Princeton Review MCAT Psych/Soc Glossary, MCAT Kaplan Psychology/Sociology Vocabulary, MCAT Psychology and Sociology (Kaplan)

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Operant Conditioning

(B.F. Skinner) Negative reinforcement: increase frequency of behavior by removing unpleasant something Positive punishment; add unpleasant consequence

Learning (Behaviorist) Theory

(B.F. Skinner) language acquisition by operant conditioning and reinforcement

Basic model of emotional expression

(Charles Darwin) emotional expression involves a number of components like facial expressions, behavior, postures, vocal changes, and physiological changes

Dramaturgical approach

(Erving Goffman) Front stage: conforms to image he wants others to see Back stage: free to act like his true self

Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft

(Ferdinand Tonnies) Gemeinschaft: refers to groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography Gesellschaft: refers to groups that are formed because of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal

Second sickness

(Howard Witzkin) exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice

Nativist (Biological) theory

(Noam Chomsky) existence of some innate capacity for language Transformational grammar: changes in words that retain the same meaning (Ex. I took the MCAT vs. the MCAT was taken by me) Language acquisition device (LAD): theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules Critical period: language acquisition between two years and puberty Sensitive period: time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability

Hypomania

(bipolar related disorder) patient does not have significantly impaired functioning or are there psychotic features but individual may be more energetic and optimistic

Catecholamine theory of depression/monoamine

(bipolar related disorder) too much norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse leads to mania and too little leads to depression

reporting bias

(epidemiology) selective revealing/suppression of info by subjects, e.g. about past medical history, smoking, sexual experiences

Conflict theory

- A theoretical framework that emphasizes the role of power differentials in producing social order - Social order is maintained by power and dominate rather than conformity and consensus - A society is in constant conflict over competition for limited resources - Two opposing positions would merge to create a new society where both are content

Broadbent's early selection theory

- All info in environment goes into sensory register - Gets transferred to selective filter right away which filters out stuff in unattended ear and what you don't need to understand it (accents etc.) - Perceptual processes identifies friend's voice and assigns meaning to words - problem: if you filter out everything in the unattended air, that would mean the cocktail party effect can't happen

Interactionist approach

- Biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language - Children's desire to communicate with adults makes them learn language - Associated with Vygotsky

Learning (behaviorist) theory (language)

- Children aren't born with anything, only acquire language through reinforcement - Child learns to say "mama" because every time they say that, mom reinforces child - Doesn't explain how they can produce words they've never heard before

Conservation ("of mass" concept)

- Concept seen in quantitative analysis performed by a child - Develops when a child is able to identify the difference between quantity by number and actual amount, especially when faced with identical quantities separated into varying pieces.

Treisman's attenuation theory

- First all environmental info goes to sensory register - Instead of complete selective filter, have an attenuator - weakens but doesn't eliminate input from unattended ear - Some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority. - Switch if something important.

Deutch and Deutch's late selection theory

- First all environmental info goes to sensory register where it goes through a selective filter - Next, perceptual process - assigning meaning - Places broadband selective filter after perceptual processes. Selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness - problem: Given limited resources and attention, seems wasteful to spend all that time assigning meaning to things first

Basic model

- First established by Charles Darwin - States that emotional expression involves a number of systems: facial expression as well as behavioral and physical response - Claims that emotions are universal and should be similar across cultures

Caffeine

- Inhibits adenosine receptors

Source-monitoring error

- Memory error - Person remembers the details of an event but confuses the context by which the details were gained - Often causes a person to remember events that happened to someone else as having happened to him- or herself

Prefrontal cortex

- Responsible for many higher-order functions, everything that distinguishes humans - Executive control - solve problems, make decisions, how you act in social situations. - Involved in reducing emotion

Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)

- Technique used to record patterns of neural activity based on blood flow to different areas of the brain - Measures using detection of inhaled radioactive markers.

Karen Horney

-personality is result of interpersonal relationships -primary concept is basic anxiety -Neurotic needs: each needs is directed toward making life and interactions bearable -Basic anxiety vs. basic hostility: vulnerability and helplessness vs. neglect and rejection

Formal organizations

1. Continue despite departure of an individual member 2. expressed goals recorded in a written format and guide the members and their activities 3. seek to control activities of their members 4. hierarchical allotment of formal roles or duties to members

Impression management strategies

1. Self-disclosure: give info about oneself to establish an identity 2. Managing appearances: use props, appearance, emotional expression, etc with others to create a positive image 3. Ingratiation: use flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over 4. Aligning actions: make questionable behavior acceptable through excuses 5. Alter-casting: imposing an identity onto another person

Information processing model

1. Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli 2. Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision-making 3. Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (called situational modification) 4. Problem-solving is dependent not only on the person's cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem

Depression (biological causes)

1. abnormally high glucose metabolism in in amygdala 2. hippocampal atrophy after long duration of illness 3. abnormally high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol) 4. decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine

Alzheimer's disease (biological markers)

1. diffuse atrophy of brain on CT/MRI 2. Flattened sulci in cerebral cortex 3. enlarged cerebral ventricles 4. deficient blood flow in parietal lobes -> cognitive decline 5. reduction in levels of acetylcholine 6. reduction in choline acetyltransferase (produces acetylcholine) 7. reduced metabolism in temporal and parietal lobes 8. senile plaques of B-amyloid 9. neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein

Bipolar disorders (biological causes)

1. increased norepinephrine and serotonin 2. higher risk if parent has bipolar disorder 3. higher risk for persons with MS

Alzheimer's disease (genetic component)

1. mutations in presenilin genes on chromosomes 1 and 14 2. mutations in apolipoprotein E on c'some 19 3. Beta amyloid precursor protein gene on c'some 21

sensorimotor stage

1st stage of Piaget's developmental theory from birth to age 2 where babies learn object permanence and demonstrate stranger anxiety 4.2

semicircular canals

3 loop-like structures in the inner ear that contain sensory receptors to monitor balance 3.5

Agents of socialization

4 most important influences: mass media, family, peers, and school

Cognitive dissonance theory

4 things we do to reduce that discomfort of having two opposing opinions: 1. Modify our cognitions - ex. smoker might say, I really don't smoke that much. 2. Trivialize - make less important, ex. evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer. 3. Add - adding more cognitions, ex. I exercise so much it doesn't matter 4. Deny - denying the facts, ex. smoking and cancer are not linked.

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning which form the basis of ethical behavior, the pre-conventional (level 1) contains: •the 1st stage (obedience and punishment orientation •and 2nd stage (self-interest orientation), the conventional (level 2) contains: •the 3rd stage (interpersonal accord and conformity) •and 4th stage (authority and social-order maintaining orientation) the post-conventional (level 3) contains: •the 5th stage (social contract orientation) •and 6th stage (universal ethical principles) 7.1

universal emotions

6 major emotions that appear to be universal across cultures •happiness •sadness •surprise •anger •fear •disgust 4.4

Amphetamine

A CNS stimulant that increases activity of both dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain.

Benzodiazepine

A CNS suppressant that is often used to reduce anxiety and promote sleep. - Enhance your brain's response to GABA - 3 types: short, intermediate, and long-acting. - Short and intermediate are usually for sleep - Long acting are for anxiety

Labeling Theory

A behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant - Primary deviance - no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild. Individual behaves in same way without feeling wrong. - Secondary deviance - more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that results in stigmatizing behavior

Innate behavior

A behavior that is genetically programmed or instinctive.

Aggression

A behavior with the intention to cause harm or increase relative social dominance; can be physical or verbal.

Broca's area

A brain region located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe (usually in the left hemisphere); largely responsible for the motor function of speech.

Wernicke's area

A brain region located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe (usually the left hemisphere); largely responsible for language comprehension.

Pineal gland

A brain structure located near the thalamus that secretes melatonin.

Parasympathetic nervous system

A branch of the ANS that promotes resting and digesting; associated with related states, reductions in heart and respiration rates, and promotion of digestion.

Arcuate fasciculus

A bundle of axons that connects Wernicke's area with Broca's area

Compliance

A change of behavior of an individual at the request of another.

Neurotransmitter

A chemical that transmits signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse.

Halo effect

A cognitive bias in which judgment of an individual's character can be affected by the overall impression of the individual.

Confirmation bias

A cognitive bias in which one focuses on information that supports a given solution, belief, or hypothesis, and ignores evidence against it.

Wernicke-Korsakoff's Syndrome

A condition resulting from chronic thiamine (vitamins B1) deficiency, which is common in alcoholics; characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of coordination.

Recognition-primed decision model

A decision-making model in which experience and recognition of similar situations one has already experiences play a large role in decision-making and actions; also one of the explanations for the experience of intuition.

Habituation

A decrease in response caused by repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Adaptation (in perception)

A decrease in stimulus perception after a long duration of exposure.

Regression

A defense mechanism by which an individual deals with stress by reverting to an earlier developmental state.

Projection

A defense mechanism by which individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others.

Rationalization

A defense mechanism by which individuals explain undesirable behaviors in a way that is self-justifying and socially acceptable.

Reaction formation

A defense mechanism by which individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites.

Repression

A defense mechanism by which the ego forces undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious mind.

Sublimation

A defense mechanism by which unacceptable urges are transformed into socially acceptable behaviors.

Displacement

A defense mechanism by which undesired urges are transferred from one target to another, more acceptable one.

Parkinson's disease

A disease characterized by slowness in movement, resting remorse, pill-rolling tumor, mask like faces cogwheel rigidity, and a shuffle gait; caused by destruction of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra.

Opiates

A drug family consisting of naturally occurring, highly addictive, pain-reducing drugs used in both medical and recreational settings; opioids are synthetic versions of these drugs.

Barbiturate

A drug that acts as a CNS depressant; often used for anxiety and insomnia - Side effects are reduced memory, judgement and concentration, with alcohol can lead to death

Stimulant

A drug that causes an increase in CNS arousal.

Emotion

A feeling and state of mind derived from circumstances, mood, or relationships.

Stereotype threat

A feeling of anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group.

Sulcus

A fold in the cerebral cortex.

Operant conditioning

A form of associative learning in which the frequency of a behavior is modified using reinforcement or punishment.

Deductive reasoning

A form of cognition that starts with general information and narrows down that information to create a conclusion.

Inductive reasoning

A form of cognition that utilizes generalizations to develop a theory.

Altruism

A form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at a cost to himself to herself.

Observational learning

A form of learning in which behavior is modified as a result of watching others.

Avoidance learning

A form of negative reinforcement in which one avoids the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen.

Escape learning

A form of negative reinforcement in which one reduces the unpleasantness of something that already exists.

Spatial inequality

A form of social stratification across error-ties and their populations that can involve residential, environmental, or global components.

Bureaucracy

A formal organization with the goal of performing complex tasks as efficiently as possible by dividing work among a number of bureaus.

Classical conditioning

A from of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus such that the neutral stimulus alone produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus thus becomes a conditioned stimulus.

Family group

A group determined by birth, adoption, and marriage rather than self-selection (as in a peer group).

Hallucinogens

A group of drugs that cause distortions of reality in users, including lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin-containing mushrooms.

Primary group

A group wherein the interactions are direct, with close bonds, providing relationships to members that are very warm, personal, and intimate.

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

A hypothesis suggesting that one's perception of reality is largely determined by the content, form, and structure of language; also known as the Whorfian hypothesis.

Transformational grammar

A linguistic theory that focuses on how changes in word order affect meaning.

Polygyny

A matinee system in which a male has exclusive relationships with several females.

Promiscuity

A mating system in which a member of one sex mates with any member of the opposite sex.

Polyandry

A mating system in which female have exclusive relationships with several males.

Polygamy

A mating system in which one member of a sex has multiple exclusive opposite-sex relationships.

Inclusive fitness

A measure of reproductive success; depends on the number of offspring an individual has, how well they support their offspring and how well their offspring can support others.

System for multiple level observation of groups (SYMLOG)

A method of studying group dynamics; focuses on three fundamental dimensions of interaction: dominance vs. submission, friendliness vs. unfriendliness, and instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive.

Game theory

A model that explains social interaction and decision-making as a game, including strategies, incentive, and punishments.

Interneuron

A neuron found between sensory and motor neurons; involved in the reflex arc.

Motor neuron

A neuron that transmits motor information from the spinal cord and brain to the periphery.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter associated with mood, sleep, eating, and dreaming.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with smooth movements, steady posture, and the reward pathways and psychosis.

γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

A neurotransmitter associated with stabilizing and quelling brain activity.

Epinephrine

A neurotransmitter associated with the fight-or-flight response.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter associated with voluntary muscle control - primary neurotransmitter in the parasympathetic nervous system

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter associated with wakefulness and alertness.

Manic episode

A period of at least one week with prominent and persistent elevated or expansive mood and at least two others maniac symptoms.

Depressive episode

A period of at least two weeks in which there is a prominent and persistent depressed mood or lack of interest and at least four other depressive symptoms.

Attribute substitution

A phenomenon observed when individuals must make judgments that are complex but instead substitutes a simpler solution or perception.

Identity

A piece of an individual's self-concept based on the groups to which that person belongs and his or her relationship to others.

Hindbrain

A portion of the brain that controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes. - cerebellum - pons - medulla oblongata

Forebrain

A portion of the brain that is associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes such as emotion and memory.

Midbrain

A portion of the brainstem that manages sensorimotor reflexes to visual and auditory stimuli and gives rise to some cranial nerves

Medulla oblongata

A portion of the brainstem that regulates vital functions, including breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Pons

A portion of the brainstem that relays information between the cortex and medulla, regulates sleep, and carries some motor and sensory information from the face and neck.

Projection area

A portion of the cerebral cortex that analyzes sensory input.

Frontal lobe

A portion of the cerebral cortex that controls motor processing, executive function, and the integration of cognitive and behavioral processes. - motor function, problem solving, spontaneity, memory, language, initiation, judgement, impulse control, and social and sexual behavior

Occipital lobe

A portion of the cerebral cortex that controls visual processing.

Temporal lobe

A portion of the cerebral cortex that controls: - auditory processing - memory processing - emotional control - language

Parietal lobe

A portion of the cerebral cortex that controls: - somatosensory - spatial processing.

Limbic system

A portion of the cerebrum that is associated with emotion and memory and includes the amygdala and hippocampus.

