisions are morally correct
procedural bias
bias related to how information is obtained and may occur when researchers put some sort of pressure on subjects to provide responses. By offering monetary compensation of any amount to subjects, researchers used incentive to obtain results, leading to this phenomenon
selection bias
bias that arises when the sample is not representative of the population, such as not being randomly chosen
Fundamental attribution error
biased toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions
Ganglion cells
bipolar cells synapse with ganglion cells which group together to form the optic nerve
hypothalamus
brain structure located above the brain stem that is involved in many autonomic processes including: •body temperature, •hunger, •thirst, •fatigue, •and sleep; it is also involved in the physiological aspects of emotion including sweating and increased HR 3.6, 4.4
hippocampus
brain structure located in the medial temporal lobe of the brain plays a key role in forming memories; damage to this part of the brain can lead to the inability to form new memories or anterograde amnesia 4.4
Bottom-up processing
brain takes up individual sensory stimuli and combines them together to create a cohesive image before determining what the object is Without this, it would be like we're looking at objects for the first time everytime
dyssomnias
broad category of disorders involving abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. Includes insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea 4.3
rapid eye movement (REM)
bursts of quick eye movements present in the last stage of sleep 4.3
sleep spindle
bursts of waves present in stage 2 sleep 4.3
Attachment type: Ambivalent attachment
caregiver has an inconsistent response to child's distress; child will be very distressed on separation from the caregiver but has a mixed response when the caregiver returns
Role performance
carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role; individuals can vary in how successful they are at performing a role
Babinski reflex
causes toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated
somatic symptom disorder
central complaint is one or more somatic symptoms-such as chronic pain or headaches or fatigue-and diagnosis also requires evidence of diminished functioning stemming from excessive preoccupation with and/or anxiety about the symptoms
Contralaterally
cerebral hemisphere communicates cross-sided
Compliance
change in behavior based on a direct request; person or group asks the individual to make the change typically has no actual power or authority to command individual, but ask him to change his behavior
Horizontal mobility
change in occupation or lifestyle that remains within the same social class
Obedience
changing one's behavior in response to a direct order from an authority figure
Internalization
changing one's behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group
Parkinson's disease
characterized by : bradykinesia (slowness in movement) resting tremor (appears when muscles are not being used) pill-rolling tremor (flexing/extending fingers while moving thumb back and forth, rolling something in fingers) masklike facies (static and expressionless facial features) cogwheel rigidity (muscle tension that intermittently halts movement) shuffling gait (stooped posture) Depression and dementia common symptoms
General personality disorder: Cluster C - Dependent
characterized by a continuous need for reassurance and depend on specific person to take actions and make decisions
Illness Anxiety disorder
characterized by being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition
Bipolar disorder
characterized by both depression and mania; manic episodes are characterized by abnormal and persistently elevated mood lasting at least one week with at least three of the following: 1. increasing distractibility 2. decreased need for sleep 3. inflated self-esteem or grandiosity 4. racing thoughts 5. increased goal-directed activity or agitation 6. pressured speech 7. high risk behavior
Conversion disorder
characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions; begin soon after individual experiences high levels of stress or traumatic event (ex. women goes blind after watching son die tragically)
olfactory receptors
chemoreceptors in the upper nasal cavity that responds to odor chemicals 3.5
gustatory receptors
chemoreceptors on the tongue that respond to chemicals in food 3.5
Errors of growth
child applies a grammatical rule in a situation where it does not apply (ex. runned instead of ran, funner instead of more fun)
Role taking
child begins to understand the perspectives and roles of others
Attachment type: disorganized attachment
child show no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver's absence or presence, but can show a mix of different behaviors; disorganized attachment associated with erratic behavior and social withdrawal by the caregiver and a red flag for abuse
Attachment type: Secure attachment
child will be upset when caregiver leaves and will be comforted by the return of the caregiver
Attachment type: Avoidant attachment
child will show little or no distress when the caregiver leaves and little or no relief when the caregiver returns
Parallel play
children play alongside each other without influencing each other's behavior
depressant
class of drugs that depress or slow down neural activity, includes: •alcohol, •barbiturates (tranquilizers), •and opiates 4.3
stimulants
class of drugs that speed up body functions and neural activity includes caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamines 4.3
intellectual disability
classification for individuals who have an IQ below 70 and functional impairment in their everyday lives; previously called mental retardation 5.2
Karl Marx
closely identifies with conflict theory, he argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and those who labor and provide the manpower for production; he believed that capitalism produced internal tensions which would ultimately lead to self-destruction of capitalist societies to be replaced by socialism; he along with Emile Durkheim and Max Weber are considered the founding fathers of sociology 8.1
Pygmalion effect
closely related to the self-fulfilling prophecy; the two terms are even considered synonymous in some circles; it is a type of self-fulfilling prophecy where if you think something will happen, you may unconsciously make it happen through your actions or inaction. It occurs in the workplace when a manager raises his or her expectations for the performance of workers, and this actually results in an increase in worker performance.
central route
cognitive route of persuasion based on the content and deeper aspects of an argument 5.2
peripheral route
cognitive route of persuasion that involves more superficial or secondary characteristics of an argument or an orator 5.2
B.F. Skinner
coined the term "operant conditioning"; he is famous for his box in which he used reinforcements to shape animal behavior 5.1
Ganglia
collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the central nervous system
factitious disorder
colloquially referred to as "Munchhausen Syndrome" (when imposed on one's self) or "Munchhausen by Proxy" (when imposed on someone else); a person has not just fabricated an illness but has gone the further step of either falsifying evidence or symptoms of the illness or inflicting harm to the victim to induce injury or illness
Iris
colored part of the eye composed of the dilator pupillae and constrictor pupillae
Cyclothymic disorder
combination of hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia that are not severe enough to qualify as major depressive disorder
Mnemonics
common way to memorize information particularly lists like acronyms and rhyming phrases
Twin studies
comparing condordance rates for a trait between monozygotic and dizygotic twins, are better able to distinguish the relative effects of shared environment and genetics
Retinal vessels
complex intermingling of blood vessels between sclera and the retina
Forebrain (prosencephalon)
complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
secondary reinforcers
conditioned reinforcers that are learned through their direct/indirect relationship with primary reinforcers; e.g. money: it is not innately rewarding, but we have learned that it can provide access to primary reinforcers 5.1
Solomon Asch
conducted research on conformity and group pressure by placing subjects in a room with several confederates (the subjects believes the confederates to be fellow study subjects) and observing the behavior of the subject when the confederates provided clearly wrong answers to questions 7.2
Stanley Milgram
conducted research on obedience where he asked subjects to administer a shock to what they thought was another subject (but was just an actor) and he monitored the degree of subjects' compliance or obedience 7.2
Source-monitoring error
confusion between semantic and episodic memory (ex. a person hears a story of something that happened to someone else and later recalls the story as having happened to him or herself)
Émile Durkheim
considered the father of sociology and a major proponent of *functionalism* the pioneer of modern social research and established the field of sociology as separate and distinct from psychology and political philosophy 8.1
Carl Rogers
considered the founder of the humanistic psychology perspective, pioneered the person-centered approach to therapy 6.1, 7.1
parallel forms reliability
consistency between/among alternate versions of the same instrument; e.g. creating 2 parallel forms of a questionnaire (with difficult questions) and both tests show correlation
Slow-wave sleep
consists of NREM sleep stages 3 and 4; also called delta-wave sleep.
material culture
consists of physical objects that are particular to a culture which helps to explain the relationship between artifacts and social relations (e.g. saree in indian culture) 8.3
Fluid intelligence
consists of problem-solving skills, which peaks during early adulthood
symbolic culture
consists of symbols that carry a particular meaning and are recognized by people of the same culture these symbols can communicate the values and norms of the culture 8.3
Explicit (declarative) memory
consists of those memories that require conscious recall
General personality disorder: Cluster B - Histronic personality disorder
constant attention-seeking behavior; often wear colorful clothing, are dramatic, and are exceptionally extroverted; seductive behavior to gain attention
ideal self
constructed out of life experiences, societal expectations, and admirable traits, from role models, the ideal self is the person you ought to be while the real self is the person you actually are 7.1
Septal nuclei
contain one of the primary pleasaure centers of the brain
Elaboration likelihood model
continuum based on processing of persuasive information; based on central route processing and peripheral route processing
Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
controlling alertness and wakefulness In the sympathetic system, promote fight-or-flight response and mostly produced by the adrenal medulla
Hindbrain
controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes like sleeping and waking
Anterior hypothalamus
controls sexual behavior
Superior colliculus
controls some responses to visual stimuli and reflexive eye movements
Transduction
conversion of physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other information from our internal and external environment to electrical signals in the nervous system
Basal ganglia
coordinate muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information to the brain and spinal cord
vagus nerves
cranial nerve pair X very large mixed nerves (that carry both sensory input and motor output) innervate virtually every visceral organ especially important in transmitting parasympathetic input to the heart and digestive smooth muscle 3.4
Associative learning
creation of a pairing or association either between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response
Genetic compatibility
creation of mate pairs that have complementary genetics; attraction to others who have starkly different genetic makeups reduces the probability of offspring being homozygotic for disease-carrying allele
Illusion of invulnerability (Irving Janis's Groupthink)
creation of optimism and encouragement of risk-taking
Broca's aphasia
damage to broca's area, speech comprehension is intact but patient has reduced/absent ability to produce spoken language
Relative deprivation
decrease in resources, representations, or agency relative to the past or to the whole of society
Parkinson's disease (biological)
decreased dopamine production in substantia nigra (layer of brain cells that produce dopamine to permit functioning of basal ganglia) Treatment: L-DOPA (precursor converted to dopamine once in brain)
alogia
decreased or absent speech
central route processing
deep thinking in elaboration likelihood model
Aphasia
deficit of language production or comprehension
Racialization
definition or establishment of a group as a particular race
Pragmatics
dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge (ex. we are more formal to a stranger but casual language with friend)
Seasonal Affective Disorder
depressive symptoms are present only in the winter months related to abnormal melatonin metabolism and treated with bright light therapy
Yerkes-Dodson Law
describes an upside down U-shaped relationship between arousal and performance asserts that a moderate level of arousal creates optimal performance too little arousal leads to complacency too much arousal can be overwhelming 4.4
Symbolic ethnicity
describes specific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life
intragenerational mobility
describes the differences in social classes between different members of the same generation 8.4
Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)
detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the body
Sensory bias
development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population (ex. fiddler crabs are naturally attracted to structures that break up the level horizon because they may indicate a food source; male crabs build pillars around their territory to attract mates)
Jean Piaget
developmental psychologist who formulated a 4 stage theory of development for children 4.2
stranger anxiety
developmentally typical anxiety displayed by children from approximately 8-12 months of age toward close contact with strangers may be expressed by crying and clinging to familiar caregivers 5.3
Differential association theory
deviance can be learned through interactions with others; intimate exposure to others who engage in deviant behavior lays the groundwork for one to engage in deviant behavior him- or herself
Role strain
difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role
Role conflict
difficulty in statisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles
Socialization
discussing of the process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs
temperament
dispositional emotional excitability tends to be fairly stable through the life span 4.4
Scalae
divides cochlea into three parts
Top-down processing
driven by memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole object and then recognize the components based on these expectations Allows us to quickly recognize components based on these expectations Would have difficulty discriminating similar objects without this processing
Role exit
dropping of one identity for another
anxiety disorder
emotional state of unpleasant physical and mental arousal; a preparation to fight or flee. the anxiety is intense, frequent, irrational (out of proportion), and uncontrollable; it causes significant distress or impairment of normal functioning 6.3
Self-determination Theory (SDT)
emphasizes roles of ... Autonomy: need to be in control of one's actions and ideas Competence: need to complete and excel at difficult tasks Relatedness: need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships
Working memory
enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and manipulate that information
Catecholamines or monoanimes or biogenic amines)
epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine
Disconformation principle
evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work
Implicit memory: procedural
ex. retain skill of riding a bike
Ludwig Gumplowicz
expanded upon Marx' ideas about conflict theory proposing that society is shaped by war and conquest and that cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups 8.1
Self-fulfilling prophecy
expectation create conditions that lead to confirmation of those expectations ex. people tell you a class is hard and most people fail, you start to get nervous and do bad, validating their opinion
social roles
expectations for people of a given social status 7.3
Robber's cave experiment
experiment which showed that even arbitrary group distinctions (camp teams) can cause a bitter rivalry and discrimination, thus demonstrating in-group/out-group biases
Game theory
explain decision making behavior
Opponent-Process Theory
explains continuous drug use where the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology (ex. body counteract repeated use of alcohol that will last longer than the drug resulting in withdrawal symptoms) Withdrawal creates dependence on drug
Incentive theory
explains that behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments
Attitude
expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, thing, or scenario
Erik Erikson
extended Freud's theory of developmental stages in two ways. He added social and interpersonal factors, to supplement Freud's focus or unconscious conflicts within a person. And he delineated additional developmental stages and conflicts in adolescence and adulthood, to supplement Freud's focus on early childhood. His stages include: •trust vs. mistrust, •autonomy vs. shame and doubt, •initiative vs. guilt, •industry vs. inferiority, •identity vs. role confusion, •intimacy vs. isolation, •generativity vs. stagnation, •and integrity vs. despair 6.1
Adaptive value
extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species thus leading to adaptation through natural selection
stigma
extreme disapproval of a person or group based on the person or groups' actual or perceived deviance from society 7.2
Stigma
extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society (ex. HIV, obesity)
General personality disorder: Cluster C - Avoidant
extreme shyness and fear of rejection; sees herself as socially inept and socially isolated despite intense desire for social attention and acceptance
Interpersonal attraction
factors that affect attraction including similarity, self-disclosure, reciprocity, and proximity
Short term memory
fades quickly around 30 seconds without rehearsal and limited to 7+/-2 rule
kinship
familial relationship including blood-ties, family-ties, and common ancestry 8.2
Automatic processing
familiar or routine actions can be performed
Phineas Gage
famous case of a man who suffered damage to his prefrontal cortex after a railroad tie blasted through his head. His symptoms due to damage to this area included: impulsivity, an inability to stick to plans, an inability to demonstrate empathy 4.4
Albert Bandura
famous for his Bobo doll studies that demonstrated observational learning; also pioneered the idea of the importance of self-efficacy in promoting learning 5.1
Ivan Pavlov
famous for naming and describing the process of classical conditioning by training dogs to salivate to the sound of a ringing bell 5.1
Panic disorder
fear and apprehension, trembling, sweating, hyperventilation, sense of unreality
Agoraphobia
fear of being in places or situations where it might be hard for an individual to escape
Separation anxiety
fear of being separated from the parental figure
Polyandry
female having exclusive relationships with multiple partners
REM stage
final stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, and beta waves which are seen in individuals when they are awake; despite these wave patterns, however, the sleeper is paralyzed aside from small twitches leading to the description of the stage as 'paradoxical sleep', this is generally when dreams occur 4.3
Material support
financial or material contribution to another person
Direct benefits
fitness of species; provide material advantages, protection, emotional support
Force field theory (Kurt Lewin)
focus on current state of mind
Capitalist economies
focus on free market trade with little intervention from central governing bodies; a private owner or corporation maintains and profits from the success of the business which encourages division of labor, where specific components of a larger task are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals, promoting specialization and efficiency
Humanistic perspective
focus on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach, describing those ways in which healthy people strive toward self-realization
Rational choice theory
focuses on decision-making in an individual and attempts to reduce this process to a careful consideration of benefits and harms to the individual
Strain Theory
focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance; anomic conditions include excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation
Malthusian theory
focuses on how the exponential growth of a population can outpace growth of the food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder
Signal detection theory
focuses on the changes in our perception of the same stimuli depending on both internal and external context ex. How loud would someone need to yell your name in a crowd to get your attention?