Hypothalamus

A portion of the forebrain that controls homeostatic and endocrine functions by controlling the release of pituitary hormones. - part of the limbic system - regulates ANS (fight or flight, rest and digest)

Basal ganglia

A portion of the forebrain that coordinates muscle movement and routes information from the cortex to the brain and spinal cord. - also involved in cognition and emotion

Thalamus

A portion of the forebrain that serves as a relay and sorting station for sensory information, and then transmits the information to the cerebral cortex. - smell is only sense that bypasses thalamus - part of the limbic system - emotion contingent on senses

Cerebellum

A portion of the hindbrain that maintains posture and balance and coordinates body movements.

Amygdala

A portion of the limbic system that is important for memory and emotion, especially fear. - agression center: when stimulated, produces anger/violence or fear/anxiety

Hippocampus

A portion of the limbic system that is important for memory and learning. - convert short-term to long-term memory - if destroyed, still have old memories but can't make new ones

Telencephalon

A portion of the prosencephalon that becomes the cerebrum.

Diencephalon

A portion of the prosencephalon that becomes the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland.

Arousal

A psychological and physiological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli; nearly synonymous with alertness.

GAD (Generalized Anxiety Disorder)

A psychological disorder characterized by tension or anxiety much of the time about many issues, but without the presence of panic attacks. 6.3

Schizophrenia

A psychotic disorder characterized by gross distortions of reality and disturbances in the content and form of thought, perceptions, and behavior.

Circular reaction

A repetitive action that achieves a desired response; seen during Piaget's sensorimotor stage. - Primary: repetitive behavior the child find soothing (e.g. repeating a syllable) - Secondary: repetitive behavior that affects the environment

State-dependent memory

A retrieval cue by which memory is aided when a person is in the same state of emotion or intoxication as when encoding took place.

Context effect

A retrieval cue by which memory is aided when person is in the location where encoding took place.

Priming

A retrieval cue by which recall is aided by a word or phrase that is semantically related to the desired memory - exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus even if we haven't been paying attention to it

Interference

A retrieval error caused by the learning of information; can be proactive (old information causing difficulty learning new information) or retroactive (new information interferes with older learnings).

Incentive

A reward intended to motivate particular behaviors.

Gyrus

A ridge of the cerebral cortex

Heuristic

A rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to make decisions.

Melatonin

A serotonin derivative secreted by the pineal glad that is associated with sleepiness.

Bisexual

A sexual orientation wherein individuals are attracted to members of both sexes.

Heterosexual

A sexual orientation wherein individuals are attracted to members of the opposite sex.

Homosexual

A sexual orientation wherein individuals are attracted to members of the same sex.

Cultural syndrome

A shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors organized around a central theme and found among people who speak the same language and share a geographic region.

Representational heuristic

A shortcut in decision-making that relies on categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category.

Availability heuristic

A shortcut in decision-making that relies on the information that is most readily available, rather than the total body of information on a subject.

Appraisal model

A similar theory to the basic model, accepting that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced; accepted that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression - Appraisal of a situation causes an emotional or affective response based on the appraisal

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by a lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep; also involves cataplexy and hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations.

Parasomnia

A sleep disorder characterized by abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep.

Dyssomnia

A sleep disorder in which one has difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or avoiding sleep.

Race

A social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people; these may be either real or perceived differences.

Ethnicity

A social construct that sorts people by cultural factors, including language, nationality, religion, and other factors.

Group

A social entity that involves at least two people, usually those sharing common characteristics.

In-group

A social group to which a person experiences a sense of belonging or one in which he or she identifies as a member.

Out-group

A social group with which an individual does not identify.

Meritocracy

A society in which advancements up the social ladder is based on intellectual talent and achievement.

Organization

A specific type of group characterized by five traits; formality, hierarchy of ranked positions large size, complex divisions of labor, and continuity beyond its members.

Conduction aphasia

A speech disorder characterized by the inability to repeat words with intact spontaneous speech production and comprehension; usually due to injury to the arcuate fascicles. - Ability to conduct between listening and speaking is interrupted

Meditation

A state of consciousness entered voluntarily, characterized by a decreased level of physiological arousal and a quieting of the mind.

Learned helplessness

A state of hopelessness and resignation resulting from being unable to avoid repeated negative stimuli; often used as a model of depression.

Anomie

A state of normlessness; anomie conditions erode social solidarity by means of excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation.

Achieved status

A status gained as a result of direct, individual action.

Ascribed status

A status that one is given at birth, such as race, ethnicity, or sex.

Master status

A status with which a person is most identified.

Dishabituation

A sudden increase in response to a stimulus, usually due to a change in the stimulus or addition of another stimulus; sometimes called resensitization.

Interaction process analysis

A technique of observing and immediately classifying the activities of small groups.

Overconfidence

A tendency to interpret one's decisions, knowledge, or beliefs as infallible.

Mental set

A tendency to repeat solutions that have yielded positive results at some time in the past.

Attitude

A tendency toward expression of positive or negative feelings or evaluations of a person, place, thing, or situation.

Network

A term used to describe the observable pattern of social relationships among individual units of analysis.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A test used to study the electrical patterns of the brain under varying conditions; consists of multiple electrodes placed on the scalp.

Functionalism

A theoretical framework that explains how parts of society fit together to create a cohesive whole - looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning - everyone is required to have a responsibility

Symbolic interactionism

A theoretical framework that studies the way individuals interact through shared understandings of words, gestures and other symbols. - focuses on the individual and significance they give to objects, events, symbols, etc. in their lives

Elaboration likelihood model

A theory in which attitudes are formed and changed through different routes of information processing based on the degree of deep thought given to persuasive information. - More cognitive approach - focuses on the why/how of persuasion. 2 ways info is processed: 1. central (depends on quality of arguments by persuader) - results in lasting attitude change 2. peripheral (superficial/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader) - creates temporary attitude change

Cannon-Bard theory

A theory of emotion that states that a stimulus is first received and is then simultaneously processed physiologically and cognitively, allowing for the conscious emotion to be experienced. - first response: nervous system arousal and conscious emotion - second response: action

James-Lange theory

A theory of emotion that states that a stimulus results in physiological arousal, which then leads to a secondary response in which emotion is consciously experienced - first response: nervous system arousal - second response: conscious emotion

Schacther-Singer theory

A theory of emotion that states that both physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal must occur before emotion is consciously experienced. - first response: nervous system arousal and cognitive appraisal - second response: conscious emotion

Social construction model

A theory of emotional expression that assumes there are no biologically wired emotions; rather, they are based on experiences and situational context alone.

Arousal theory

A theory of motivation that states there is a particular level of arousal required in order to perform actions optimally; summarized by the Yerkes-Dodson law.

Signal detection theory

A theory of perception in which internal (psychological) and external (environmental) context both play a role in the perception of stimuli

Weber's law

A theory of perception that states that there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a just noticeable difference and the magnitude of the original stimulus.

feature detection theory

A theory of visual perception that proposes that certain neurons fire for individual and specific features of a visual stimulus such as shape, color, line, movements, etc. 3.5

Learning (behaviorist) theory

A theory that attitudes are developed through forms of learning (direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction, and conditionings).

Social cognitive theory

A theory that attitudes are formed through observation of behavior, cognition, and the environment.

Drive reduction theory

A theory that explains motivation as being based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable internal states.

Correspondent inference theory

A theory that states that people pay closer attention to intentional behavior than accidental behavior when making attributions, especially if the behavior is unexpected.

Implicit personality theory

A theory that states that people tend to associate traits and behaviors in others, and that people have the tendency to attribute their own beliefs, opinions, and ideas onto others.

Opponent-process theory

A theory that states that the body will adapt to counteract repeated exposure to stimuli, such as seeing afterimages or ramping up the sympathetic nervous system in response to a depressant. - e.g. seeing an image for a long time then looking at a white wall and you will see the complement

Gestalt psychology

A theory that the brain processes information in a holistic manner, especially for visual information, the brain tends to make assumptions in order to detect the whole, instead of serially processing all of the individual parts. 3.5

Meninges

A thick layer of connective tissue that covers and protects the brain; composed of the dura mater, arachnid mater, and pia mater.

Critical period

A time during development during which exposure to language is essential for eventual development of the effective use of language; occurs between two year of age and puberty.

Sensitive period

A time during which environmental input has a maximal impact on the development or a particular ability

Attachment

A very deep emotional bond to another person, particularly a parent or caregiver.

operant conditioning

AKA 'instrumental conditioning'; a form of associate learning based on *consequences*, in which rewards increase the frequency of behaviors associated with them and punishments decrease their frequency 5.1

five-factor model

AKA Costa and McCrae's Five-Factor Model A model developed to explain personality using five overarching personality traits which include: •extroversion, •neuroticism, •openness to experience, •agreeableness, and •conscientiousness 6.1

mindfulness-based stress reduction

AKA MBSR protocol involving mindfulness meditation, shown to be effective for helping individuals with pain, stress and anxiety 4.3

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

AKA OCD a psychological disorder characterized by: •obsessions (repeated intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause distress or anxiety); •compulsions (repeated physical or mental behaviors that are done in response to an obsession or in accordance with a set of strict rules in order to reduce distress or prevent something dreaded from occurring) or both

Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder

AKA OCPD a psychological disorder characterized by accumulation of money or worthless objects 6.3

parasympathetic nervous sytem

AKA PNS the division of the autonomic nervous system AKA "resting and digesting" system. it causes a general decrease in body activities such as heart rate, and blood pressure and an increase in blood flow to the GI tract and an increase in digestive function; because the paraganglionic neurons all originate from either the brain or the sacrum, it is AKA the craniosacral system 3.4, 4.4

polysomnography

AKA PSG multimodal technique for measuring physiological processes during sleep, including EEG, EMG and EOG 4.3

posttraumatic stress disorder

AKA PTSD disorder characterized by 3 clusters of symptoms: 1) re-experiencing of traumatic events through flashbacks or nightmares 2) hypervigilance of one's surroundings 3) avoidance of situations related to stressful events 4.5, 6.3

reticular formation

AKA Reticular Activating System or RAS structures in the brainstem that are important for alertness and arousal as in wakefulness 4.3

sympathetic nervous system

AKA SNS subdivision of the autonomic nervous system directing what is known as the "fight or flight" response to prepare the body for action it increases HR, BP, and blood sugar levels and directs the adrenal glands to release stress hormones 3.4, 4.5

prison study

AKA Stanford Prison Study a psychological experiment conducted by Philip Zimbardo designed to elucidate the extreme effects of role-playing on human behavior. 24 male students were isolated and asked to play the role of prisoners and guards. The participants adapted to their roles well beyond Zimbardo's expectations. The guards enforced extreme measure including psychological torture and many of the prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and readily harassed other prisoners who attempted to prevent it. 6.4

cult

AKA a new religious movement a religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle 8.2

self-actualization

AKA actualizing tendency according to humanistic psychology, individuals have an innate drive to maintain and enhance themselves or realize their human potential as long as no obstacle intervenes

basal nuceli

AKA basal ganglia these structures in the brain help to smooth coordinated movement by inhibiting excess movement 3.4

dramaturgical approach

AKA dramaturgical perspective assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage; just as actors project a certain on-screen image, people in society choose what kind of image they want to communicate verbally and nonverbally to others. 7.3, 8.1

mere-exposure effect

AKA familiarity principle the phenomenon where people develop a preference for things because they have been exposed to them sometimes repeatedly; e.g. listening to a song sounds better the second time; 7.3

episodic memory

AKA flashbulb memories clear memories of unique and often highly emotional events, such as where you were and what you were doing during the 9/11 terrorist attacks Autobiographical memory for information of personal importance 5.4

identity formation

AKA individuation the development of a distinct individual personality 7.1

posterior pituitary gland

AKA neurohypophysis; it is made up of nervous tissue/neurons and stores and secretes 2 hormones made by the hypothalamus (oxytocin and ADH); it is controlled by action potentials from the hypothalamus 3.6

group pressure

AKA peer pressure pressure exerted by a group that causes one to change behaviors, values, attitudes, or beliefs 7.2

dysthymic disorder

AKA persistent depressive disorder (PDD) or dysthymia a psychological disorder characterized as a less intense, chronic form of depression. felt milder symptoms of depression most days for at least two years, with symptoms never absent for more than two months, and without experiencing a major depressive episode 6.3

eidetic memory

AKA photographic memory the ability to perfectly recall images, sounds, or objects without the use of memory aids, such as mnemonics

multiculturalism

AKA pluralism a perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions; it promotes the idea of cultures coming together in a true melting pot, rather that in a hierarchy 7.1

implicit memory

AKA procedural memory memory that involves conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do things 5.4

hallucinogens

AKA psychedelics a class of drugs distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input creating hallucinations or altered sensory perceptions (e.g. LSD, marijuana) 4.3

functional amnesia

AKA psychogenic and dissociative amnesia a memory disorder characterized by sudden retrograde autobiographical memory loss, said to occur for a period of time ranging from hours to years, These gaps involve an inability to recall personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature consciously, but subconscious recall (sweating and increased HR) is common

self-concept

AKA self identity broadly defined as the sum of an individual's knowledge and understanding of his/herself including physical, psychological, and social attributes, which can be influenced by the individual's attitudes, habits, beliefs, and ideas 6.1, 7.1

impression management

AKA self-presentation the conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others; this is achieved by controlling the amount of type of information or the social interaction 7.2

moro reflex

AKA startle reflex in response to a loud sound or sudden movement, an infant will startle the baby throws back its head and extends its arms and legs, cries, then pulls the arms and legs back in this reflex is present at birth, and lasts until about six months 5.3

functionalism

AKA structural functionalism the oldest of the main theories of sociology, conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different parts/organs, each of which has a distinct purpose (Prominent theorists include: Herbert Spencer, Talcott Parsons, Auguste Comte, Davis and Moore, Robert Merton, Almond and Powell) 8.1

auditory tube

AKA the Eustachian tube, connects the middle ear cavity with the pharynx. It functions to equalize middle ear pressure with atmospheric pressure so that pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane is equal 3.5

anterior pituitary gland

AKA the adenohypophysis made of glandular tissue. It makes and secretes six different hormones: •FSH •LH •ACTH •TSH • prolactin •growth hormone. controlled by releasing and inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus 3.6

tympanic membrane

AKA the eardrum the membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear 3.5

difference threshold

AKA the just noticeable difference, JND this threshold is the minimum noticeable difference between any two sensory stimuli 50% of the time 3.5

Dispositional theory

AKA trait theory Personality theory explores your traits and how many traits you have. Defines your personality in terms of stable and enduring behavioral patterns.

person-situation controversy

AKA trait-vs-state controversy this controversy stems from a disagreement about the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality (trait) or is due to a situation itself (state) 6.1

observational learning

AKA vicarious, social learning a type of learning that occurs when a person watches another person's behavior and its consequences, thereby learning rules, strategies, and expected outcomes in different situations 6.1

Intuition

Ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence; people may have beliefs that are not necessarily supported by evidence, but that person "feels" to be correct

Cocktail party effect

Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd or when someone calls your name.