Social Interactionist Theory
focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes where language acquisition is driven by the child's desire to communicate in a social manner
Attribution theory
focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior
Social cognition
focuses on the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior
Altruism
form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at the cost to him or herself
Telencephalon
forms cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system
Diencephalon
forms thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland
general intelligence
foundational base of intelligence that supports more specialized abilities 5.2
Urban renewal
fueled by gentrification= when upper or middle class populations purchase and rennovate neighborhoods in deteriorated areas, displacing low-SES population
Adaptive
function of attitude that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed
Ego-expressive
function of attutude that allows us to communicate self identity such as wearing sports hat so you are identified as fan of the team
nodes of Ranvier
gaps in the myelin sheath of the axons of the peripheral neurons; action potentials can jump from node to node; thus increasing the speed of conduction (saltatory conduction) 3.1
G factor
general intelligence
Network support
gives a person a sense of belonging
Just-world hypothesis
good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people
Display rules
govern which emotions can be expressed and to what degree
General personality disorder: Cluster B - Narcissistic personality disorder
grandiose sense of self-importance, preoccupation with fantasies of success, need for constant admiration and attention, feelings of entitlement
Group conformity
group holds power over its members, creating group pressure that ultimately shapes members' behaviors; individuals are compliant with the group's goals, even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to the individual's goals
Reference groups
groups that establish the terms by which individuals evaluate themselves
primary groups
groups that play a more important role in an individual's life (often meeting emotional needs); these groups are usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages with in person, in long-term, emotional ways 7.2
Ampulla
hair cells are located here in the semicircular canals
Cochlea is tonotopically organized
hair cells are vibrating gives the brain an indication of the pitch of sound
Somatic symptom disorder
have at least one somatic symptom which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition
Magnocellular cells
have very high temporal resolution but low spatial resolution so it can provide a blurry but moving image of an object
Adoption studies
helps understand environmental influences and genetic influence on behavior
executive functions
higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making 4.4
Fovea
highest concentration of cones
Bipolar cells
highlight gradients between adjacent rods or cones
melatonin
hormone produced by the pineal gland that affects sleep/wake cycles, and seasonal functions 4.3
Mate bias
how choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate
Spatial inequality
how geography influences social processes, unequal amounts of qualities or resources and services depending on the area or location, such as medical or welfare
Religiosity
how religious one considers him/her-self
Syntax
how words are put together to form sentences
Bipolar II disorder
hypomania with at least one major depressive episode
Sensory memory
iconic (visual) and (echoic) memory in which the memory lasts a very short time like under one second
Primacy effect
idea that first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions
Albert Bandura's Reciprocal determinism
idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation
Constancy
idea that we perceive certain characteristics of objects to remain the same, despite differences in the environment
Tectorial membrane
immobile membrane
spontaneous recovery
in classical conditioning a reoccurrence of a previously extinct conditioned response in the presence of a conditioned stimulus often occurs after a period of time has passed since the initial extinction of the response 5.1
generalization/ stimulus generalization
in classical conditioning, the process by which stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus also become conditioned stimuli that elicit the conditioned response 5.1
acquisition
in classical conditioning, the process of learning the association between a conditioned stimulus and response 5.1
extinction
in classical conditioning, the unpairing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, accomplished by introducing the conditioned stimulus repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus 5.1
punishment
in operant conditioning, a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated; types includes positive and negative punishment 5.1
shaping
in operant conditioning, the process of reinforcing intermediate proximal behaviors until a final desired behavior is achieved 5.1
confederates
in psychological and social research, a confederate is a person who is working with the experimenter and posing as a part of the experiment, but the subjects are not aware of this affiliation 7.2
sucking reflex
in response to anything touching the roof of the baby's mouth, it will begin to suck 5.3
tonic neck reflex
in response to its head being turned to one side, a baby will stretch out its arm on the same side and the opposite arm bends up at the elbow this reflex lasts about 6-7 months 5.3
palmar grasp reflex
in response to stroking a baby's palm, the baby's hand will grasp. This reflex lasts a few months 5.3
Babinski reflex
in response to the sole of the foot being stroked, a baby's big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other toes fan out 5.3
walking/ stepping reflex
in response to the soles of a baby's feet touching a flat surface, they will attempt to "walk" by placing one foot in front of the other this reflex disappears around 6 weeks and reappears around 8-12 months when a baby learns to walk 5.3
rooting reflex
in response to touching or stroking on of a baby's cheek, the baby will turn its head in the direction of the stroke and open its mouth to "root" for a nipple 5.3
dynamic equilibrium
in sociology, a dynamic equilibrium occurs when complex societies contain many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability 8.1
church
in sociology, a type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the political and economic structures of society, and attempts to provide an all-encompassing worldview for followers 8.2
postganglionic neuron
in the autonomic division of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in an autonomic ganglion (where a pre-ganglionic neuron synapses with it) and whose axon synapses with the target organ 3.4
preganglionic neuron
in the autonomic nervous system of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in the CNS and whose axon extends into the PNS to synapse with a second neuron at an autonomic ganglion (the second neuron's axon synapses with the target organ) 3.4
back stage
in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we can "let down our guard" and be ourselves, as opposed to the "front stage," where we are playing a role for others 7.3
front stage
in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people 7.3
Anterograde amensia
inability to form new memories
Dissociative amnesia
inability to recall past experiences, often linked to trauma Disociative fugue: sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one's home or location of usual daily ctivities
false memory
inaccurate memory created by the power of imagination of suggestion 4.3, 5.4
serial position effect
includes the primacy and recency effect; when information is presented serially in a list format, individuals are more likely to recall the first and the last items presented 5.4
Gross motor skills
incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion like sitting, crawling, and walking
reaction formation
individual deals with an objectionable impulse by behaving in a manner diametrically opposite to that impulse e.g. being super sweet to a group of girls you greatly despise
Trait theorists
individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors
Bystander effect
individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are present
depersonalization/derealization disorder
individuals feel detached from their own mind and body (depersonaliation) or from their surroundings (derealization)
Deindividuation
individuals in a group setting lose individual identity
Reliance on central trait
individuals tend to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that are most relevant to the perceiver
Self-serving bias/self-serving attribution bias
individuals view their own success based on internal factors while viewing failures based on external factors
Grasping reflex
infant closes his or her fingers around an object placed in his or her hand
Moro reflex
infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms then slowly retracting their arms and crying
long-term memory
information that is retained long-term, potentially indefinitely; it is believed to have an infinite capacity 5.4
language acquisition device
innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during sensitive developmental years in early childhood as hypothesized by Noam Chomsky 4.6
Freud - Instinct
innate psychological representation of a biological need Life instinct (Eros): promote individual's quest for survival through thirst, hunger, sexual need Death instinct (Thanatos): represent unconscious wish for death and destruction
Instinct Theory
innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli; people are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts
Bony labyrinth
inner ear bone
Membranous labyrinth
inner ear structures bathed with this potassium-rich fluid called endolymph
Primary group
interactions are direct with close bonds providing warm, personal, and intimate relationships to members, last long period of time,
Secondary group
interactions are superficial, with few emotional bonds, last short period of time
trait
internal, stable, and enduring aspects of personality that should be consistent across most situations 6.1
Michaelangelo phenomenon
interpersonal self: manner in which others influence creation of the ideal self
positive punishment
introduction of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behavior; tends to decrease the likelihood of that behavior 5.1
Nondominant sphere (Right)
intuition, creativity, muscle cognition, and spatial processing
Social capital
investments people make in society in return for rewards like through social networking
Fine motor skills
involve smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes, providing specific and delicate movement
nonverbal communication
involves all of the methods of communication that we use that do not include words 7.3
Social exclusion
involves the lack or denial of resources, rights, goods and services, and the inability to participate in the normal relationships and activities, available to the majority of people in a society, often problem of being impoverished
Prejudice
irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, prior to an actual experience with that entity
Class consciousness
is a term used in political theory, particularly Marxism, to refer to the beliefs that a person holds regarding their social class or economic rank in society, the structure of their class, and their class interests.
Relearning
is a way of measuring retention by measuring how much faster one relearns material that has been previously learned and then forgotten.
Halo effect
it is the tendency to allow a general impression about a person(I like judy) to influence other more specific evaluations about a person(judy is trustworthy, Judy can do no wrong)
cultural relativism
judging another culture based on its own cultural standards 7.2
repression
keeping that which is painful/anxiety producing from one's conscious mind
Labeling theory
labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also the person's self image
infantile amnesia
lack of explicit memory for events that occurred before the age of roughly 3.5 years, while people are unable to recall memories from this part of their life, learning and memory do still occur, the reason for infantile amnesia is unknown 5.3
avolition
lack of motivation or purpose
Dominant hemisphere (Left)
language, logic, and math skills
K complex
large and slow wave with a duration of a half-second that occurs in stage 2 sleep 4.3
Propaganda
large organizations and political groups attempt to create prejudices in others
Door-in-the-face technique
large request is made at first and if refused, a second and smaller request is made
nonassociative learning
learning that occurs in the absence of associating specific stimuli or events; two types are habituation and sensitization 5.1
Latent learning
learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced
latent learning
learning this takes place in the absence of any observable behavior to show that it has occurred; this learning can later manifest and be demonstrated as observable behavior when it is required (learning about cancer when your close family member has been diagnosed with it, even though you don't have to study it for a school test) 5.1
Prestige
level of respect shown to a person by others
Pons
lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and medulla
Anterior chamber
lies in front of the iris
Jung - Persona
likened to a mask that we wear in public
Long term memory
limitless warehouse for the knowledge that we are then able to recall on demand Elaborative rehearsal: information gets converted into long-term memory
Broca's area
located in front of inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe, controls motor function of speech via connections with the motor cortex
Wernicke's area
located in superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe; responsible for language comprehension
Olfactory chemoreceptors
located in the olfactory epithelium in upper part of nasal cavity
Parietal lobe: Somatosensory cortex
located on postcentral gyrus and involved in somatosensory information processing
Frontal lobe: Primary motor cortex
located on precentral gyrus (in front of central sulcus that divides frontal and parietal lobes) and initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward muscles
Ethnic enclaves
locations with high concentrations of one specific ethnicity
Stereocilia
long tufts on top of hair cells that sway back and forth causing the opening of ion channels Hair cells are connected to the tectorial membrane and the hair cells are involved in amplifying the incoming sound
Distant networks
looser and contain weaker ties, include acquaintances
Parkinson's disease (related to dopamine)
loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia where disruptions lead to resting tremors and jerky movements
Retrograde amnesia
loss of previously formed memories
Agnosia
loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds; caused by physical damage to the brain such as a stroke or MS
alpha waves
low amplitude, high frequency brain waves present in a relaxed state. the first indicator that a person is ready to drift off into sleep 4.3
Cerebellum
maintain posture and balance and coordinates body movements as well as speech
fundamentalism
maintenance of strict adherence to religious code instead of shifting towards rationality and scientific thinking
Bipolar I disorder
manic episodes with/without major depressive episode
General personality disorder: Cluster A - Paranoid
marked by pervasive distrust of others and suspicion regarding their motives and may be in prodromal phase of schizophrenia
biofeedback
means of recording and feeding back information about subtle autonomic responses to an individual in an attempt to train the individual to control previously involuntary responses (for example, muscle tension, heart rate, respiratory rate) 4.5
Inclusive fitness
measure of an organism's success in the population; based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, the ability of the offspring to then support others; promotes altruistic behavior which can improve fitness and success of a species as a whole
modeling
mechanism behind observational learning in which an observer sees a behavior being performed by another person; this model is utilized to allow the observer to later imitate the observer 5.1
Decay
memories are simply lost naturally over time as neurochemical trace of a short term memory fades
explicit (or declarative) memory
memories that can be consciously recalled, such as factual knowledge 5.4
semantic memory
memory for factual information 5.4
echoic memory
memory for sound, which lasts for about 3-4 seconds 5.4
Context effects
memory is aided by being in the physical located where encoding took place
Anterograde amnesia
memory loss characterized by not being able to establish new long-term memories whereas memory for events that occurred before brain injury is usually intact
Retrograde amnesia
memory loss of events that transpired before brain injury
Alzheimer's Disease
memory loss proceed in retrograde fashion with loss of recent memories before distant memories Associated with neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques Sundowning: increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening
chunking
memory technique in which information to be remembered is organized into discrete groups of data. This clustering allows more information to be remembered overall 5.4
short-term memory
memory that is limited in duration and in capacity 5.1, 5.4
schemas
mental frameworks/blueprints that shape and are shaped by experience 4.2, 5.4
availability heuristic
mental shortcut of making judgments on the frequency of something occurring based on how readily it is available in our memories 4.2
heuristics
mental shortcuts used for problem solving, using these sometimes sacrifices accuracy for speed 4.2
Biopsychosocial approach
method assumes there are biological, psychological, and social components to an individual's behavior
Organ of Corti
middle scala housing the actual hearing apparatus and composes of thousands of hair cells bathed in endolymph
meditation
mindfulness technique for training attention in a particular way; may involve intense focus on one object of attention or broad attention to a field of awareness 4.3
Threshold
minimum amount of a stimulus that renders a difference in perception
Absolute threshold
minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system
False consciousness
misperception of one's actual position in society. expounded by some Marxists for the way in which material, ideological, and institutional processes in capitalist society mislead members of the proletariat and other class actors.