Fluid intelligence

Ability to quickly identify relationships and connections, and then use those relationships and connects to make correct deductions. - able to reason things out quickly - peaks at young adulthood and decreases as we get older

Parasomnias

Abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep including night terrors and sleep walking

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow sought to explain human behavior by creating a hierarchy of needs (demonstrated by a pyramid) at the base of this pyramid are physiological needs or the basic element necessary to sustain human life; in order, the rest of the needs include: •safety, •love and belongingness, •esteem, •and self-actualization; lower-level needs must be met before higher-level needs 6.2

superego

According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory the superego inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic rather than realistic goals based on societal values as learned from one's parents, the superego makes judgments of right and wrong and strives for perfection the superego seeks to gain psychological regards such as feelings of pride and self-love, and to avoid psychological punishment such as feelings of guilt and inferiority 6.1

Social action

Actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and performing because others are around.

Relative deprivation theory

Actions of groups oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy. - e.g. Civil Rights Movement, a response to oppression to people of color. - 3 things needed for social movement: 1. relative deprivation 2. deserving better 3. belief conventional methods are useless to help

Marijuana

Active chemical known as THC; exerts effects on cannabinoid, glycine, and opioid receptors, increases GABA and dopamine activity

Phonology

Actual sound of language; composed of building blocks called morphemes

Esteem support

Affirming qualities and skills of the person as part of social support.

Stages of Sleep

Alpha: awake but relaxing with eyes closed -Waves slower than beta waves Beta: high frequency and occur when person is alert or attending mental task that requires concentration Stage 1 Theta: Dozing off; slower frequencies and higher voltages Stage 2 shows theta waves along with sleep spindles and K complexes Stage 3 and 4 Delta: low frequency, high voltage sleep wave; becomes difficult to rouse someone from sleep

Sigmund Freud

An Australian neurologist who is considered the founding father of psychoanalytic theory 6.1

Belief

An acceptance that a statement is true or that something exists.

Hypnosis

An altered state of consciousness in which a person appears to be awake but is, in fact, in a highly suggestible state in which another person or event may trigger action by the person.

Biomedical approach

An approach in the psychological disorders that considers only pathophysiological causes and offers pharmaceutical and medical solutions for symptoms alleviation.

Biopsychosocial approach

An approach to psychological disorders that considers conditions and treatments to be dependent on biological, psychological, and social causes.

Reciprocity

An aspect of interpersonal attraction based on the idea that we like people who we think like us.

Symbolic ethnicity

An ethnic identity that is only relevant on special occasions or in specific circumstances and that does not impact everyday life.

Attitude to behavior process model

An event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object). Then attitude + outside knowledge together determines behavior. - e.g. Tommy has attitude that junk food is unhealthy, because many of his relatives have diseases. So when he's at home he does not eat chips/soda/candy.

Night terror

An experience of intense anxiety during sleep, causing the sleeper to scream in terror with no recall of the event in the morning occurs during SWS.

Alter-casting

An impression management strategy in which one imposes an identity onto another person.

Aligning actions

An impression management strategy in which one makes questionable behavior acceptable through excuses.

Managing appearances

An impression management strategy in which one uses props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with other to create a positive image.

Ingratiation

An impression management strategy that uses flattery to increase social acceptance.

Dramaturgical approach

An impression management theory that represents the world as a stage and individuals as actors performing to an audience.

Primary stress appraisal

An initial evaluation of the environment to determine if there is an associated threat. - irrelevant, benign/positive, stressful. - - If primary appraisal is negative, move forward with secondary appraisal.

Instinct

An innate behavioral response to stimuli.

Language acquisition device (LAD)

An innate capacity for language acquisition that is triggered by exposure to language; part of the nativist (biological) perspective of language acquisition.

Prejudice

An irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, formed prior to actual experience.

Reflex arc

An neural pathway that control reflex actions. Sensory neuron → spinal cord → effector neuron.

Schema

An organized pattern of thought and behavior; one of the central concepts of Piaget's stages of cognitive development.

Jung - Anima vs. animus

Anima: feminine Animus: masculine Shadow: responsible for appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness sex-inappropriate qualities (ex. feminine behaviors in males and masculine behaviors in females)

Barbiturates

Anxiety-reducing and sleep medications; increase GABA activity which causes relaxation

Depressant

Any substance that reduces the nervous system function.

Exchange theory

Application of rational choice theory to social interactions - Interactions are determined by weighing rewards and punishments of each action

Peg-word

Associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers

Family studies

Assumes that genetically related individuals are more similar genotypically than unrelated individuals

projection

Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another person ("I'm not angry, you are!")

Dispositional (internal) attributions

Attributions that relate to the decisions or personality of the person whose behavior is being considered.

Impression management

Authentic self Ideal self: who we would like to be under optimal circumstances Tactical self: who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us

Rooting reflex

Automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek such as a nipple during feeding

Heuristics

Availability heuristic: used when we try to decide how likely something is (ex. students who do not truly problem-solve on MCAT questions will be tempted by familiar-sounding answers merely because they can recall the statement being mentioned in the passage)

Consciousness

Awareness of oneself; can be used to describe varying levels of awareness that occur with wakefulness, sleep, dreaming, and drug-induced states.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Base: most primitive, essential, and important needs First four levels: physiological needs, safety, security, love and belonging, and self esteem Highest level: self-actualization

Behaviorist perspective

Based heavily on concepts of operant conditioning; Token economies used as rewards for positive behavior (ex. privileges, treats, other reinforcers)

Freud's stages of psychosexual development

Based on tensions caused by the libido, with failure at any given stage leading to fixation Oral Stage (0-1) - oral, mouth orientated - sucking, swallowing, biting, breastfeeding Anal Stage (1-3) - potty training Phallic Stage (3-5/6) - concentration on genitals - gender and sexual identification - Oedipus and electra complexes Latency Stage (5/6-puberty) - no further psychosexual development - no libido - social development Genital Stage (puberty-adult) - adolescent sexual experimentation - mature sexuality

Flat affect

Behavior characterized by showing virtually no signs of emotion or affective expression.

Prototype Willingness Model

Behavior is a function of 6 things: 1. past behavior 2. attitudes 3. subjective norms 4. our intentions 5. our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior 6. prototypes/models - a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping/modeling

Behaviorist perspective

Behavior is based on reinforcement and punishment

Impression management

Behaviors that are intended to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object, or event.

Cultural capital

Benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities, and skills, for example using one's background or other intangible assets such as a college degree

Posterior chamber

Between the iris and the lens

Kluver-Bucy syndrome

Bilateral destruction of amygdala, can result in hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality, and disinhibited behavior

Heroin

Body metabolizes heroin to morphine

Long-term memory

Capacity is unlimited - 2 main categories: 1. explicit (declarative) - facts and events you can clearly describe 2. implicit (non-declarative) - things you may not be able to articulate (e.g riding a bike)

Gordon Allport

Cardinal traits: traits around which a person organizes his or her life Central traits: major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, like honesty and charisma Secondary traits: other personality characteristics that are more limited in occurrence: aspects of one's personality that only appear in closer groups or specific social situations

Representativeness heuristic

Categorizing items on a basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category (ex. a standard coin that is flipped ten times in a row and lands on heads every time. What is the probability of the coin landing on heads the next time? Probability is still 50% but people will overestimate or underestimate the prediction)

Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

Caused by a deficiency of thamine and characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills

Sleep deprivation

Causes REM rebound, which is earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal

Neuroplasticity

Change in neural connections caused by learning or a response to injury.

Accommodation

Changes the shape of the lens

sublimation

Channeling aggressive or sexual energy into positive, constructive activities, such as producing art

Freud - Defense mechanisms

Clash of id and superego Main defense mechanisms: 1. repression - ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to unconscious 2. suppression - deliberate, conscious form of forgetting 3. regression - faced with stress, older children return to earlier behaviors like thumb-sucking, throwing temper tantrums, clinging to their mothers 4. reaction formation - individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites 5. projection - attribute their undesired feelings to others 6. rationalization - justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society 7. displacement - describes transference of undesired urge from one person or object to another 8. sublimation - transformation of unacceptable urges into socially accepted behavior

Auditory pathway

Cochlea → vestibulocochlear nerve → medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) in thalamus → auditory cortex

Crystallized intelligence

Cognitive capacity to understand relationships or solve problems using information acquired during schooling and other experiences. - Ability to use accumulated knowledge/experience/verbal skills - Gets better the older you are or stays the same

Neologism

Coining a new word; seen in schizophrenia.

Ganglia

Collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the CNS.

Ecstasy

Common name for MDMA; a CNS stimulant with effects similar to both amphetamines and hallucinogens.

Group conformity

Compliance with a group's goals, even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to an individual's goals.

Secondary reinforcer

Conditioned reinforcer

Role conflict

Conflict between two different statuses e.g. someone who's a parent, friend, husband, and worker

Arcuate fasciculus

Connects Broca's area and Wernicke's area; it is a bundle of axons allowing appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production

Implicit (nondeclarative) memory

Consists of our skills and conditioned responses

Hawk Dove Game

Cooperation: both the donor and recipient benefit from cooperating Spite: both donor and recipient are negatively impacted Selfishness: donor benefits while recipient is negatively impacted

Display Rules

Cultural expectations of how emotions can be expressed.

Global aphasia

Damage to the left side of the brain - damage to Broca's and Wernicke's areas

Cocaine

Decreases re-uptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin; anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties, can cause heart attacks and strokes

Drives

Deficiencies that activate particular behaviors focused on a goal.

Immediate networks

Dense with strong ties, composed of friends

Gender identity

Describes a person's appraisal of him or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity

Vygotsky's theory of cultural and biosocial development

Describes development of language, culture, and skills - learning takes place through interactions with others that promote acquisition of culturally valued behaviors and beliefs - current developmental level, zone of proximal developmental, beyond current potential

Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning development

Describes the approaches of individuals to resolving moral dilemmas in a predictable sequence Level 1 - Preconventional stage - Stage 1: punishment - Stage 2: reward Level 2 - Conventional stage - Stage 3: social disapproval - Stage 4: rule following Level 3 - Postconventional stage - Stage 5: social contract - Stage 6: universal ethics

Cognitive development

Development of one's ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan

Theory of differential association

Deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others that violate norms and laws - learn from observation of others

Gardner's idea of 8 intelligences

Differentiates intelligence into different modalities

Instinctive drift

Difficulty overcoming instinctual behaviors

Institutional discrimination

Discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution.

Discrimination

Discrimination is a behavior while prejudice is an attitude

Dyssomnias

Disorder that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep

Dissociative disorders

Disorders that involve a perceived separation from identity or the environment.

Personality disorders

Disorders that involve patterns of behavior that are inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress or impaired function in at least two of the following: cognition, emotion, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control.

Anxiety disorders

Disorders that involve worry, unease, fear, and apprehension about future uncertainties based on real or imagines events that can impair physical and psychological health.

Catatonia

Disorganized motor behavior characterized by various unusual physical movement or stillness.

Schizophrenia: negative symptoms

Disturbance of affect: expression of emotion Blunting: severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression Flat affect: no signs of emotional expression Inappropriate affect: (ex. schizophrenic starts laughing when talking about someone's death) Avolition: decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions

Nonmaleficence

Do no harm; physician has responsibility to avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit

Recognition-primed decision model

Doctor's brain is actually sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern. Over time, the doctor has gained an extensive level of experience that he or she is able to access without awareness

Ecclesia

Dominant religious organization that includes most members of society - e.g. Lutheranism in Sweden and Islam in Iran

Problem-solving dream theory

Dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping

Activation-synthesis theory

Dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry; activation can mimic incoming sensory information, but consist of pieces of stored memories, current and previous desires, met and unmet needs, and other experiences

Cognitive process dream theory

Dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness

Drive Reduction Theory

Drive: internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals ex. person feels very hungry and stomach is uncomfortable so he goes and buys food to reduce hunger

Hallucinogens

Drugs include LSD interact with various neurotransmitters especially serotonin

Functional fixedness

Duncker's candle problem: you walk into a room and see a box of matches, some tacks, and a candle. Your task is to mount the candle on the wall so that it can be used without the wax dropping on the floor. Definition: inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner

Myelencephalon (becomes medulla oblongata in fetus)

During embryonic development, the rhombencephalon divides to form the myelencephalon and metencephalon (pons and cerebellum from fetus)

Central trait

E.g. honesty, sociability, shyness. Less dominant than cardinal

Alcohol myopia

Effect of alcohol where it is in the inability to recognize consequences of actions, creating a short-sighted view of the world

Behaviorist (language)

Empiricists, believe language is just a conditioned behavior

Instinctual drift

Established habits are eventually replaced by innate food-related behaviors

Iron rule of oligarchy

Even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few. - Once person gains leadership role they might be hesitant to give it up

Modified semantic network

Every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge

Glutamate

Excitatory neurotransmitter

Lazarus Theory

Experience of emotion depends on how the situation is appraised (labelled). Step 1: labelling situation (cognitive) Step 2: emotion + physiological response. - How we label event is based on cultural/individual differences.

rationalization

Explaining and intellectually justifying one's impulsive behavior

Exchange theory

Extension of rational choice theory; focuses on interactions in groups where an individual will carry out certain behaviors because of anticipated rewards and avoiding certain behaviors because of anticipated punishments

Extrinsic Motivation

External forces, coming from outside oneself; rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desired behavior is not achieved

Jung - dichotomies of personality

Extraversion vs. introversion Sensing vs. intuiting Thinking vs. feeling

Misinformation effect

False memories created by outside sources like use of severity in language or given false information

Type II error

False negative

Type I error

False positive

Mary Ainsworth

Famous for her "strange situation experiments" where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment to see how they would react. Studies suggested a distinction between securely attached infants and insecurely attached infants 5.3

A-beta fibers

Fast fibers that are thick and covered in myelin - less resistance - high conductance

Optic chiasm

Fibers from the nasal half field of each retina cross paths

Reticular formation

Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the reticular formation, a neural structure located in the brainstem, to keep the cortex awake and alert

Delusions

Fixed, false beliefs that are discordant with reality and not shared by one's culture, and are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary.