spotlight model
model for visual attention, with a spotlight representing one's attention and its ability to unlock from a current target, move focus, and lock onto a new target 4.1
attenuation model of selective attention
model of selective attention in which the mind has an attenuator, like a volume knob, that can tune up inputs to be attended and tune down unattended inputs, rather than totally eliminating them. Accounts for the cocktail party effect 4.2
elaboration likelihood model
model that explains when people may be persuaded by just the content of an argument, and when they may be persuaded by more superficial characteristics such as the appearance of the person delivering the message or the length of the argument 5.2
information processing models
models for cognition that assume that information form the environment is processed by our computer-like minds through a series of steps including: attention, perception, and storage into memory 4.2
Opiates
morphine and codeine Opioids: oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin
insomnia
most common sleep disorder characterized by difficult falling or staying asleep 4.3
fundamental movement skills
movement patterns that involve different body parts. They are the foundation movements or precursor patterns to the more specialized, complex skills used in play, games, sports, dance, gymnastics, outdoor education and physical recreation. (Autistic children have the ability to master these)
ciliary muscle
muscle that helps focus light on the retina by controlling the curvature of the lens of the eye 3.5
white matter
myelinated axons 3.4
Strain theory
natural reaction to the disconnect between social goals and social structure (ex. American dream hard to acquire because education/opportunity not available to all)
Primary drives
need for food, water, and warmth, which motivate us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis
Self-enhancement
need to maintain self-worth and can be done through internal attribution of successes and external attribution of failures
Push factors
negative attributes of the old location that encourage the immigrant to leave
social exclusion
negative impact of poverty in which low SES individuals are excluded from mainstream society & social benefits. They may also resort to crimes/rebel to meet their basic needs.
feral children
neglected/abandoned children who grow up without human contact/care. Much of our knowledge about socialization comes from these individuals who were not socialized 7.1
Mirror neurons
neurons are located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs an action and hen that individual observes someone else performing that action
mirror neurons
neurons that fire when a particular behavior or emotion is observed in another; may be responsible for vicarious emotions and a foundation for empathy 5.1
acetylcholine (ACh)
neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction, throughout the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), and by the pre-ganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) 3.2
mores
norms that are highly important for the benefit of of society and so are often strictly enforced, mores are general (but not always) formal norms 7.1
folkways
norms that are more informal, yet shape everyday behavior (style of dress, ways of greeting, etc.) 7.1
Folkway
norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions such as shaking hands after a sports match
Karen Horney - Object relations Theory
object refers to representation of parents or other caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infanc; objects prsist into adulthood and impact our interactions with others
Phenotypic benefits
observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex; traits indicate increased production and survival of offspring
OCD
obsessions: persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses Compulsions: repetitive tasks that relieve tension but cause significant impairment in a person's life
Primary socialization
occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of our parents and other adults in close
penis envy
occurs during phallic stage (the 3rdof Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a female realizes she does not have a penis 6.1
projective identification
occurs in close relationships, where one person induces feelings/impulses which are viewed as unacceptable in the other person
role-strain
occurs when a single status results in conflicting expectation, e.g. a homosexual man may feel pressure to avoid being "too gay" and also "not gay enough" 7.3
amalgamation
occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group 7.1
Groupthink
occurs when members begin to focus solely on ideas generated within the group while ignoring outside ideas; may limit to group's options or views
Retroactive interference
occurs when newly acquired information causes us to have trouble remembering old information.
retrograde amnesia
occurs when one is unable to recall information that was previously encoded 5.4
self-reporting bias
occurs when subjects skew their responses often to impress/appease researchers
Neurulation
occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds
overgeneralization
occurs when the individual comes to a conclusion based on one episode or bit of evidence; e.g. the subject has recently experienced a single episode of insomnia and consequently believes he or she is prone to suffering from it in the future
role conflict
occurs when there is a conflict in the society-s expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person, e.g. 'male' and 'nurse' 7.3
false consensus
occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do (even though they may not) 7.2
projection bias
occurs when we assume that others have the same feelings we do due to our tendency to look for similarities between ourselves and others 7.2
gender bias in medicine
occurs when women and men receive different treatment for the same disease or illness 8.4
double-blind study
of or relating to an experiment or clinical trial in which neither the subjects nor the researchers know which subjects are receiving the active medication, treatment, etc., and which are not a technique for eliminating subjective bias from the test results.
SES (socioeconomic status)
often defined in terms of: •power (the ability to get other people to do something), •property (sum of possessions and income), •and prestige (reputation in society), because these three concepts tend to (but not always) be related in the US society 8.4
Reversed attribution bias
often seen in depressed people; viewing their successes as caused by external factors and failures as caused by internal factors
Proactive interference
old information is interfering with new learning (ex. moved to a new address and had trouble recalling individual pieces of the new address)
Resocialization
one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change and can have positive/negative connotations
acculturation
one group adopts the behavior and cultural patterns of another after the two have made contact
Empathy-altruism hypothesis
one helps another person when feeling empathetic regardless of the cost
Schwann cells
one of the 2 peripheral nervous system supporting (glial) cells; they form the myelin sheathe on the axons of peripheral neuron 3.1
sleep cycle
one of these consists of the progression through sleep stages 1-4 in sequence followed by an ascension from 4 back to 1 and then a transition into REM sleep; typically takes about 90 min 4.3
Adaptation
one way the mind and body try to focus attention on only the most relevant stimuli, which are usually changes in the environment around us
self-esteem
one's overall self-evaluation of one's self-worth 7.1
Rods
only allow sensation of light and dark because they all contain a single pigment called rhodopsin
coercive organizations
organization in which members do not have a choice in joining 7.3
Identification
outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally taking on these ideas
stereotypes
oversimplified ideas about groups of people, based on characteristics (race, gender, sexual orientation. religion, disability) can be positive or negative 7.2
acting out
overt expression of unconscious emotions and impulses without insightful understanding of one's behavior
nociceptors
pain receptors found everywhere in the body except the brain 3.5
authoritarian parenting
parenting style in which parents impose strict rules that are expected to be followed unconditionally in an attempt to control children. this style is demanding and often relies on punishment 5.3
permissive parenting
parenting style that creates few rules and demands and little discipline; parents are warm and loving to their children, but very lenient and allow their children to be in charge 5.3
authoritative parenting
parenting style that places limits on behavior and consistently follows through on consequences, but also expresses warmth and nurturing and allows for two-way communication between parents and children 5.3
episodic buffer
part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that interacts with information in long-term memory 4.2
central executive
part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that oversees the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer. Responsible for shifting and dividing attention 4.2
phonological loop
part of Alan Baddely's model of working memory that allows for the repetition of verbal information to aid with encoding it into memory 4.2
Knowledge
part of functional attitudes theory, it provides consistency and stability
General personality disorder: Cluster B - Antisocial
pattern of disregard for and violations of rights of others; illegal acts, aggressiveness, lack of remorse for said action
General personality disorder: Cluster A - Schizotypal
pattern of odd or eccentric thinking; have ideas of reference (delusions of reference) and magical thinking (superstitious or clairvoyance)
cultural universals
patterns or traits that are common to all people; tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs, such as securing good and shelter, and also pertain to events that every human experiences, including: birth, death, and illness 8.3
Strong ties
peer group and kinship contacts which are quantitatively small but qualitatively powerful
Sanctions
penalties for misconduct can be used to maintain social control and often include fines or incarceration
Stereotype threat
people being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group
Correspondent inference theory
people pay closer attention to intentional behavior than accidental beavior when making attributions especially if the behavior is unexpected
Mere exposure effect/familiarity effect
people prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently (ex. first hearing a song you hate, but after hearing it many more times, you like it)
Social facilitation
people tend to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others
Self-presentation/Impression management
people use specific strategies to shape what others will think of them
aggregate
people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity 7.2
peripheral route processing
people who focus on superficial details such as appearance of person delivering the argument, catchphrases, slogans
fundamentalists
people who observe strict adherence to religious beliefs 8.2
category
people who share similar characteristics but are not otherwise tied together as a group 7.2
Cultural relativism
perception of another culture as different from one's own, but with recognition that the cultural values, mores, and rules of a culture fit into that of culture itself; just perceives other culture as different, not bad
Law of pragnanz
perceptual organization will always be regular, simple, and symmetric
General personality disorder: Cluster C - Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
perfectionistic and inflexible, tends to like rules and order not same as OCD because OCPD is life long while OCD is acquired
Projection areas
perform simple perceptual and motor tasks
Major depressive disorder
period of two weeks with at least five of following symptoms: 1. prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood 2. loss of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities (anhedonia) 3. appetite disturbances 4. substantial weight changes 5. sleep disturbances 6. decreased energy 7. feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt 8. difficulty concentrating or thinking 9. psychomotor symptoms (slowing down) 10. thoughts of death or attempts at suicide
Dysthymia
persistent depressive disorder where depressed mood isn't severe enough to meet criteria of major depressive episode; most of the time for at least two years
Generalized anxiety disorder
persistent worry about many different things for at least six months; is often accompanied by physical symptoms
Body dysmorphic disorder
person has unrealistic negative evaluation of his or her personal appearance and attractiveness
William Sheldon's Somatotypes
personality types based on body types Type A: competitive and compulsive Type B laid-back and relaxed
General personality disorder: Cluster B - Borderline personality disorder
pervasive instability in terpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image; profound identity disturbance with uncertainty about self-image, sexual identity, long-term goals, or values; may use splitting (all good or all bad mentality) Suicide and elf-mutilation are common
General personality disorder: Cluster A - Schizoid
pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and restricted range of emotional expression NOTE: Schizotypal and schizoid are not the same as schizophrenia
cocktail party effect
phenomenon of information of personal importance from previously unattended channels "catching" one's attention 4.1
cones
photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to bright light and provide color vision 3.5
rods
photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to dim light and provide us with black and white vision 3.5
Semantic encoding
place meaningful context to how we encode information Semantic encoding is the strongest encoding and visual encoding is the weakest
Serotonin
play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming Oversupply of serotonin produce manic states while undersupply is thought to produce depression
Dopamine
plays important role in movement and posture where high concentrations are normally found in the basal ganglia which help smooth movements and maintain postural stability
Vestibule
portion of the bony labyrinth that contains the utricle and saccule sensitive to linear acceleration
Statuses
positions in society that are used to classify individual
Learning theory
posits that attitudes are developed through different forms of learning such as direct contact, influence from friends, parents, etc.