Social cognitive perspective

Focus on how our environment influences our behavior and how we interact with the environment

denial

Forceful refusal to acknowledge an emotionally painful memory

Algorithmns

Formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem. This can be mathematical or a set of instructions, designed to automatically produce a desired solution

Frustration-aggression model

Frustration creates anger which can spark aggression. Higher temperatures can lead to frustration

Modernization theory

Globalization theory that all countries follow similar path of development to modern society. With some help traditional countries can develop similarly to today's developed countries did

Transformationalist perspective

Globalization theory that doesn't have specific cause or outcome. - Believe national governments are changing, perhaps becoming less important but difficult to explain change - They see the world order is changing. Just a new world order is being designed. Outcome unknown.

Skeptical perspective

Globalization theory that is critical, considers it as being regionalized instead of globalized. Third world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits

World systems theory

Globalization theory that places importance of world as a unit, divides world into 3 countries: core, periphery, and semi-periphery. - Core = Western Europe and US. - Periphery = Latin America and Africa. Greatly influenced by and depend on core countries and transnational corporations. - Semi-periphery = India and Brazil, middle-ground

Hyperglobalist Perspective

Globalization theory that sees it as a new age in human history - countries become interdependent and nation states themselves are less important. Don't agree if good or bad

Dependency theory

Globalization theory that's a reaction to Modernization theory. Uses idea of Core + Periphery countries to look at inequalities. Periphery countries export resources to Core countries, and don't have means to develop

Secondary group

Group wherein interactions are based on weaker, interpersonal bonds.

Hypnopompic hallucinations

Hallucinations that occur when awakening from sleep; seen in narcolepsy

Hypnagogic hallucinations

Hallucinations that occur when going to sleep; seen in narcolepsy

Hypnagogic/hypnompic hallucinations

Hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening

Ecstasy

Hallucinogen and amphetamine; causes increased heart rate, blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, and hyperthermia

Somatosensation

Have four modalities: pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature

Ipsilaterally

Hemispheres communicate on the same side of the body

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Higher needs do not produce drives until lower needs are met - lowest to highest: 1. physiological 2. safety 3. intimacy/love 4. self-esteem - feel confident/sense of achievement 5. self-actualization - reaching max potential

Hierarchical semantic network

Higher order to lower order categories. - e.g. Animal -> bird -> ostrich. - Later replaced with the modified semantic network

Binet's idea of mental age

How a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years

Magnocellular pathway

How eye detects motion - high temporal resolution - poor spatial resolution - no color

Nonverbal communication

How people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without using words; examples include body language, gestures, and facial expressions.

Parvocellular pathway

How the eye detects form - good at spatial resolution - poor temporal resolution

TrypV1 receptors

How we sense temperature (thermoception) - also sensitive to pain

Galton's idea of hereditary genius

Human ability is hereditary

Social constructivism

Human development is socially situated and knowledge is constructed through interactions with others

Problem-solving

Humans and chimpanzees alike will often avoid trial and error learning and instead take a step back, observe the situation, and take decisive action to solve the challenges they face

Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytic Perspective

Id: primal, inborn urges to survie and reproduce -Pleasure principle: aim to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension -Primary process: id's response to frustration -Wish fulfillment: mental imagery like daydreaming to fulfill need for satisfaction Ego: operations to reality principle (taking into account objective reality) -Secondary process: guides or inhibits activity of id and id's pleasure principle -Superego: personality's perfectionist, judging actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures Conscience: collection of improper actions for which a child is punished Ego-ideal: proper actions for which a child is rewarded

Ego depletion

Idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it it can get used up, and less to use in the future

Spontaneous recovery

If an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited

Strain theory

If person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may turn to deviance. Pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have legitimate ways to achieve success

Extensor plantar reflex

If you take a hard object and scrape along bottom of foot, normal response is flexor - toes will come down on the object. But with extensor, toes extend up.

Belief perseverance

Ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts - e.g. During elections ignore facts about someone you like

Defense mechanism

In Freudian psychoanalysis, a technique used by the ego that denies, falsifies, or distorts reality in order to resolve anxiety caused by undesirable urges of the id and superego.

Superego

In Freudian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious mind focused on idealism, perfectionism, and societal norms.

Ego

In Freudian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious mind that mediates the urges of the id and superego; operates under the reality principle.

Id

In Freudian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious resulting from basic, intrinsic urges for sexuality and survival; operates under the pleasure principle and seeks instant gratification.

Fixation

In Freudian psychoanalysis, the result of overindulgence or frustration during a psychosexual stage causing a neurotic pattern of personality based on that stage.

Libido

In Freudian psychoanalysis, the sex or life drive.

Archetype

In Jungian psychoanalysis, a thought or image that has an emotional element and is a part of the collective unconsciousness; a typical example of a certain person or thing

Collective unconscious

In Jungian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious mind that is shared among all humans and is a result of our common ancestry.

Tactical self

In impression management, the person one markets him- or herself to be when adhering to others' expectations.

Back stage

In the dramaturgical approach, the setting where players are free from their role requirement and not in front of the audience; back stage behaviors may not be deemed appropriate or acceptable and are thus kept invisible from the audience.

Front stage

In the dramaturgical approach, the setting where players are in front of an audience and perform roles that are in keeping with the image they hope to project about themselves.

Reciprocal determinism

In the social cognitive perspective, the notion that thought, feelings, behaviors, and environment interact to determine behavior in a given situation.

Neuroticism

In the trait theory, the degree to which an individual is prone to emotional arousal in stressful situations.

Psychoticism

In trait theory, the measure of nonconformity or social deviance of an individual.

Extraversion

In trat theory, the degree to which an individual is able to tolerate social interaction and stimulation.

In-group and Out-group

In-group: social group with which a person experiences a sense of belonging or identifies as a member Out-group: social group with which an individual does not identify Negative feelings towards an out-group are not based on a sense of dislike, but favoritism for the in-group and absence of favoritism for the out-group

Belief perseverance

Inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to contrary

Amphetamines

Increase dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin levels at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake; increases heart rate and blood pressure, euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions of grandeur, and paranoia

Depressants

Increases GABA receptor activity causing inhibition and increases dopamine levels

Identity

Individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong

External locus of control

Individuals are more likely to attribute things to environmental rather than internal factors

superego

Inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic and idealistic goals rather than just realistic goals

Resource mobilization theory

Instead of looking at deprivation of people, focuses on factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources. - Need money, materials, political influence, media, and strong organizational base to recruit members

spatial summation

Integration by a postsynaptic neuron of inputs (EPSPs and IPSPs) from multiple sources 3.2

Fixed mindset

Intelligence is biologically set and unchanging

Growth mindset

Intelligence is changeable if you learn more - people with this type of intelligence usually accomplish more than people with fixed intelligence

PTSD

Intrusion symptoms: recurrent reliving of the event, flashbacks, nightmares, and prolonged distress Avoidance symptoms: deliberate attempts to avoid memories, people, places, activities, and objects associated with trauma Negative cognitive symptoms: inability to recall key features of the event, negative mood or emotions, feeling distanced from others Arousal symptoms: increased startle response, irritability, anxiety, self-destructive or reckless behavior

Attribute substitution

It occurs when an individual has to make a judgment (of a target attribute) that is computationally complex, and instead substitutes a more easily calculated heuristic attribute.

Dual coding hypothesis

It's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone

Object permanence

Knowledge that an object does not cease to exist even when the object cannot be seen; a milestone in cognitive development.

Hunger is controlled by the hypothalamus

Lateral hypothalamus: promotes hunger Ventromedial hypothalamus: cues that we are full and promote satiety

C. Robert Cloninger

Linked personality to brain systems involved in reward, motivation, and punishment; proposed that personality is linked to the level of activity of certain neurotransmitters in three interacting systems

Emotional support

Listening to, affirming, and empathizing with someone's feelings as part of social support.

Fornix

Long projection from the hippocampus that connects to other nuclei in the limbic system.

Materialist (language)

Look at what happens in brain when people think/speak/write.

Biological perspective

Looking at psychological issues by studying the physical basis for animal and human behavior

Wernicke's aphasia

Loss of language comprehension, resulting in fluid production of language without meaning.

Cataplexy

Loss of muscle control with intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger.

Broca's aphasia

Loss of the motor function of speech, resulting in intact understanding with an inability to correctly produce spoken language

Self-discrepancy theory

Maintains that each of us has three selves: actual, ideal, and ought self (representation of the way others think we should be)

Manifest vs. latent function

Manifest functions: action intended to help some part of a system Latent: unintended positive consequences on other parts of society Ex. Annual meetings of medical societies have the manifest function of educating a group of physicians, sharing research findings, and setting goals for the next year. Latently, they create stronger interpersonal bonds between physicians and provide a sense of identity for the group.

Cultural transmission/cultural learning

Manner at which a society socializes its members

premenstrual dysphoric disorder

Many of the symptoms of a major depressive episode are present, with the caveat that they intensify in the final week before the onset of menstruation and then improve and in many cases disappear in the week after menstruation has ended

Conformity

Matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to societal norms

Kinsey scale

Measures hetero vs. homosexuality; significant portions of the population fell somewhere between them

Misinformation effect

Memories are altered by misleading information provided at the point of encoding or recall

Semantic network

Memory is a network of interconnected ideas and organizes ideas in which concepts are linked together based on similar meaning

Implicit memory

Memory that does not require conscious recall; consists of skills and conditioned behaviors.

Explicit memory

Memory that requires conscious recall, divided into facts (semantic memory) and experiences (episodic memory); also known as declarative memory.

Chunking

Memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning (ex. ENALPKCURTRACKSUB into BUS CAR TRUCK PLANE)

Eustachian tube

Middle ear is connected to the nasal cavity, which equalizes pressure between the middle ear and environment

Errors of growth

Misuse of grammar characterized by universal application of a rule, regardless of exceptions; seem in children during language development.

filter model

Model of selective attention that suggests that information from a sensory buffer is put through a filter that allows only selected inputs through (Broadbent) 4.1

Language

Most highly developed symbolic system

Controlled (effortful) processing

Most new or complex tasks require undivided attention

Intrinsic motivation

Motivation that comes from within oneself; driven by interest in a task or pure enjoyment

Extrinsic motivation

Motivation that is external, or outside the self, including rewards and punishments.

Intrinsic motivation

Motivation that is internal or that comes from within.

Suspensory ligaments

Muscles contract and pulls this to change the shape of the lens

Acetylcholine

NT found in both central and peripheral nervous systems and used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles Used mostly by the parasympathetic nervous system

Endorphins

Natural painkillers produced by the brain.

Endorphins

Natural painkillers that are peptide NT

Immediate networks

Networks that are dense with strong ties; generally overlap with distinct networks.

Distant networks

Networks that are looser and composed of weaker ties.

Neuroplasticity

Neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli

Classical conditioning

Neutral stimuli: stimuli do not produce a reflexive response

Intelligence Quotient

Numerical measurement of intelligence, usually accomplished by some form of standardized testing.

Five factor model

OCEAN 1. Openness (independent vs. conforming, imagining vs. practical) 2. Conscientiousness (careful vs. careless, disciplined vs. impulse, organized or not) 3. Extroversion 4. Agreeableness (kind vs. cold, appreciative vs. unfriendly) 5. Neuroticism

discrimination (scientific)/ stimulus discrimination

Occurs when the conditioned stimulus is differentiated from other stimuli 5.1

Olfactory pathway

Odor -> olfactory nerves in olfactory epithelium -> olfactory bulb -> olfactory tract

Disengagement theory

Older adults and society separate, assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age. But considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well, which is debatable.

Contralateral

On the opposite side of the body, relative to something else (usually a side of the brain).

Ipsilateral

On the same side of the body, relative to something else (usually a side of the brain).

Endogenous cue

One of the two cues that can direct our attention that requires internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it - e.g. mouse arrow, cocktail party effect

Exogenous cue

One of the two cues that can direct our attention that we don't have to tell ourselves to look for - e.g. bright colors, loud noises, "pop-out effect"

Individual discrimination

One person discriminating against a particular person or group.

Extinction

Organism become habituated to a conditioned stimulus

Discrimination

Organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli

Semantic network

Organization of information in the brain by linking concepts with similar characteristics and meaning.

visuospatial sketchpad

Part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that allows for the repetition of visuospatial information (images) to aid with encoding it into memory 4.2

Abraham Maslow's Humanistic Theory

Peak experience: self-actualizers more likely to have profound and deeply moving experiences in a person's life that have important and lasting effects on the individual

Modeling

People learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them

Reciprocal liking

People like others better when they believe the other person likes them

Rational choice theory

People not only motivated by money, but do what's best to get more good - Main assumption is the idea that everything people do is fundamentally rational - a person is acting as if they were weighing costs and benefits of each action

Yerkes-Dodson Law

People perform best when they are moderately aroused

David McClelland's N-Arch

People rated high in N-Arch tend to be concerned with achievement and have pride in their accomplishments; they set realistic goals, and stop striving toward a goal if success is unlikely

Conjunction fallacy

People tend to think the probability of 2 events occurring together is higher than the probability of one alone - ex. Feminist bank teller vs. bank teller - people think it's more likely she's a feminist bank teller - but actually more likely she's just a bank teller

Continuity theory

People try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives. As they age make decisions to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging

Neuromodulators

Peptide neurotransmitter where the synaptic action involves more complicated chain of events in the postsynaptic cell and are therefore slower and have longer effects on the postsynaptic cell than NT

Subliminal perception

Perception of a stimulus below a threshold (usually the threshold of conscious perceptions).

Whorfian hypothesis/Linguistic relativity hypothesis

Perception of reality is determined by the content of language

Intuition

Perceptions about a situation that may or may not be supported by available evidence, but are nonetheless perceived as information that may be used to make a decision.

Hallucinations

Perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality.

State-dependent memory

Person's mental state affect recall

Carl Jung

Personal unconscious: similar to Freud's unconsciousness Collective unconscious: powerful system that is shared among all umans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors Archetypes: images invariably have an emotional element

Behaviorist theory

Personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment - deterministic: people begin as blank states and the environment completely determines their behavior/personalities

REM rebound

Phenomenon in which one spends an increased time in REM sleep following a period of sleep deprivation.

preoperational stage

Piaget's 2nd stage in his developmental theory from ages 2-7; during this stage, children learn pretend play and the idea that a symbol can represent something else, they remain egocentric in this stage 4.2

formal operational stage

Piaget's 4th stage of his developmental theory, from age 12-adulthood. During this stage, people learn abstract and moral reasoning 4.2

concrete operational stage

Piaget's third stage of his developmental theory where children aged 7 to 11 learn to think logically and learn the principle of conservation as well as mathematical concepts 4.2

IQ

Pioneered by Alfred Binet

affirmative action

Policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions; these policies have been used to benefit those believed to be current or past victims of discrimination 7.2

Pull factors

Positive attributes of the new location that attract the immigrant

Upward/Downward Mobility

Positive or negative change in a person's class

Reinforcement modeling

Positive reinforcement can lead to aggression. Parents who give into temper tantrums lead to more temper tantrums in future. Also if parents yell/hit each other, child will pick up on behavior too

Pigiat's Theory of Development

Posits that all children develop cognitively by experimenting with their environment and passing through same set of developmental stages. 0-2 years: Sensorimotor - Children learn to separate themselves from the world - Learn object permanence 2-7 years: Preoperational - Children learn to use language - Children think literally and egocentrically - Children unable to take on perspectives of others 7-11 years: Concrete Operational - Children develop inductive reasoning - Understand conservation of mass - Understand feelings of others 11 years +: Formal Operational -Children develop deductive reasoning -Can think theoretically and philosophically -Children at this stage are able to reach post-conventional moral reasoning

Relative poverty

Poverty wherein one is poor in comparison to the larger population.

Absolute poverty

Poverty wherein people do not have enough resources to acquire basic life necessities such as shelter, food, clothing, and water.

Kohlberg

Preconventional morality -Obedience: avoiding punishment -Self-interest: gaining rewards (instrumental relativist stage) Conventional morality -Conformity: emphasis on "good boy, nice girl" seeking approval of others -Law and order: maintain social order in highest regard Postconventional morality -Social contract: views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure greater good with focus on individual rights -Universal human ethics: decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles

Preparedness

Predisposition to learn behaviors based on their own natural abilities and instincts (ex. bird pecks when searching for food)

Ageism

Prejudice or discrimination on the basis of a person's age.

Whole report

Presented 3x3 array of letters and participant is asked to list all the letters she say, she was able to identify 3 or 4

Partial report

Presented 3x3 array of letters and participant is asked to list the letters of a particular role, she can do so with 100% accuracy

Avoidance learning

Prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen

Accommodation

Process by which existing schemata are modifies to encompass new information.

Controlled (conscious) processing

Processing method used when a task requires complete attention.

Perception

Processing of sensory information to make sense of its significance

Marxist Theory

Proletariat: "have-nots" Bourgeoisie: "haves"

Hans Eysenck

Proposed that a person's level of extroversion is based on individual differences in the reticular formation; proposed that a person's level of neuroticism is based on individual differences in the limbic system

Jeffrey Alan Gray

Proposed that personality is governed by interactions among three brain systems that respond to rewarding and punishing stimuli

Information processing model

Proposes our brains are similar to computers. We get input from environment, process it, and output decisions

Meninges

Protect the brain, keep it anchored within the skull, and resorb cerebrospinal fluid

Network support

Providing a sense of belonging as part of social support.

Material support

Providing economic or other physical resources to aid a person as part of social support.

Needs

Psychological and physiological requirements that motivate and influence behavior.

Schizophrenia: Positive Symptoms

Psychotic disorder; associated with high dopamine levels Positive symptoms Delusions of reference: (ex. person believes characters in a TV show are talking to him directly) Delusions of persecution: (ex. person believes he is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, threatened) Delusions of grandeur: (person is remarkable in some significant way such as being a historical figure or religious icon) Thought broadcasting: believe one's thoughts are broadcast directly from one's head to external world Thought insertion: belief that thoughts are being placed in one's head) Hallucinations: hearing voices Disorganized thought: loosening of associations; ideas shift from one thought to another; word salad; schizophrenics invent new words (neologisms) Disorganized behavior: inability to carry out activities of daily living; patient will either spontaneously move or remain rigid (catatonia)

Eysencks' PEN model

Psychoticism: nonconformity or social deviance Extraversion: tolerance for social interaction and stimulation Neuroticism: emotional arousal in stressful situations

Nativists (language)

Rationalist, language must be innate

Top-down processing

Recognition of an object by memories and expectations, with little attention to detail - Faster, but more prone to mistakes

Bottom-up processing

Recognition of objects by parallel processing and feature detection - slower but less prone to mistakes

Cultural sensitivity

Recognizing and respecting the differences between cultures.

Dishabituation

Recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred

displacement

Redirecting aggressive or sexual impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one (as when a person goes home and kicks the dog instead of expressing anger at a boss)

Ethnic identity

Refers to one's ethnic group in which members typically share a common ancestry

Perception

Refers to the processing of this information that make sense of its significance

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform a task at some point in the future; remains mostly intact when it is event-based (ex. remembering to buy milk while passing by grocery store)

Habituation

Repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response

Rote rehearsal

Repeating something over and over again to remember it - least effective way to encode

Maintenance rehearsal

Repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory or to store it.

Harlow, Harry, and Margaret

Researchers known for their controversial experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort rather than simply food, also showed that monkeys raised in isolation developed severe mental and social deficits 5.3

Medulla oblongata

Responsible for breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

Visual pathway

Retina → optic nerve → optic chasm → optic tracts → lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus → visual radiations → visual cortex

regression

Reverting to an earlier, less sophisticated behavior (as when a child reverts to bed-wetting after a trauma)

Escape learning

Role of behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists like a headache

Mass society theory

Scepticism about groups, said they only form for people seeking refuge from main society. - e.g Nazism

Piaget's terms

Schema: organized patterns of behavior and thought; can include a concept, a behavior, or a sequence of events Adaptation: as a child proceeds through the stages, new information has to be placed into the different schemata -Assimilation: process of classifying new information into existing schemata -Accommodation: process by which existing modified to encompass this new information

Neurocognitive models of dreaming

Seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes

Cocktail party phenomenon

Selective attention is probably more of a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background (ex. talking to a friend at a loud party and hear your name being called)

Egocentrism

Self-centered view of the world in which one is not necessarily able to understand the experience of another person; seen in Piaget's preoperational stage

Explicit memory: semantic memory and episodic memory

Semantic: facts that we know (names of bicycle parts) Episodic: our experiences (time patient learned to ride a bike)

Perception vs. sensation

Sensation is the conversion of physical stimuli into neurological signals, while perception is making sense of the significance of the sensory information

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor stage: -Circular reactions (Primary and Secondary) -Primary: repetition of body movement that originally occurred by chance (ex. sucking thumb) -Secondary: manipulation is focused on something outside the body (ex. throwing toys from a high chair) -Object permanence: marks beginning of representational thought, child understands objects continue to exist outside of view Preoperational stage: -Symbolic thinking: ability to pretend, make-believe, have imagination -Egocentrism: inability to imagine what another person may think or feel -Centration: tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, inability to understand conservation Concrete operational stage: -Children understand conservation and perspectives of others; ability to engage in logical thought working with concrete objects or information Formal operational stage: ability to think about abstract ideas

Glycine

Serves as an inhibitory NT in the CNS by increasing chloride influx

Deductive reasoning (Top-down)

Set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Seven defined types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal

Group

Share common characteristics such as values, interests, ethnicity, social background, family ties, and political representation; sociologists see social interaction was the most important characteristic

Self-disclosure

Sharing one's fears, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met with non-judgmental empathy

Proximity

Simply being physically close to someone

Spearman's idea of general intelligence

Single g factor responsible for intelligence that underlies performance on all cognitive tasks

Social network creates social inequality

Situational: socioeconomic advantage Positional: based on how connected one is within a network or one's centrality within network

Insomnia

Sleep disorder characterized by either an inability to fall asleep or difficulty staying asleep.

Sleep apnea

Sleep disorder in which a person may ease to breathe while sleeping; may be due to obstruction or central (neurological) cause.

Somnambulism

Sleep disorder in which one carries out actions in his or her sleep; also called sleepwalking.

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

Sleep stage in which the eyes move rapidly back and forth and physiological arousal levels are more similar to wakefulness than sleep; dreaming overs during this stage.

C-fibers

Small in diameter, unmyelinated

Foot-in-the-door technique

Small request is made and after gaining compliance, larger request is made

Norms

Societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior. - reinforced by sanctions: awards or punishments for behaviors that go according to or against norms

Auditory pathways

Sound -> vestibulocochlear nerve -> medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) -> auditory cortex -> superior olive -> inferior colliculus

Left hemisphere

Speech production and language are located in this dominant hemisphere

Language

Spoken or written symbols (verbal and nonverbal symbols), which are regulated according to certain rules of conduct or social norms and used for communications.

Non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM)

Stages 1 through 4 of sleep; contains ever-slowing brain waves as one gets deeper into sleep.

Alertness

State con consciousness in which one is aware, able to think, and able to respond to the environment nearly synonymous with arousal.

Androgyny

State of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine

Erikson's stages of psychological development

Stem from conflicts that are the result of decisions we are forced to make about ourselves and the environment around us at each phase of our lives Stage 1: Trust vs. mistrust Stage 2: Autonomy vs. shame, doubt Stage 3: Initiative vs. guilt Stage 4: Industry vs. inferiority Stage 5: Identity vs. role confusion Stage 6: Intimacy vs. isolation Stage 7: Generativity vs. stagnation Stage 8: Integrity vs. despair

Generalization

Stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response

Chunking

Strategy for encoding by grouping information into meaningful categories we already know

Method of loci

Strategy for encoding where you tie information to locations

Adler's Theory

Strives for superiority Inferiority complex: sense of incompleteness, imperfection, inferiority Creative self: force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality Style of life: represents the manifestation of creative self and describes person's unique way of achieving superiority Fictional finalism: individual more motivated by expectations of future than past experiences

Reticular formation

Structure in the brainstem that is responsible for alertness

Functionalism

Study of structure and function of each part of society; when all the parts of society fulfill their functions, society is in a normal state

Symbolic interactionism

Study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols

Token economy

System of behaviour modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behaviour, reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex. Prizes)

Physiological zero

Temperature judged to this normal temperature of the skin

Confirmation bias

Tendency to focus on information that fits an individual's beliefs while rejecting information that goes against them

Traditionalism

Tendency to follow authority

Primacy and recency effect

Tendency to remember early and late items

Pituitary gland

The "master gland" of the endocrine system that triggers hormone release in other endocrine glands.

Divided attention

The ability to attend to multiple stimuli simultaneously and to perform multiple tasks at the same time.

Theory of mind

The ability to sense how another's mind works.

Parallel processing

The ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding multiple aspects of a stimulus, such as color, shape, and motion.

Empathy

The abler to vicariously experience the emotion of another.

Foraging

The act of searching for and exploiting food resources

Circadian rhythm

The alignment of physiological processes with the 24-hour day, including sleep-wake cycles and some elements of the endocrine system.

Elaborative rehearsal

The association of information in short-term memory to information already stored in long-term memory; aids in long-term storage.

Semantics

The association of meaning with a word.

Fertility rate

The average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a population.

Automatic processing

The brain process most closely resembling autopilot, enabling performance of multiple activities at the same time.

Sympathetic nervous system

The branch of the ANS that controls the fight-or-flight response; associated with stressful situations that increase heart and respiration rates and decrease digestion.

Morbidity

The burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease.

Power

The capacity to influence people through the real or threatened use of rewards and punishments; often based on unequal distribution of valued resources.

Cognitive behavioral therapy

The cause of a disorder stems from the interactions between thoughts and behaviors. They correct patterns of conscious thought. - addresses both cognitive and behavioural components

Obedience

The changing of behavior of an individual based on a command from someone seen as an authority figure.

Conformity

The changing of beliefs or behaviors in order to fit into a group or society.

Locus of control

The characterization of the source of influences on the events in one's life; can be internal or external.

Just-world hypothesis

The cognitive bias that good things happen to good people, and bad things happen to bad people.

Extinction (in classical conditioning)

The decrease in response resulting from repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the presence of the unconditioned stimulus. - e.g. sound of fridge opening (conditioned stimulus) but no carrot (unconditioned stimulus). Guinea pig will stop responding to the fridge door opening

Prosencephalon

The embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the forebrain.

Rhombencephalon

The embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the hind brain.

Myelencephalon

The embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the medulla oblongata.

Mesencephalon

The embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the pons and cerebellum.

Multiculturalism

The encouragement of multiple cultures in a society to enhance diversity.

Beneficence

The ethical tenet that the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest.

Nonmaleficence

The ethical tenet that the physician has a responsibility to avoid intervention in which the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit.

Autonomy (in regards to physicians)

The ethical tenet that the physician has the responsibility to respect patients' choices about their own healthcare.

Affect

The experience and display of emotion.

Adaptive value

The extent to which a trait benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species.

genital stage

The fifth of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages, this stage begins in adolescence when sexual themes resurface and a person's life/sexual energy fuels activities such as friendships, art, sports, and careers 6.1

Interpersonal attraction

The force that makes people like each other.

Fundamental attribution error

The general bias towards making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions when analyzing another person's behavior.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an individual.

genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism 5.2

Reference group

The group to which an individual compares him- or herself for a given identity.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

The guide by which most psychological disorders are characterized, described, and diagnosed; currently in its fifth edition (DSM-5. published May 2013).

Self-serving bias

The idea that individuals will view their own success as being based on internal factors, while viewing failures as being based on external factors.

Multiple intelligences

The idea that intelligence may exist in multiple areas, not just in the areas typically assessed any traditional intelligence quotient tests.

Deindividuation

The idea that people will lose a sense of self-awareness and can act dramatically differently based on the influence of a group.

Disconfirmation principle

The idea that states that if evidence obtained during testing does not confirm a hypothesis, then the hypothesis is discarded or revised.