Social cognitive theory
postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others
Ethnocentrism
practice of making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture
Carl Rogers
practices client-centered, person-centered, or non-directive therapy Rogers believed people have the freedom to control their own behavior and are neither slaves to the unconscious or subjects of faulty learning
Gestalt therapy (humanistic)
practitioners take a holistic view of the self, seeing individual as complete person
Ageism
prejudice or discrimination of the basis of a person's age
racism
prejudices and discriminatory actions that are based on race (or ethnicity), or hold that one race/ethnicity is inferior to another 7.2
Urban decay
previously functional portion of a city deteriorates and becomes decrepit over time
meaningful encoding principle
principle that states that experts use prior knowledge in the encoding of new domain-specific information
Anticipatory socialization
process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships (ex. marriage)
Cultural assimilation
process by which an individual's or group's behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group, mean that groups with different cultures begin to merge into one
classical conditioning
process in which two stimuli are paired in a way that changes a response to one of them 5.1
Confabulation
process of creating vivid but fabricated memories and thought to be an attempt made by the brain to fill in the gaps of missing memories
Retrieval/recall
process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained
Observational learning
process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others
Secondary socialization
process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society; occurs outside of home and is based on learning the rules of specific social environments
associative learning
process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another. Two general categories include classical and operant conditioning 5.1
Recognition
process of merely identifying a piece of information that has been previously learned
Encoding
process of putting new information into memory
Shaping
process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors
Adrenal cortex
produces corticosteroids such as cortisol
GABA
produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and play role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain GABA exerts its effects by causing hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membrane
Choroid and ciliary body
produces the aqueous humor that bates the front part of the eye before draining into the canal of Schlemm
Indirect benefits
promoting better survival in offspring
encoding specificity principle
proposed by researchers Thomson and Tulving states that memory is most effective when information available at encoding is also present at retrieval; explains why a subject is able to recall a target word as part of an unrelated word pair at retrieval with much more accuracy when prompted with the unrelated word than if presented with a semantically related word that was not available during encoding
Vygotsky Cultural and Biosocial Development
proposed the engine driving cognitive development is the child's internalization of his or her culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language. As child develops, help from adults or other children can develop skills further
Gate theory of pain
proposes that there is a special "gating" mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, affecting whether or not we perceive pain
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
provides signals to stop eating
Informational support
providing information that will help someone
Racial formation theory
racial identity is fluid and dependent on concurrent political, economic, and social factors
Delirium
rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes; can be caused by electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, etc.
Bureaucracy
rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control with characteristics such as paid, non-elected officials on a fixed salary, regular salary increases, seniority, etc.
Priming
recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory
Amacrine and horizontal cells
receive input from multiple retinal cells in the same area before the information is passed on to ganglion cells Accentuate slight differences between the visual information in each bipolar cell and important for edge detection
Midbrain (mesencephalon)
receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body
electroencephalogram (EEG)
recording of electrical impulses in the brain 4.3
electrooculogram (EOG)
recording of eye movements 4.3
electromyogram (EMG)
recording of skeletal muscle movements 4.3
McDonaldization
refer to a shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculabiity, and control in societies
Consistency cues
refer to consistent behavior of a person over time; the more regular the behavior, the more we associate that behavior with the motives of the person
Distinctiveness cues
refer to extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios; likely to form situational attribution to explain it
Concordance rates
refer to the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait
stereotype threat
refers to a self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype 7.2
Mass hysteria
refers to a shared, intense concern about the threats to society
Urbanization
refers to dense areas of population creating a pull for migration
Nonverbal communication
refers to how people communicate, intentionally, or unintentionally, without words such as facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, etc.
Individual discrimination
refers to one person discriminating against a particular person or group
Kinesthetic sense or proprioception
refers to the ability to tell where one's body is in space
Institutional discrimination
refers to the discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution
Difference threshold/JND
refers to the minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference
Two-point threshold
refers to the minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli
Subliminal perception
refers to the perception of a stimulus below a given threshold
Response bias
refers to the tendency of subjects to systematically respond to a stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensory factors
Attitude: affective
refers to the way a person feelings toward something and emotional component of attitude (ex. snakes scare me)
institutional discrimination
refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives (e.g. laws and decisions that reflect racism, such as the Plessy vs. Ferguson U.S. Supreme Court case. The verdict of this case ruled in favor of separate but equal public facilities between African Americans and non-African Americans.) 7.2
Broca's area
region of the brain located in the left hemisphere of the frontal lobe. Involved with speech production. Damage to this part of the brain results in Broca's aphasia, where individuals know what they want to say but are unable to express it verbally 4.6
pineal gland
region of the brain responsible for the production of melatonin: a hormone that influences sleep/wake cycles and seasonal functions 4.3
Homeostasis
regulation of internal environment to maintain an optimal, stable set of conditions; homeostasis contains negative feedback loops
Variable-ratio Schedule
reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior, but the average number of performances to receive the reward is relatively constant FASTEST response rate
Variable-interval Schedule
reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time
Fixed-ratio Schedule
reinforce behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior Continuous reinforcement: fixed-ratio schedule in which behavior is rewarded every time it is performed
Fixed-interval Schedule
reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed
fixed-interval schedule
reinforcement schedule in which a reward is offered after a set period of time has passed 5.1
fixed-ratio schedule
reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after a set number of instances of a behavior 5.1
variable-ratio schedule
reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after an unpredictable number of occurrences of a behavior 5.1
variable-interval schedule
reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after an unpredictable time interval 5.1
Consensus cues
relate to extent to which a person's behavior differs from others; likely to form dispositional attribution about person's behavior
Attribution theory: situational (external)
relate to features of the surroundings, such as threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure ex. friend nominated for academic reward, you believe it is due to luck
Attribution theory: dispositional (internal)
relate to the person whose behavior is being considered including their beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics ex. friend nominated for academic reward, you believe it is because she is hard working
Drug addiction
related to mesolimbic reward pathway including nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, and connected by medial forebrain bundle This pathway involved with motivation and emotional response as well as positive reinforcement and substance use
Psychophysics
relationship between the physical nature of stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they evoke
posterior pituitary
release ADH and oxytocin
Adrenal medulla
releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of the sympathetic nervous system
Depth perception
rely on monocular and binocular cues
prospective memory
remembering to do something in the future 5.4
Esteem support
reminding someone of the skills they possess to tackle a problem can bolster their confidence
Maintenance rehearsal
repetition of a piece of information to keep it within working memory or store it into short-term then long term memory
Lowball technique
requester will get an initial commitment from an individual then raise the cost of the commitment (ex. boss ask you to head committee with a time commitment of five hours per month of meetings; you agreed to head the committee, but discover there are written reports and presentations required as well)
Merkle cells
respond to deep pressure and texture
Pacinian corpuscles
respond to deep pressure and vibration
Meissner corpuscles
respond to light touch
Free nerve endings
respond to pain and temperature
Ruffini endings
respond to stretch
Osmoreceptors
respond to the osmolarity of the blood
social reciprocity
responding to a kind or generous action with another kind or generous action
Duplexity or duplicity theory of vision
retina contains two kinds of photoreceptors: light and dark detection and color detection
Serial position effect
retrieval cue that appears while learning lists; higher recall for the first few and last few items on the list
Interference
retrieval error caused by the existence of other information
recognition