Functional fixedness

The inability to identify uses for an object beyond its usual purpose.

Alcohol myopia

The inability to think about consequences and possible outcomes of one's actions due to alcohol intoxication.

adrenal medulla

The inner region of the adrenal gland part of the sympathetic nervous system and releases epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine into the bloodstream when stimulated. Epinephrine and norepinephrine prolong and enhance the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the body 3.4

Secondary stress appraisal

The interpretation of primary stress appraisal to determine emotional response to a given threat. - What is material preparedness to deal with stressor - Appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge (how to overcome it)

Mate choice

The intersexual selection of a mate based on attraction and traits.

Social capital

The investment people make in their society in return for economic or collective reward.

Autonomic Nervous System

The involuntary branch of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions such as heart rate, bronchial dilation, temperature, and digestion.

Spacing effect

The longer the amount of time between sessions of re-learning, the greater the retention of the information later on

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

The main active ingredient in marijuana.

Just-noticeable difference (jnd)

The minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this different; also called a difference threshold.

Absolute threshold

The minimum of stimulus energy needed to activate a sensory system.

Brainstem

The most primitive portion of the brain, which includes the midbrain and hindbrain; controls the autonomic nervous system and communications between the spinal cord, cranial nerves, and brain. (Midbrain, Pons, Medulla)

Symbolic culture

The nonmaterial culture that represents a group of people; expressed through ideas and concepts.

Birth rate

The number of births per population in a period of time; usually the number of births per 1000 people per year.

Prevalence

The number of cases of a disease per population in a given period of time; usually, case per 1000 people per year.

Incidence

The number of new cases of a disease per population at risk in a given period of time; usually, new cases per 1000 at-risk people per year.

Bystander effect

The observation that, when in a group, individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need.

Ideal self

The person one would optimally like to be.

Recency effect

The phenomenon in which the most recent information we have about an individual is most important in forming our impressions.

Primacy effect

The phenomenon of first impressions of a person being more important than subsequent impressions.

Spacing effect

The phenomenon of retaining larger amounts of information when the amount of time between sessions of relearning is increased.

Material culture

The physical items one associates with a given cultural group.

PNS (peripheral nervous sytem)

The portion of the nervous system composed of nerve tissue and fibers outside the central nervous system.

Central nervous sytem

The portion of the nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord.

fecundity

The potential reproductive capacity of a female in a population 8.3

Ethnocentrism

The practice of making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture.

Associative learning

The process by which a connection is made between two stimuli or a stimulus and a response; example include classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Assimilation (in psychology)

The process by which new information is interpreted in terms of existing schemata.

Adaptation (in learning)

The process by which new information is processed; consists of assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation (in sociology)

The process by which the behavior and culture of a group or an individual begins to merge with that of another group.

Generalization (in classical conditioning)

The process by which two distinct but similar stimuli come to produce the same response.

Discrimination (in classical conditioning)

The process by which two similar but distinct conditioned stimuli produce different responses

Shaping (in operant conditioning)

The process of conditioning a complicated behavior by rewarding successive approximations of the behavior.

Retrieval

The process of demonstrating that information has been retained in memory; includes recall, recognition, and relearning.

Globalization

The process of integrating the global economy with free trade and tapping of foreign labor markets.

Motivation

The process of psychological and physical requirements, goals, or desires causing behavior.

Encoding

The process of receiving information and prepping it for storage; can be automatic or effortful. - transferring sensory information into memory

Acquisition (in classical conditioning)

The process of taking advantage of reflexive responses to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus.

Ought self

The representation of the way others think one should be.

Storage

The retention of encoded information; divided into sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

Prosody

The rhythm, cadence, and inflection of speech.

Gender

The set of behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with a biological sex.

Phonology

The set of sounds that compose a language.

Nondominant hemisphere

The side of the brain associated with sensitivity to the emotional tone of language, intuition, creativity, music, and spatial processing; in most individuals, the right hemisphere.

Dominant hemisphere

The side of the brain that provides analytic, language, logic, and math skills; in most individuals, the left hemisphere.

Cognitive dissonance

The simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions.

Characteristic institution

The social structure or institution about which societies are organized.

Demographics

The statistical arm of sociology, which attempts to characterize and explain population by quantitative analysis.

Long-term potentiation

The strengthening of neural connections due to rehearsal or relearning; thought to be the neurophysiological basis of long-term memory.

Eustress

The stress response to positive conditions - Supposed to be beneficial to the person

Distress

The stress response to unpleasant stressors.

Morphology

The structure of words, including their building blocks.

Neuropsychology

The study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain.

Groupthink

The tendency for groups to make decisions based on ideas and solutions that arise within the group without considering outside ideas and ethics; based on pressure to conform and remain loyal to the group.

Self-reference effect

The tendency for individuals to best recall information that they can relate to their own experiences.

Instinctive drift

The tendency of animals to resist learning when a conditioned behavior conflicts with the animal's instinctive behaviors.

Social facilitation

The tendency of people to perform at a different level based on the fact that others are around.

Response bias

The tendency of subjects to respond systematically to stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensory factors.

Serial position effect

The tendency to better remember items presented at the beginning or end of a list; related to the primacy and recency effect.

Reliance on central traits

The tendency to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that matter to the perceiver.

Group polarization

The tendency toward decisions that are more extreme than the individual inclination of the group members.

Justice (in medical ethics)

The tenet that the physician has a responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and to distribute healthcare resources fairly.

Psychoanalytic perspective

The theory of personality developed by Freud that focuses on repression and unconscious forces and includes the concepts of infantile sexuality, resistance, transference, and division of the psyche into the id, ego, and superego - personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and past memories (particularly in childhood)

Cultural relativism

The theory that social groups and cultures must be studied on their own terms to be understood.

Demographic transition

The transition from high birth and mortality rates to lower birth and mortality rates, seen as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system.

Spreading activation

The unconscious activation of closely linked nodes of a semantic network.

Reinforcement (in operant conditioning)

The use of a stimulus designed to increase the frequency of a desired behavior.

Punishment (in operant conditioning)

The use of an averse stimulus designed to decrease the sequence of undesired behavior.

Deviance

The violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society.

Somatic nervous system

The voluntary branch of the PNS, which consists of sensory and motor neurons used to control bodily movements.

Mating system

The way in which a group organizes its sexual behavior and sexual relationships.

Pragmatics

The ways in which use of language can be altered, depending on social context.

Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft

Theory that distinguishes between two major types of groups: communities (Gemeinschaft), which share beliefs, ancestry, or geography; and societies (Gesellschaft), which work together toward a common goal.

Attribution theory

Theory that focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior

Rogers' Unconditional Positive Regard

Therapist accepts client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote positive therapeutic environment

Zone of proximal development

Those skills which a child has not yet mastered but can accomplish with the help of a more knowledgeable other.

Undifferentiated

Those who achieve low scores on both masculine and feminine

Secondary trait

Trait is love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat - more preferences/attitudes

Cardinal traits

Traits are characteristics that direct most of person's activities - the dominant traits. Influence all of our behaviours, including secondary and central traits

Sensation

Transduction of physical stimuli into neurological signals

Colliculi

Two structures in the midbrain involved in sensorimotor reflexes; the superior colliculus receives visual sensory input, and the inferior colliculus receives auditory sensory input.

Primary reinforcer

Unconditioned reinforcer

Hypothesis of relative deprivation

Upsurge in prejudice when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to

Base rate fallacy

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information

Reinforcement Schedules

Variable-ratio schedule has fastest response rate

Trial and Error

Various solutions are tried until one is found that seems to work

Sensory memory

Visual (iconic) and auditory (echoic) stimuli briefly stored in memory; fades very quickly unless attention is paid to the information.

Feature detection

Visual pathways contain cells specialized in detection of color, shape, or motion

stereotype content model

Warm groups: those not in direct competition with the in-group for resources Competent groups: high status within society Paternalistic: inferior, dismissed, ignored Contemptuous: resentment, annoyance, anger Envious: jealously, bitterness, distrust Admiration: pride and other positive feelings

Gestalt principles

Ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete - the mind has an innate disposition to perceive patterns in the stimulus based on certain rules

Inattention blindness

We aren't aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field

Informative social influence

We conform because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us, because we think they know something we don't

Theory of planed behavior

We consider the implications of our intensions before we behave Intensions are based on 3 things: 1. our attitudes towards a certain behavior (ex. I like studying) 2. subjective norms (what we think others think about our behavior) 3. perceived behavioural control (how easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior)

Normative social influence

We do something to gain respect/support of peers, we're complying with social norms. Because of this we might go with group outwardly, but internally believe something differently.

Resource model of attention

We have limited resources in attention. Thus, we cannot multitask well

Linguistic determinism

Weak and strong hypothesis - Weak: language influences thought (reading right to left vs. left to right influences what direction you imagine girl pushing boy) - Strong (aka Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis): people understand their world through language, and language in turn shapes how we experience the world. Ex. tribe called Hopi without grammatical sense - they couldn't think about time in same way.

Max Weber

Weber agreed with Marx's ideas about conflict theory but he did not believe that the collapse of capitalism was inevitable rather, he argued that there could be more than one source of conflict, such as conflict over inequalities in political power and social status Max Weber, Emile Durkeim, and Karl Marx are considered founding fathers of sociology 8.1

Social institutions

Well-established, structural patterns of behavior or relationships that are accepted as a fundamental part of a culture.

Working memory

What you're thinking about at the moment - Magic number 7: can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of info at a time. Why phone #s are 7 digits long

Discrimination ( in sociology)

When individuals of a particular group are treated differently than others based on their group.

Spontaneous recovery (in classical conditioning)

When old conditioned stimulus elicits a response - don't know why this happens

Spreading activation

When one node of our semantic network is activated, like seeing the word "red," the other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated

Decay

When we don't encode something well or don't retrieve it for a while, we can't at all anymore - Connections become weaker over time - Initial rate of forgetting is high but levels off over time

Role strain

When you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status

Covariation model

Whether you attribute something as dispositional or situational 1. Consistency - dispositional 2. Distinctiveness - normally sweet guy but gets mad at a pizza place = situational 3. Consensus - if you arrive late at meeting but if 20 other people are late too, high degree of consensus. Thus, when a lot of people demonstrate same behavior, we are more likely to attribute behavior to situational cause.

Authentic self

Who someone actually is, including both positive and negative attributes.

Arousal Theory

Yerkes-Dodson Law that postulates performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal and optimal at some intermediate level Lower levels are optimal for highly cognitive tasks Higher levels are optimal for activities requiring physical endurance and stamina Simple tasks generally require slightly higher arousal than complex tasks

Near miss

You're "close to winning," not losing

altruism

a behavior that helps ensure the success of survival of the rest of a social group, possibly at the expense of the success or survival of the individual 7.3

negative feedback

a biological process that works by maintaining stability or homeostasis; a system produces a result which feeds back to stop the system and maintain the result within tightly controlled bounds 6.2

intergenerational mobility

a change (increase or decrease) in social class between parents and children of a family (e.g. Trenton's grandparents were immigrants from a foreign country who spent most of their lifetimes working factory jobs so that Trenton's parents could go to school. As adults, Trenton's parents were able to get college degrees and both became teachers. Trenton's mother later retired to be a stay-at-home mom. Trenton was able to develop his skills as a guitar player and become an international star and multi-millionaire.) 8.4

neurotransmitter

a chemical released by the axon of a neuron in response to an action potential that binds to receptors on the post-synaptic cell and causes that cell to either depolarize slightly (EPSP) or hyperpolarize slightly (IPSP) e.g. acetylcholine, norepinephrine, GABA, dopamine, etc. 3.2

pheromone

a chemical signal that causes a social response in members of the same species 3.5

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

a clear fluid that circulates around and through the brain and spinal cord. it helps to physically support the brain and acts as a shock absorber. It also exchanges nutrients and wastes with the brain and spinal cord; HOWEVER, it is NOT concerned with delivering oxygen to the brain. This is the job of red blood cells; it also helps reduces brain ischemia by reducing its own volume to reduce pressure on the blood vessels 3.4

caste system

a closed social stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they are born into 8.4

ganglion

a clump of grey matter (unmyelinated neuron cell bodies) found in the PNS 3.4

group

a collection of any number of people 'as few as two' who regularly interact and identify with each other sharing similar norms, values, and expectations 7.2

global stratification

a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, and power of various countries 8.4

social isolation

a complete/ near complete lack of contact with people and society for members of social spears; not the same thing as loneliness, which is temporary

social institutions

a complex of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contributes to social order by governing the behavior of people; they provide predictability and organization for individuals within a society and mediate social behavior between people 8.2

door-in-the-face technique

a compliance method commonly studied in social psychology. The persuader attempts to convince the respondent to comply by first making a large request that the respondent will most likely turn down, much like a metaphorical slamming of a door in the persuader's face. This is followed by a smaller request which the respondent will now more easily agree to.

addiction

a compulsion to do an act repeatedly; can consist of a psychological dependence and/or a physical dependence as evidenced by drug addiction withdrawal 4.3

learned helplessness

a condition where one has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond even though there are opportunities to avoid unpleasant circumstances or gain positive rewards 4.5, 7.1

reinforcememnt

a consequence that increases the likelihood that the preceding behavior will be repeated: two types are there: positive and negative 5.1

interdependence

a culture in which members contribute to each other and view the collective good as the primary goal. This is closely related to the goals of a transformational leader who seeks to inspire deep loyalty and shared vision across the organization

values

a culture's standard for evaluating what is good or bad 8.3

habituation

a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations 5.1

downward mobility

a decrease in social class 8.4

case study

a descriptive analysis of an individual, group, or an event, which does not involve various experimental groups

personal identity

a distinct sense of self including personally defined attributes 7.1

ecclesia

a dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions 8.2

endocrine gland

a ductless gland hat secretes hormones into the blood 3.6

delusion

a false belief that is not due to culture, and is not relinquished despite evidence that it is false 6.3

hallucination

a false sensory perception that occurs while a person is conscious (not during sleep or delirium) 6.3

egalitarian family

a family system where spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions 8.2