retrieving information from memory with the use of cues such as a multiple choice format 4.2, 5.4
recall
retrieving information from memory; free recall involves retrieval without any cues, whereas cued recall prompts retrieval with a cue 4.2, 5.4
positive reinforcement
reward immediately following a behavior; tends to increase the frequency of that behavior; e.g. praise 5.1
sanctions
rewards and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms 7.1
Vestibular sense
rotational and linear acceleration
Acute stress disorder
same PTSD symptoms last for less than one month (but more than three days)
Pheromones
secreted by one person or animal and once bonded with chemoreceptors, compel or urge another to behave in a specific way
Pineal gland
secrets melatonin and receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight
Foraging
seeking out and eating food driven by biological, psychological, and social influences
Inductive reasoning (Bottom-up)
seeks to create a theory via generalizations; starts with specific instances and draw a conclusion from them
Mate choice/intersexual selection
selection of a mate based on attraction
Reference group
self-concept depends on whom we are comparing ourselves to
hair cells
sensory receptors found in the inner ear, cochlear hair cells respond to vibrations in the cochlea caused by sound waves, and vestibular hair cells respond to changes in position and acceleration used for balance 3.5
Role
set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms that define expectations for those who hold the status
Parvocellular cells
shape is detected by parvocellular cells which have very high color spatial resolution and permit us to see very fine detail but have low temporal resolution
Cultural syndrome
shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme
working memory
short term memory for information in immediate awareness according to Alan Baddeley, working memory consists of 4 components: •a central executive •a phonological loop •a visuospatial sketchpad •an episodic buffer 4.2
Indicator trait
signify overall good health and wellbeing of an organism which increases its attractiveness to mates
acute stress disorder
similar to PTSD, but symptoms are present for less than a month and for as little as three days
Cognitive dissonance
simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions
state
situational factors that can influence personality and behavior states are unstable, temporary, and variable 6.1
narcolepsy
sleep disorder in which the individual experiences periodic overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last less than 5 minutes 4.3
sleep apnea
sleep disorder in which the individual intermittently stops breathing during sleep and may wake up gasping for breath 4.3
somnambulism
sleepwalking 4.3
A-delta fibers
smaller diameter, less myelin
Weak ties
social connections that are personally superficial but are large in number and provide connections to a wide range of other individuals (ex. social media)
Peer pressure
social influence placed on an individual by a group of people or another individual
Proactive
social movements that promote social change
Reactive
social movements that resist social change (ex. white supremacist movement)
Groupthink
social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision
Ascribed status
socioeconomic status determined by external characteristics or outward appearances (skin color, gender, age)
Ethnicity
sorts people by cultural factors such as language, nationality, religion, and other factors One can choose whether or not to display ethnic identity, while racial identities are always on display
Conduction aphasia
speech production and comprehension are intact but patient unable to repeat something that has been said because connection has been lost
Cultural diffusion
spread of norms, customs, and beliefs throughout the culture
resource model of attention
states that attention is a limited resource if multiple tasks do not exceed this limit, they can be done simultaneously; if they do, then they interfere with each other and are difficult to do simultaneously 4.1
Functional attitudes theory
states that attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense
Iron law of obligarchy
states that democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group
Expectancy-value Theory
states that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success in reaching the goal and degree to which he or she value suceeding at the goal
Implicit personality theory
states that there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related
Weber's law
states that there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a JND and the magnitude of the original stimulus
Cognitive neoassociation model
states that we are more likely to respond to others agressively whenever we are feeling negative emotions, such as being tired, sick, frustrated, or in pain
Master status
status by which a person is most identified
achieved status
statuses that are considered to be due largely to an individual's efforts 7.3
Long-term potentiation
stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase, increasing receptor density
trial and error
strategy of problem-solving that involves trying different alternatives sequentially until success is achieved 4.2
nucleus accumbens
structure located in the brain stem and part of the dopaminergic reward pathway; releases dopamine in response to many drugs contributing to addictive behavior 4.3
Morphology
structure of words
hypnotism
structured social interaction in which an individual is instructed to focus attention a particular way, relax, and let go, individuals that have gone through this may be more susceptible to accepting suggestions 4.3
behavioral genetics
study of the role of inheritance in interacting with experience to determine an individual's personality and behaviors 5.2
insecure attachment
style of relating to others that forms when an infant has caregivers who are inconsistently responsive or unresponsive to needs; in Ainsworth's experiments, these infants were found to be less likely to explore their surroundings in the presence of their mother; they may be extremely upset or demonstrate indifference when the mother returned to the room 5.3
Counterculture
subculture group gravitates toward identity that is at odds with the majority culture and deliberately opposes the prevailing social mores
insight learning
sudden flash of inspiration that provides a solution to a problem; the aha moment where previously learned ideas or behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways 4.2, 5.1
dopamine hypothesis
suggest that the pathway for the NT dopamine is hyperactive in people with schizophrenia
stress-diatheses theory
suggests that while genetic inheritance provides a biological predisposition of schizophrenia, stressors elicit the onset of the disease
temporal summation
summation by a postsynaptic cell of input (EPSPs or IPSPs) from a single source over time 3.2
Choroidal vessels
supplies nutrients to the eye
Perilymph
suspends inner ear membranous labyrinth
Cultural lag
symbolic culture is slower to change than material culture
Interaction process analysis
technique for observing, classifying, and measuring the interactions within small groups
Group polarization
tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group Risky shift: group makes riskier decisions than individuals Choice shift: groups shift toward caution
Social loafing
tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually
Mental set
tendency to approach similar problems in the same way
Overconfidence
tendency to erroneously interpret one's decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible
oral stage
the 1st Freud's 5 psychosexual stages; in this stage, the child seeks sensual pleasure through oral activities such as sucking and chewing 6.1
ossicles
the 3 small bones found in the middle ear (malleus, incus, and stapes) that help to amplify the vibrations from the sound waves; the malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and the stapes is attached to the oval window of the cochlea 3.5
latency stage
the 4th of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages; in this stage, sexual interest subsides and is replaced by interests in other areas such as school, friends, and sports 6.1
social cognition
the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception 7.2
divided attention
the ability to focus on multiple tasks simultaneously 4.1
empathy
the ability to identify with others' emotions 7.3
social mobility
the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system 8.4
social perception
the ability to understand others in our social world; the initial information we process about other people in order to try and understand their mindsets and intentions 7.2
retention interval
the amount of time elapsed since information was learned and when it must be recalled 5.4
crude death rate
the annual number of deaths per thousand people in a population 8.3
crude birth rate
the annual number of live births per thousand people in a population 8.3
general fertility rate
the annual number of live births per thousand women of child-bearing age within the population 8.3
Wernicke's area
the area of the brain located in the posterior section of the temporal lobe in the language-dominant hemisphere of the brain (left for most people) involved with the comprehension of speech and written language individuals with damage to this area are unable to understand language and produce nonsensical sounds with the same rhythm and syntax as speech 4.6
visual cortex
the area of the occipital lobe responsible for processing visual information 3.5
auditory cortex
the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information 3.5
neuron
the basic functional and structural unit of the nervous system; it is a highly specialized cell designed to transmit action potentials 3.1
self-efficacy
the belief in one's own competence and effectiveness 7.1
internal locus of control
the belief of an individual that she is able to influence outcomes through her own efforts and actions 7.1
optimism bias
the belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us 7.2
external locus of control
the belief that once does not have control over outcomes, but they are controlled by outside forces 7.1
self-schemas
the beliefs and ideas people have about themselves 7.1
race
the biological, anthropological, or genetic origin of an individual, and includes the following U.S. census categories: •white, •black or African American, •American Indian or Alaska Native, •Asian, •and Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander 8.3
optic disk
the blind spot of the eye; this is where the axons of ganglion cells exit the retina to form the optic nerve; there are no photoreceptors here 3.5
iconic memory
the brief photographic memory for visual information which decays in a few tenths of a second 5.4
fluid intelligence
the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge; it involves the ability to identify patterns and relationships that underpin novel problems and to extrapolate these findings using logic.
adjustment disorder
the causes include stressor as opposed to trauma the symptoms last less than six months once the stressor has been eliminated
soma
the cell body of a neuron 3.1
thalamus
the central structure of the diencephalon of the brain acts as a relay station and major integrating area of sensory impulses 3.4
telencephalon
the cerebral hemispheres 3.4
cornea
the clear portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball, found over the iris and the pupil 3.5
beliefs
the convictions or principles that people within a culture hold 8.2
cochlea
the curled structure in the inner ear that contains the membranes and hair cells used to transduce sound waves into action potentials 3.5
choroid
the darkly-pigmented middle layer of the eyeball, found between the sclera (outer layer) and the retina (inner layer) 3.5
mortality
the death rate in a population 8.3
face validity
the degree to which a procedure, especially a psychological test or assessment, appears effective in terms of its stated aims to a casual observer, the transparency or relevance of a test as it appears to the test participants
construct validity
the degree to which a test actually measures what it claims (purports) to be measuring, the appropriateness of inferences made on the basis of observations or measurements (often test scores), specifically whether a test measures the intended variable
illness anxiety disorder
the distress is predominantly psychological, people experience persistent preoccupation with both their health condition and health-related behaviors, including seeking treatment
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
the division of the peripheral nervous system that innervates and controls the visceral organs (everything but the skeletal muscles). It is also known as the involuntary nervous system and can be subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches 3.4
integrity vs. despair
the eighth and final of Erik Erikson's developmental stages; involves the person's need to look back on life; if he or she regrets their life and lacks personal worth, they may feel hopeless, guilty, resentful, and self-rejecting
social facts
the elements that serve some function in society such as laws, morals, values, religions, customs, rituals, and roles that make up a society 8.1
incongruity
the emotional result when the real self falls short of the ideal self 7.1
acetylcholinesterase
the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft 3.2
religiosity
the extent that religion influences a person's life 8.2
global inequality
the extent to which income and wealth is distributed in an uneven manner among the world's population 8.4
bystander effect
the fact that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other people around 7.2
source traits
the factors underlying human personality and behavior 6.1
identity vs. role confusion
the fifth of Erik Erikson's developmental stages; involves the adolescent's need to test limits and clarify his or her identity, goals, and life meaning; if not met, he or she may develop role confusion
trust vs. mistrust
the first of Erik Erikson's developmental stages; involves the infant's physical and emotion needs; if not met, as an adult he or she may mistrust the world and interpersonal relationships
basilar membrane
the flexible membrane in the cochlea that supports the organ of Corti (the structure that contains the hearing receptors). The fibers of the basilar membrane are short and stiff near the oval window and long and flexible near the apex of the cochlea. This difference in structure helps the basilar membrane to transduce pitch 3.5
industry vs. inferiority
the fourth of Erik Erikson's developmental stages; involves the school-age child's needs to understand the world, develop a gender-role identity, succeed in school, and set and attain personal goals; if not met, he or she may feel inadequate as an adult
reinforcement schedule
the frequency and regularity with which rewards are offered; they can be based on: •a number of target behaviors (ratio) •or on a time interval (interval); types include: •fixed-ratio, •variable-ratio, •fixed-interval, •and variable-interval 5.1
urbanization
the growth of urban areas (as people move from rural to urban areas) as the result of global change tied to industrialization, and industrialized countries have more people living in urban areas than non-industrialized countries do 8.3
Lateral hypothalamus (LH)
the hunger center because it has special receptors thought to detect when the body needs more food or fluids
looking-glass self
the idea that a person's sense of self develops from impersonal interactions with others in society and the perception of others; according to this idea, people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them 7.1
principle of aggregation
the idea that an attitude affects a person's aggregate or average behavior, but cannot necessarily predict each isolated act 6.4
depth of processing
the idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered 5.4
Teacher expectancy
the idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students
social behaviorism
the idea that the mind and the self emerge through the process of communicating with others 7.1
absolute poverty
the inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities: •clean drinking water •food •safe housing •reliable access to healthcare 8.4
sensory memory
the initial recording of sensory information in the memory system; it is a very brief snapshot that quickly decays 5.4
retina
the innermost layer of the eyeball; it is made up of photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and a layer of ganglion cells 3.5
summation
the integration of input (EPSPs and IPSPs) from many presynaptic neurons by a single postsynaptic neuron either temporally or spatially summation of input can either stimulate the postsynaptic neuron and possible lead to an action potential or it can inhibit the neuron. reducing the likelihood of an action potential 3.2
manifest function
the intended or obvious consequences of a social structure 8.1
corpus callosum
the largest bundle of white matter (axons) connecting the two cerebral hemispheres 3.4
organic amnesia
the loss of memory due to biological factors such as: •brain disorders, •tumors, •strokes, •degenerative diseases, •or any other of a multitude of other disruptions of neurological function
belief perseverance
the maintenance of beliefs even in the face of evidence to the contrary 4.2
oval window
the membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear 3.5
representativeness heuristic
the mental shortcut where one judges the likelihood of things based on typical mental representations or examples of those things 4.2
mere presence
the most basic level of interaction between individuals; when people are simply in each other's presence either completing similar activities or just minding their own business 7.2
Alzheimer's Disease
the most prevalent form of dementia, characterized behaviorally by an inability to form new memories, known as anterograde amnesia 6.3
Recency effect
the most recent information we have about an individual that is the most important in forming our impressions
depolarization
the movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from the resting potential to a more positive membrane potential 3.1
optic nerve
the nerve extending from the back of the eyeball to the brain that carries visual information; it is made up of the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina 3.5
norepinephrine (NE)
the neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system at the post-ganglionic organ-level (synapse) 3.2
cultural capital
the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility Knowledge, skills, education, and similar characteristics that are used to make social distinctions and that are associated with different social status 8.4
personality
the nuanced and complex individual patterns of thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with each person 6.1
replacement level fertility
the number of children that a woman or couple must have in order to replace the number of people in the population who die 8.3
life expectancy
the number of years that an individual of a certain age can expect to life at present mortality rates 8.3
phenotype
the observable characteristics and traits of an organism 5.2
master status
the one status that dominates the other statuses and determines that individual's general position in society (e.g. occupation, disability, role, etc) 7.3
effector
the organ that carries out the command sent along a particular motor neuron 3.3
adrenal cortex
the outer region of the adrenal gland. produces cortisol in response to long-term (chronic) stress produces aldosterone in response to low BP or low blood osmolarity 3.6
scapegoat
the people or group who are unfairly blamed for something, or at whom displaced aggression is directed 7.2
social support
the perception that one is cared for and part of a social network; supportive resources can be tangible or emotional 7.3
relative refractory period
the period of time following an action potential, when it is possible, but difficult, for the neuron to fire a second action potential, due to the fact that the membrane is further from threshold potential (hyperpolarized) 3.2
conformity
the phenomenon of adjusting behavior or thinking based on the behavior or thinking of others 7.2
social facilitation effect
the phenomenon that describes how people tend to perform simple well-learned tasks better when other people are present 7.2
group polarization
the phenomenon where groups tend to intensify the pre-existing views of their members until the average view is more extreme than it initially was 7.2
social loafing
the phenomenon where people tend to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable 7.2
Beneficence
the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest
hypophysis
the pituitary gland 3.6
healthcare disparities
the population-specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and qualities of healthcare in different social groups 8.4
midbrain
the portion of the brain responsible for visual and auditory startle reflexes 3.4
outer ear
the portion of the ear consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal; it is separated from the middle ear by the tympanic membrane (eardrum) 3.5
diencephalon
the portion of the forebrain that includes the thalamus and hypothalamus 3.4
medulla oblongata
the portion of the hind brain that controls respiratory rate and blood pressure and specialized digestive and respiratory functions such as vomiting, sneezing, and coughing 3.4
social capital
the potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility 8.4
endogamy
the practice of marrying within a particular group 8.2
mindguarding
the pressure to conform within a group causes individuals to censor their own opinions in favor of consensus which creates an illusion of unanimity When some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating the group by filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group This tends to lead to groupthink 7.2
estrogen
the primary female sex hormone. It stimulates the development of the female secondary sex characteristics during puberty, maintains those characteristics during adulthood, stimulates the development of new uterine lining after menstruation, and stimulates mammary gland development during pregnancy 3.6
retrieval structure principle
the principle which states that experts develop memory mechanisms (called retrieval structure) to facilitate the retrieval of information stored in the long-term memory; these mechanisms operate in a fashion consistent with the meaningful encoding principle to provide cues that can be later regenerated to retrieve stored information effectively without a lengthy search
integrative reminiscence
the process by which older people may take stock of their lives and come to terms with previously unresolved conflicts
selective attention
the process by which one input is selected to focus on out of the field of possibilities in the environment 4.1
avoidance learning
the process by which one learns to perform a behavior in order to ensure that a negative or aversive stimulus will not be present 5.1
language acquisition
the process by which the infants learn to understand and speak their native language 4.6
assimilation
the process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture. Generally, this individual is a member of a minority group who is attempting to conform to the culture of the dominant group 7.1
informational social influence
the process of complying because we want to do the right thing and we feel like "others know something I don't know" 7.2
role exit
the process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one's self-identity to take on a new role 7.3
relearning
the process of learning material that was originally learned 5.4
encoding
the process of transferring sensory information into the memory system 5.4
socialization
the process through which people learn to be proficient members of a society; a lifelong process where people learn the attitudes, values, and beliefs that are reinforced by a particular culture 7.1
meninges