Stranger anxiety

a fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals

rational-legal authority

a form of leadership that is organized around rational legal rules 8.2

charismatic authority

a form of leadership where devotion is reliant upon an individual with exceptional charisma (persuasiveness, charm, and ability to connect with people) 8.2

traditional authority

a form of leadership where power is due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice 8.2

polygyny

a form of marriage in which a man is married to more than one woman 8.2

polyandry

a form of marriage in which a woman is married to more than one man 8.2

polygamy

a form of marriage in which an individual may have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously 8.2

monogamy

a form of marriage in which two individuals are married only to each other 8.2

personality trait

a generally stable predisposition towards a certain behavior 6.1

exocrine gland

a gland that secretes its product into a duct, which ultimately carries the product to the surface of the body or into a body cavity. Example: sweat glands 3.6

society

a group of people who share a culture and live/interact with each other within a definable area 8.1

in-group

a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who they are 7.2

out-group

a group that an individual does not belong to 7.2

reference group

a group that serves as a standard measure that people compare themselves to, such as a peer group 7.2

pupil

a hole in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the eyeball; its diameter is controlled by the iris in response to the brightness of light 3.5

steroid hormone

a hormone derived from cholesterol generally hydrophobic and can easily cross the plasma membrane of cells thus receptors for steroids are found intracellularly once the steroid binds to the receptor, the receptor-steroid complex acts to regulate transcription in the nucleus 3.6

peptide hormone

a hormone made of amino acids, in some cases, just a single modifies amino acid; they are generally hydrophilic and can't cross the plasma membrane of cells; thus receptors for them must be found on the cell surface; an exception is THYROXINE which is hydrophobic enough to enter the cells easily; binding of these hormones to its receptor usually triggers a second-messenger system within the cell 3.6

epinephrine

a hormone produced and secreted by the adrenal medulla that prolongs and increases the effects of the sympathetic nervous system 3.4

parathyroid hormone

a hormone produced and secreted by the parathyroid glands that increase serum calcium levels; •it targets the bones (stimulates osteoclasts), •the kidneys (increases calcium reabsorption), •and the small intestine (increases calcium absorption) 3.6

growth hormone

a hormone released by the anterior pituitary targets all cells in the body and stimulates whole body growth in children and adolescents and increased cell turnover rate in adults 3.6

prolactin

a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that targets the mammary glands stimulating them to produce milk 3.6

tropic hormone

a hormone that controls the release of another hormone 3.6

dual coding hypothesis

a hypothesis that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone 5.4

anomie

a lack of social norms, which leads to a breakdown in the connection between an individual and their community

organization

a large group, more impersonal than a network that comes together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently 7.3

secondary group

a larger and more impersonal group than a primary group which usually interacts for specific reasons for relatively short periods of time; these groups serve pragmatic (practical) needs 7.2

action potential

a localized change in a neuron's membrane potential that propagates away from its point of origin. all-or-none processes mediated by the opening of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels when the membrane is brought to threshold potential; opening Na+ channels causes characteristic depolarization, while opening K+ channels repolarizes the membrane 3.1

axon

a long projection off the cell body of a neuron down which an action potential can be propagated 3.1

method of loci

a memory device that involves imagining moving through a familiar place such as your home and in each place leaving a visual representation of a topic to be remembered 5.4

ennui

a mental state characterized by lethargy and apathy, often associated with depression; it is not a social effect

spreading activation/ theory

a method for searching associative networks, neural networks, or semantic networks. A theory of information retrieval that involves a search process where specific nodes are activated which leads to the activation of related nodes, and so on A node does not become activated until it receives input signals from its neighbors that are strong enough to reach a response threshold. the effect of input signals is cumulative: the response threshold is reached by the summation of input signals from multiple nodes 5.4

symbolic interactionism

a micro-level theory which examines the relationship between individuals and society by focusing on communication, the exchange of information through language and symbols symbolic interactionism suggests that the mind and self emerge through the social process of communication or use of symbols 7.1, 8.1

synaptic cleft

a microscopic space between the axon of one neuron and the cell body or dendrites of a second neuron, or between the axon of a neuron and an organ 3.2

Parkinson's disease

a movement disorder caused by the death of cells that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantia nigra, 2 subcortical structures in the brain; among the symptoms are: •a resting terror (shaking) •slowed movement, •rigidity of movements and the face, •and a shuffling gait 6.3

interneuron

a neuron found completely within the central nervous system typically connect sensory and motor neurons especially in the reflex arcs 3.3

efferent neurons

a neuron that carries information (action potentials) away from the central nervous system; a motor neuron 3.3

synapse

a neuron to neuron, neuron to organ, or muscle cell to muscle cell junction 3.2

multipolar neuron

a neuron with a single axon and multiple dendrites; the most common type of neuron in the nervous system 3.1

bipolar neuron

a neuron with a single axon and single dendrite, often projecting from opposite sides of the cell body. typically associated with sensory organs 3.1

glucagon

a peptide hormone produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas, which primarily targets the liver stimulating the breakdown of glycogen, thus increasing blood glucose level 3.6

illusory correlation

a perceived relationship between two things (people, events, or behaviors) even when none exists (e.g. A man holds the belief that people in urban environments tend to be rude. Therefore, when he meets someone who is rude he assumes that the person lives in a city, rather than a rural area. ) 7.2

long-term potentiation

a persistent increase in synaptic strength between two neurons that occurs following brief periods of their stimulation leads to increased sensitivity of neurons recently stimulated; believed to play a role in learning and the consolidation of memory from short-term memory to long-term memory 5.1

specific phobia

a persistent, strong, and unreasonable fear of a certain object or situation specific phobias are classified into four types depending on the types of triggers they involve, including: •situational type •natural environment type •blood injection injury type •animal type 6.3

derealization disorder

a person experiences a feeling that people or objects in the external world are unreal

attitude

a person's feelings and beliefs about other people or events around him/her, and his/her behavioral reactions based on those underlying evaluations 6.4

mood

a person's sustained internal emotion that colors his/her view of life 6.3

affect

a person's visible emotion in the moment 6.3

groupthink

a phenomenon where within a group, the desire for harmony or conformity results in an easy consensus even if the final decision is not the best one 7.2

iris

a pigmented membrane found just in front of the lens of the eye, in the center of it is the pupil: a hole though which light enters the eyeball; The iris regulates the diameter of the pupil in response to the brightness of the light 3.5

Fisherian/runaway selection

a positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait that has no effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time

conditioned response

a previously unconditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus that becomes a learned response to a conditioned stimulus UR + US --> *LR* + CS 5.1

social dysfunction

a process that has undesirable consequences, and may actually reduce the stability of society 8.1

neural plasticity

a process that refers to the malleability of the brain's pathways and synapses based on behavior, environment, and neural processes 5.4

dendrite

a projection off the cell body of a neuron that receives nerve impulses from a different neuron and sends the impulse to the cell body. Neurons can have one or several dendrites 3.1

conversion disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a change in sensory or motor function that has no discernible physical or physiological cause, and which seems to be significantly affected by psychological factors. The symptoms begin or worsen after an emotional conflict of other stressor 6.3

antisocial personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a history of serious behavior problems beginning in adolescence including significant aggression against people or animals, deliberate property destruction, lying or theft, and serious rule violation 6.3

dependent personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of himself or herself 6.3

mood disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of abnormal mood serious enough to cause significant personal distress and/or significant impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning 6.3

dissociative disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a person's thoughts, feelings, perceptions, memories, or behaviors being separated from conscious awareness and control, in a way that is not explainable as mere forgetfulness 6.3

hypochondriasis

a psychological disorder characterized by a pre-occupation with a fear of having a serious illness 6.3

body dysmorphic diorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a preoccupation with a slight physical anomaly or imagined defect in appearance, often involving the face, hair, breasts, or genitalia 6.3

depersonalization disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detached from one's body or mental processes, as if observing one's self from the outside 6.3

histrionic personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a strong desire to be the center of attention and seeking to attract attention through personal appearance and seductive behavior 6.3

somatization disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a variety of symptoms over an extended time period, including: •pain, •gastrointestinal symptoms, •sexual symptoms, •and pseudoneurological symptoms 6.3

dissociative identity disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by alternating between two or more distinct personality states (or identities), only one of which interacts with other people at any one time 6.3

personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by an enduring rigid set of personality traits that: •deviates from cultural norms, •impairs functioning, •and causes distress either to the person with the disorder, or to those in his or her life 6.3

dissociative amnesia

a psychological disorder characterized by at least one episode of suddenly forgetting some important personal information, usually related to severe stress or trauma 6.3

pain disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by clinically important pain whose onset or severity seems significantly affected by psychological factors 6.3

bipolar disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by cyclic mood episodes at both extremes of "poles," depression and mania. In bipolar I disorder, a person has experiences at least one manic or mixed episode. In bipolar II disorder, the manic phases are less extreme 6.3

borderline personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by enduring or recurrent instability in impulse control, mood, and image of self and others. Impulsive and reckless behavior, together with extreme mood swings, reactivity, and anger, can lead to unstable relationships and to damage both of the person with the disorder and of others in his or her life 6.3

narcissistic personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of grandiosity with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power 6.3

avoidant personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, and undesirability, and a preoccupation with fears of criticism and rejection; resulting in the person becoming socially withdrawn 6.3

schizoid personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by little interest or involvement in close relationships, even those with family members 6.3

paranoid personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by mistrust and misinterpretation of others motives and actions and suspicion of harm/betrayal 6.3

major depressive disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by one or more major depressive episodes where a person has felt worse than usual for most of the day, nearly every day for at least two weeks 6.3

paranoid-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of hallucinations and/or delusions usually relating to a certain theme 6.3

catatonic-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of catatonic behavior (including extremely retarded/ inhibited or excited motor activity) 6.3

schizotypal personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including: •constricted or inappropriate affect; •magical or paranoid thinking; •and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and perceptions 6.3

schizophreniform disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by symptoms of schizophrenia present for a period of 1-6 months during which the symptoms may or may not have interfered with functioning 6.3

undifferentiated-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by the basic criteria for schizophrenia, but symptoms that do not fit into one of the other subtypes 6.3

Schizoaffective disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by the combination of mood and psychotic symptoms; in this disorder, both the symptoms of schizophrenia and a major depressive, manic, or mixed episode are experienced for at least one month 6.3

somatoform disorder

a psychological disorder characterized primarily by physical symptoms and concerns, which may mimic physical (somatic) disease However, the symptoms are not explainable medically and do not improve with medical treatment 6.3

panic disorder

a psychological disorder that is characterized by panic attacks which can be cued by certain situations but are more often uncued or "spontaneous", occuring frequently and unexpectedly 6.3

disorganized-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder that is characterized by psychosis in the form of flat or inappropriate affect, disorganized speech, and disorganized behavior 6.3

schizophrenia

a psychological disorder that is chronic and incapacitating and is characterized by psychosis and material impairment in social, occupational, and personal functioning 6.3

cyclothymic disorder

a psychological disorder that is similar to bipolar disorder but the moods are less extreme. experienced cyclic moods, including many hypomanic episodes, as well as many episodes of depressed mood that are milder than a major depressive episode for at least two years 6.3

dissociative fugue

a psychological disorder where someone suddenly goes on a journey, during which he or she cannot recall personal history prior to the journey 6.3

residual-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder where the acute phase of schizophrenia has resolved and the criteria for schizophrenia are no longer met, but some symptoms are still present in milder forms 6.3

attachment theory

a psychological model that attempts to describe the dynamics of long-term and short-term interpersonal relationships between humans which depends on the person's ability to develop basic trust in their caregivers and self. (joint work of Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby)

humanistic psychology

a psychological perspective developed partially in response to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization. Carl Rogers is most associated with this kind of psychology 6.1

Philip Zimbardo

a psychologist best known for his prison study elucidated the extreme effects of role-playing on human behavior A group of 24 male students were isolated and asked to play the role of prisoners and guards the participants adapted to their roles well beyond Zimbardo's expectations the guards enforced extreme measures, including psychological torture and many of the prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and readily harassed other prisoners who attempted to prevent it 6.4

Raymond Cattell

a psychologist interested in personality, used factor analysis with hundreds of surface traits to identify which traits were related to each other. By this process, he identified 16 source traits by factor analysis reduced 15 of these into 5 global factors: •extroversion •anxiety •receptivity •accommodation •self-control 6.1

saltatory conduction

a rapid form of action potential conduction along the axon of a neuron in which the action potential appears to jump from node of Ranvier to node of Ranvier 3.1

thermoreceptor

a receptor that responds to changes in temperature 3.5

proprioceptor

a receptor that responds to changes in the body position such as stretch on a tendon, or contraction of a muscle; the receptors allow us to be consciously aware of the position of our body parts 3.5

photoreceptor

a receptor that responds to light 3.5

reciprocal determinism

a reciprocal interaction between a person's behaviors (conscious actions), personal factors (cognitions, motivations, personality), and environmental factors 5.2

reflex arc

a relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement 3.3

sect

a religious organization that is distinct from the parent religion from which it was formed 8.2

exogamy

a requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives 8.2

decoy

a research technique often used as part of deception, generally to intentionally mislead or confuse participants

unconditioned response

a response that automatically follows an unconditioned stimulus, without necessitating learning and conditioning to create the link 5.1

neobehaviorism

a school of psychology based on the general principles of behaviorism but broader and more flexible in concept. It stresses experimental research and laboratory analyses in the study of overt behavior and in various subjective phenomena that cannot be directly observed and measured, such as fantasies, love, stress, empathy, trust, and personality; psychologists belonging to this school believe that behavior can be modified by rewards or punishments

critical theory

a school of thought that stresses the reflective assessments and critique of society and culture ...by applying knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities; it focuses on changing, rather than understanding, society

subculture

a segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differs from that of the larger society 7.1

baroreceptor

a sensory receptor that responds to changes in pressure; for example, there are baroreceptors in the carotid arteries and the aortic arch that monitor blood pressure 3.5

mechanoreceptor

a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical disturbances such as: •shape changes, •being squashed, bent, pulled; they include touch receptors in the skin, hair cells in the ear, muscle spindles, and others 3.5

chemoreceptor

a sensory receptor that responds to specific chemicals. Some examples are: •gustatory (taste) receptors, •olfactory (smell) receptors, •and central chemoreceptors (which respond to changes in CSF pH) 3.5

psychological disorder/illness or mental illness

a set of behavioral and/or psychological symptoms that are not keeping with cultural norms and that are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or sufficient impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning 6.3

Psychological disorder

a set of thoughts, feelings, or actions which are considered deviant by the culture at hand and which cause noticeable distress to the sufferer.

culture

a shared way of life, including the beliefs and practices that a social group shares 8.3