the protective connective tissue wrappings of the CNS (dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater) 3.4
cerebellum
the region of the brain that coordinates and smooths skeletal muscle activity 3.4
negative reinforcement
the removal of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behavior; tends to increase the frequency of that behavior 5.1
negative punishment
the removal of a positive or rewarding stimulus following a behavior; tends to decrease the likelihood of that behavior 5.1
deception
the research equivalent of lying to participants, frequently used to mislead participants so that they do not learn what the actual purpose of the research may be
dishabituation
the restoration to full strength of a response to a stimulus that had previously become weakened through habituation 5.1
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
the second of Erik Erikson's developmental stages; involves the toddlers need to explore, make mistakes, and test limits; if not met, as an adult he or she may be dependent rather than autonomous
anal stage
the second of Freud's five psychosexual stages the child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination 6.1
residential segregation
the separation of groups into different neighborhoods, which most often occurs due to racial differences, ethnic differences, and/or socioeconomic differences; it is NOT based on laws, but rather enduring social patterns, which are attributed to sub-urbanization, discrimination, and personal preferences 8.4
generativity vs. stagnation
the seventh of Erik Erikson's developmental stages; involves the person's need to feel productive by helping the next generation and resolving differences between actual accomplishments and earlier dreams; if not met, he or she may become stuck in psychological stagnation
intimacy vs. isolation
the sixth of Erik Erikson's development stages; involve the young adult's need to form intimate relationships; if not met, he or she may become alienated and isolated
social identity
the social definition of self including race, religion, gender, occupation, and the like 7.1
organ of Corti
the structure in the cochlea of the inner ear made up of: •the basilar membrane, •the auditory hair cells, •and the tectorial membrane; the Organ of Corti is the site where auditory sensation is detected and transduced to action potentials 3.5
social reproduction
the structures and activities in a place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one generation to the next; cultural capital and social capital are two mechanisms by which social reproduction occurs 8.4
sociobiology
the study of how biology and evolution have effected human social behavior, primarily it applies Darwin's principle of natural selection to social behavior, suggesting there is a biological basis for many behaviors 8.3
sociology
the study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently shaped by the society in which they live 8.1
demography
the study of human population dynamics, including: •the size, •structure, and •distribution of a population, •and changes in the population over time due to birth, death, and migration 8.3
social epidemiology
the study of the distribution of health and disease across a population, with the focus on using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness in a population 8.4
central nervous system
the subdivision of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord 3.4
self-serving bias
the tendency to attribute our success to ourselves and our failures to others and the external environment 7.2
just world phenomenon
the tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve; when bad things happen to others, it is the result of their actions or their failure to act, and when good things happen to us, it is because we deserve it 7.2
self-reference effect
the tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves, a prediction comes true because the individual accepts something as the truth and receives the feedback about his belief from at least one other person 5.4, 7.1
actor-observer bias
the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities 7.2
negativity bias
the tendency to focus or remember the negative aspects of experiences
ethnocentrism
the tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one's own culture 7.2
activation-synthesis theory
the theory that dreams are simply byproducts of brain activation during REM sleep. Suggests that the content of dreams is not purposeful or meaningful 4.3
initiative vs. guilt
the third of Erik Erikson's developmental stages; involves the preschool-age child's need to make decisions; if not met, as an adult he or she may feel guilty taking initiative and instead allow others to choose
phallic stage
the third of Freud's psychosexual stages; in this stage, the child seeks sensual pleasure through the genitals 6.1
prejudice
the thoughts, attitudes, and feelings that someone holds about a group that are not based on an actual experience; a pre-judgment or biased thinking about a group and its members 7.2
object permanence
the understanding that things continue to exist once they're out of sight 4.2
latent functions
the unintended or less recognizable consequences or a social structure, can be considered beneficial, neutral, or harmful (e.g. A newspaper acting as a fly swatter) 8.1
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
the universal authority on the classification and diagnosis of psychological disorders; the current latest edition is the fifth edition of the DSM (the DSM-5) 6.3
norms
the visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society; they help define what type of behaviors are acceptable and in accordance with a society's values and benefits; formal norms are generally written down; laws are examples of formal norms Informal norms are generally understood, but are less precise and often carry no specific punishments 7.1, 8.3
circadian rhythm
the waxing and waning of alertness throughout the 24-hour day 4.3
Attitude: behavioral
the way a person acts with respect to something (ex. avoiding snakes)
social stratification
the way that people are categorized in society; people can be categorized by race, education, wealth, and income, among other things 8.4
sclera
the white portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball 3.5
Canon-Bard Theory
theory of emotion that asserts that the *physiological and cognitive aspects of emotion occur simultaneously* and collectively lead to the behavioral reaction 4.4
Schachter-Singer Theory
theory of emotion that asserts that the experience of psychological arousal occurs first, and is followed by a conscious, cognitive interpretation/appraisal that allows for the identification of the experiences emotion arousal --> interpretation to identify emotion 4.5
James-Lange Theory
theory of emotion that claims that emotional experience is the result of physiological and behavioral responses (e.g. forcing a smile makes you feel slightly happy) Physiological and behavioral CAUSES emotional 4.4
Oedipus complex
this complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a male child is sexually attracted to his mother and hostile towards his father who is seen as a rival. 6.1
Electra complex
this complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud's five psychosexual stages) when a female child is sexually attracted to her father and hostile toward her mother, who is seen as a rival 6.1
Sapire-Whorf hypothesis
this hypothesis asserts that people understands their world through language and that language in turn shapes how people experience their world 8.3
Weber's law
this law pertains to sensory perception and dictates that two stimuli must differ by constant proportion in order for their difference to be perceptible 3.5
frustration-aggression principle
this principle suggests that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggression 7.3
cortisol
this steroid hormone is released during chronic stress; it shifts the body's use of fuel from glucose toward fats and proteins, thus "sparing" glucose for the brain's use. Prolonged release of cortisol is associated with suppressed immunity and increased susceptibility to illness 3.6, 4.5
psychoanalytic therapy
this therapy approach uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his or her unconscious motives and to gain insight into the emotional issues and conflicts that are causing difficulties 6.1
behavioral therapy
this type of therapy uses conditioning to shape a client's behaviors in the desired direction 6.1
ascribed status
those statuses that are assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts 7.3
George Kelly's Personal Construct Psychology
thought of the individual as a scientist who devises and tests predictions about behavior of significant people in his or her life
escape learning
through operant conditioning, this is the process of learning to engage in a particular behavior in order to get away from a negative or aversive stimulus 5.1
ego defense mechanisms
to cope with this anxiety and protect the ego, all people develop ego defense mechanisms that unconsciously deny or distort reality. normal, and become unhealthy only when taken to extremes; developed by Sigmund Freud 6.1
cognitive psychology
tradition of psychology that focuses on the brain, cognitions, and thoughts as mediating learning and stimulus-response behaviors 5.1
Verbal communication
transmission of information through the use of wods, whether spoken, written, or signed; dependent on nonverbal cues for receiver to understand sender's full meaning
Virtreous
transparent gel that supports the retina
Direct therapy
treatment that acts directly on the individual such as medication or periodic meetings with a psychologist
Socialist economies
treats large industries as collective, shared businesses, and compensation is provided based on the work contribution of each individual into the system
Noise trials
trial to measure response bias in which the signal is not presented
Catch trials
trials in which the signal is presented
Dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality disorder)
two or more personalities recurrently take control of person's behavior
grey matter
un-myelinated neuron cell bodies and short, un-myelinated axons 3.4
primary reinforcers
unconditioned consequences that are innately satisfying of desirable; may be biologically driven 5.1
discrimination
unjust treatment of a group, based on group characteristics (such as age, sex, race, ethnicity, disability) 7.2
Crystallized intelligence
use of learned skills and knowledge, peaks in middle adulthood
Fornix
used to help the hippocampus communicate with other portions of the limbic system
night terror
usually occurs during stage 3 sleep, unlike nightmares; the individual may sit up or walk around, babble, and appear terrified although none of it is remembered the next morning 4.3
Otoliths
utricle and saccule contain modified hair cells covered in otoliths As body accelerates, these otoliths resist that motion
social cues
verbal/nonverbal hints guide social interactions 6.1
Superior colliculus
visual sensory input
theta waves
waves of low to moderate intensity and intermediate frequency present during stage 1 of sleep 4.3
Attitude: cognitive
way an individual thinks about something, justifying for the other two components (ex. snakes can be dangerous)
Hierarchy of salience
we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment
Self-reference effect
we tend to recall information best when we can put it into the context of our own lives
generalized other
when a person tries to imagine what is expected of them from society, they are taking on the perspective of the generalize other 7.1
Identity shift effect
when an individual's state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group and start to experience internal conflict
mood-dependent memory
when learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state 5.4
positive transfer
when old information facilitates the learning of new information 5.4
environmental injustice
when people in poorer communities are more likely to be subjected to negative environmental impacts to their health and well-being 8.4
justification of effort
when people modify their attitudes to match their behaviors, specifically those involving effort 6.4
self-fulfilling prophecy
when stereotypes lead a person to behave in such a way as to affirm the original stereotypes 7.2
normative social influence
when the motivation for compliance is a desire for the approval of others and to avoid rejection 7.2
Wernicke's aphasia
when this area is damaged, motor production and fluency of speech is retained but comprehension of speech is lost; patients speak nonsensical sounds and inappropriate word combo
fundamental attribution error
when we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person's character or personality on their behavior 7.2
Sclera
white of the eye
Mores
widely observed social norms
Self-censorship (Irving Janis's Groupthink)
withholding of opposing views Illusion of unanimity: false sense of agreement within the group
ego defense mechanisms (list them)
•Repression; •Denial; •Reaction Formation; •Projection; •Displacement; •Rationalization; •Regression; •Sublimation 6.1