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell closer to the threshold for an action potential 3.2

IPSP

a slight hyperpolarization of a postsynaptic cell moving the membrane potential of that cell further from the threshold 3.2

social construct

a social mechanism or practice that is constructed by society; essentially everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value, e.g. the idea of gender, social class 8.1

class system

a social stratification where people are grouped together by similar wealth, income, education, and the like, but the classes are open, meaning that people can strive to reach a higher class (or fall to a lower one) 8.4

meritocracy

a social stratification where people's social standing's are judged based on merit (or personal effort) alone; this is an idealized system - no society solely stratifies based on effort 8.4

matriarchy

a social system where females, esp. mothers within families are the primary authority figures 8.2

patriarchy

a social system where males are primary authority figures, and where fathers hold authority over women and children in a family 8.2

ethnicity

a socially defined concept referring to whether of not people identify with each other based on shared social experience or ancestry 8.3

status

a sociological term that refers to all the socially define positions within a society 7.3

social constructionism

a sociological theory that argues that people actively shape their reality through social interaction; it is therefore something that is constructed, not inherent; it looks to uncover the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the construction of their perceived social reality 8.1

source monitoring error

a specific type of error of recollection where a memory is incorrectly attributed to the wrong source 5.4

physical attractiveness stereotype

a specific type of halo effect bias; people tend to rate attractively individuals more favorable for personality traits and characteristics than they do those who are less attractive 7.2

algorithm

a step-by-step detailing of steps that aids with problem solving 4.2

progesterone

a steroid hormone produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary during the second half of the menstrual cycle. Progesterone maintains and enhances the uterine lining for the possible implantation of the fertilized ovum. It is the primary hormone secreted during pregnancy 3.6

neutral stimulus

a stimulus that does not elicit any intrinsic response in the absence of outside interference (conditioning) 5.1

unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response automatically, without necessitating learning and conditioning to create the link 5.1

self-handicapping

a strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly 7.3

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

a strategy that involves enticing people to take small actions, and then gradually asking for larger and larger commitment 6.4

phobia

a strong unreasonable fear that almost always causes general anxiety or a full panic attack; can be specific or social 6.3

meta-analytic study

a study that involves contrasting and combining results from different studies, with the aim of finding patterns among the results that might bring about new information

secure attachment

a style of relating to to others that forms whe an infant has caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to needs, in Ainsworth's experiments, securely attached infants were found to be willing to explore surroundings in the presence of the mother; they were upset, but consolable when the mother left and then returned to the room 5.3

language

a symbolic system that is codified for communication 4.2

state capitalism

a system in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations 8.2

welfare capitalism

a system in which most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society 8.2

endocrine system

a system of ductless glands that secrete chemical messengers (hormones) into the blood 3.6

patrilineal descent

a system of lineage in which relatives on the father's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their father's lineage 8.2

bilateral descent

a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side and father's side are considered equally important 8.2

matrilineal descent

a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their mother's lineage 8.2

parallel processing

a system whereby many aspects of a stimulus are processed simultaneously instead of in a step-by-step or serial fashion. e.g. visual processing in the brain 3.5

distraction

a technique in which researchers attempt to redirect the brain while conducting an experiment, usually in order to allow a previously acquired memory to be encoded

rehearsal

a technique of repeating verbal information in one's phonological loop to promote the encoding of sensory information into memory 5.4

halo effect

a tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures rather than looking at individual characteristics 7.2

primacy effect

a tendency to better recall the first items on a list 5.4

belief bias

a tendency to draw conclusions based on what one already believes rather than sound logic 4.2

mental set

a tendency to fixate on ideas and solutions that have worked in the past even if they may not have applied to the current situation 4.2

misinformation effect

a tendency to misremember an event, particularly when misleading information is presented between the event and the mental encoding of the the event (e.g. if an interrogator questions an individual about an event using leading questions, the person's perception of the event will change to fit the question) 5.4

functional fixedness

a tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging 4.2

recency effect

a tendency to recall the last item presented in a list 5.4

confirmation bias

a tendency to search only for information that confirms a preconceived conclusion 4.2

Drive Reduction Theory

a theory about the impact of motivation on human behavior that suggests that a physiological need (a drive) creates an aroused state that motivates the organism to reduce that need by engaging in some behavior 6.2

attribution theory

a theory that attempts to explain how individuals view behavior - both our own behavior and the behavior of others - by attributing behavior to either internal or external causes; it is the idea that individuals make inferences in order to understand the causes of various behaviors or actions 7.2

signal detection theory

a theory that attempts to predict how and when someone will detect the presence of a given sensory stimulus (the signal), amidst all of the other sensory stimuli in the background (noise), there are 4 possible outcome: •a hit (signal present and detected), •a miss (signal present but not detected), •a false alarm (signal not present but person thought it was), •and a correct rejection (signal not present and the person did not think it was) 3.5

cognitive dissonance theory

a theory that explains that we feel tension ("dissonance") whenever we hold two thoughts or beliefs ("cognitions") that are incompatible, or when attitudes and behaviors don't match. When this occurs, we try to reduce this unpleasant feeling of tension by making our views of the world match how we feel or what we've done. 6.4

inclusive fitness

a theory that suggests that cooperation among organisms (including altruistic behaviors) promotes genetic success, meaning that even if not all of the organisms survive to reproduce, some of their genes will still be passed to the next generation (e.g. a lapwing will fake injury to distract a hawk from its young, thereby acting altruistically toward its offspring) 7.3

incentive theory

a theory that suggests that incentives (objects or events in the environment that either help induce or discourage certain behaviors) motivate human behavior 6.2

conflict theory

a theory that views society as being in competition for limited resources. society is a place where there will be inequality in resources, therefore individuals will compete for social, political, and material resources like: money, land, power, and leisure 8.1

game theory

a theory used to try and predict large complex systems such as the overall behavior of a population 7.3

vitreous humor

a thick, gelatinous fluid found in the posterior segment of the eye (between the lens and the retina) only produced during fetal development and helps maintain intraocular pressure (the pressure inside the eye) 5.3

cerebral cortex

a thin (4 mm) layer of gray matter on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres. the conscious mind functionally divided into 4 lobes: •the frontal lobes •parietal lobes •temporal lobes •occipital lobes 3.4

aqueous humor

a thin, watery fluid found in the anterior segment of the eye (between the lens and cornea). constantly produced and drained helps bring nutrients to the lens and cornea, as well as remove metabolic wastes 3.5

luteinizing hormone (LH)

a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the gonads; in females, it triggers ovulation and the development of corpus luteum during the menstrual cycle; in males, it stimulated the production and release of testosterone 3.6

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the adrenal cortex, stimulating it to release cortisol and aldosterone 3.6 and 4.5

exposure therapy

a type of cognitive-behavioral therapy whereby the individual is introduced to the specific anxiety-inducing situation gradually and in a controlled environment until his or her anxiety level decreases through adaptation; it has been found to be the most effective form of treatment for agoraphobia (fear of crowded spaces)

top-down processing

a type of information processing that occurs when the brain applies experience and expectations to interpret sensory information note that the brain in fact uses a combination of bottom-up processing and top-down processing 3.5

retroactive interference

a type of memory interference that occurs when newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously 5.4

proactive interference

a type of memory interference that occurs when previously learned information interferes with the recall of information learned more recently 5.4

bottom-up processing

a type of sensory processing that beings with the sensory receptors and works up to the complex integration of information occurring in the brain; note that the brain in fact uses a combination of bottom-up processing and top-down processing 3.5

chemical synapse

a type of synapse at which a chemical (a neurotransmitter) is released from the axon of a neuron into the synaptic cleft, where it binds to receptors on the next structure (either another neuron or an organ) 3.2

electrical synapse

a type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore the action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell 3.2

cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

a type of therapy that addresses thoughts and behaviors that are maladaptive by using goal-oriented and systematic techniques 6.1

humanistic psychotherapy

a type of therapy that focuses upon the more positive aspects of human beings in general and rejects the medical model, the psychoanalytic emphasis upon mal-adaptive personality traits, and the labeling of individuals as pathological. Accordingly, it places considerably less emphasis upon dis-positional factors than does psychoanalysis

deviance

a violation of society's standards of conduct or expectations 7.2

social network

a web of social relationships including those in which a person is directly linked to others, as well as those in which people are directly connected through others 7.3

Power

ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite any obstacles and their ability to control resources

intelligence

ability to learn from experience, problem solve, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations 5.2

Divided attention

ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time

Theory of mind

ability to sense how another's mind works (ex. friend is interpreting story while you tell it)

Parallel processing

ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion

Perceptual organization

ability to use these two processes (Bottom-up, top down) to create a complete picture or idea

parasomnia

abnormal behaviors during sleep including somnambulism and night terrors; usually occur during stage 3 or slow wave sleep 4.3

psychological fixation

acc. to Freud, adult personality is largely determined during the first 3 psychosexual stages; if parents either frustrate or overindulge the child's expression of sensual pleasure at a certain stage so that the child does not resolve that stage's developmental conflicts, the child becomes fixated at that stage and will, as an adult, continue to seek sensual pleasure through behaviors related to that stage 6.1

Appraisal model

accepts that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression

ego

according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the ego is ruled by the reality principle, and uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id (the unconscious driving force ruled by the pleasure principle) 6.1

id

according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the largely unconscious id is the source of energy and instincts ruled by the pleasure principle, the id seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure; it does not use logical or moral reasoning and it does not distinguish mental images from external objects; according to Freud, young children function almost entirely from the id 6.1

psychosexual stages

according to Freud's psychoanalytical theory, individuals progress through 5 psychosexual stages, one corresponding to the part of the body that is the focus of sensual pleasure; the 5 psychosexual stages are: •the oral stage, •the anal stage, •the phallic stages, •the latent stage, •and the genital stage 6.1

manifest content

according to Freud, the overt story lines of dreams 4.3

latent content

according to Freud, the unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express and underlie dreams (e.g. falling in a dream might have to do with feeling out of control in your life or failing at something. It might even represent giving in to sexual temptation) 4.3

libido

according to psychoanalytic theory, it is the life instinct which drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain, avoidance, and seeking pleasure 6.1

death instinct

according to psychoanalytic theory, drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself or others 6.1

behaviorism

according to this perspective, personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment. deterministic, proposing that people begin as blank slates, and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual's subsequent behavior and personalities 6.1

social cognitive perspective

according to this perspective, personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors 5.2, 6.1

psychoanalytic theory

according to this theory, personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. the classical version of this theory was developed by Sigmund Freud 6.1

habit

action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic 5.1

Secondary drives

additional drives not directly related to biological processes (ex. getting into medical school, becoming a physician, desire for love, achievement)

cultural transmission

addresses how culture is learned. Culture is passed along from generation to generation through various childrearing practices including (ex): when parents expose children to music

Indirect therapy

aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and friends of affected individual

peripheral nervous sytem

all the parts of the Nervous System except for the brain and the spinal cord 3.4

amygdala

almond-shaped structure deep within the brain that orchestrates emotional experiences 4.4

food desert

an area typically in a highly populated, lower income urban environment, where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find 8.2

capitalism

an economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned and goods/services are produced for a profit 8.2

socialism

an economic system where resources and production are collectively owned; it includes a system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs (goods/services are produced for direct use instead of for profit) 8.1

priming

an effect of implicit memory whereby exposure to a given stimulus "primes" or prepares the brain to respond to a later stimulus 5.4

manic episode

an experience of an abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood with at least three of the following symptoms: •grandiose, exaggerated, or delusional self-esteem, •high energy with little need for sleep, •increased talkativeness and pressured speech, •poor judgement, •increase psychomotor and goal-directed activity, •and distractibility with flight of ideas or racing thoughts 6.3

deindividuation

an explanation of people's startling and often uncharacteristic behavior when situations provide a high degree of arousal and a very low sense of responsibility 7.2

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories 5.4 and 6.3

relative poverty

an inability to meet the average standard of living within a society 8.4

upward mobility

an increase in social class 8.4

sensitization

an increase in the strength of a response with repeated presentation of a stimulus 5.1

ostrich effect

an individual avoiding an apparently risky financial situation by pretending it does not exist; not a social effect

That's-not-all technique

an individual is made an offer but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than she expected

Huntington's Disease

an inherited (autosomal dominant) disease that causes the progressive breakdown (degeneration) of nerve cells in the brain; it has a broad impact on a person's functional abilities and usually results in movement, thinking (cognitive) and psychiatric disorders

myelin

an insulating layer of membranes wrapped around the axons of almost all neurons in the body; it is essentially the plasma membranes of specialized cells: in the PNS they are Schwann cells and in the CNS they are Oligodendrocytes 3.1

utilitarian organization

an organization in which members get paid for their efforts, such as businesses 7.3

normative organization

an organization where membership is based on morally relevant goals 7.3

conditioned stimulus

an originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it can produce the conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus being present NS + US --> CR + NS *(no US)* 5.1

mind-body dualism

an outdated framework on which schizophrenia is based

overconfidence

an overestimation of the accuracy of one's knowledge and judgments 4.2

withdrawal

an uncomfortable and often painful experience that may accompany the discontinuing of a drug immediately alleviated if the user takes the substance (thus reinforcing the addiction) or dissipates slowly over time (as in the case with detoxification) 4.3

social phobia

an unreasonable paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is watched by others even while performing routine activities such as eating in public or using a public restroom 6.3

drive

an urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness. can be useful for alerting an organism that it is no longer in a state of homeostasis, an internal state of equilibrium 6.2

instrumental conditioning

another term for operant conditioning 5.1

mental retardation

another way of saying intellectual disability 5.2

prefrontal cortex

anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain involved in complex behaviors such as planning, sequencing, social responses, and decision-making; directs behavioral aspects of emotion, including approach and avoidance behaviors; damage to this area may lead to inappropriate social behavior, impulsivity, and trouble with initiation 4.4

gonadotropins

anterior pituitary tropic hormones, follicles stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) which stimulate the gonads (ovaries and testes) to produce gametes and to secrete sex steroids 3.6

Specific phobias

anxiety produced by a specific object or situation

Social anxiety disorder

anxiety that is due to social situations and persistent fear when exposed to social or performance situation that may result in embarrassment

mnemonic

any memory technique used to promote the retention and retrieval of information 5.4

Mindguards (Irving Janis's Groupthink)

appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views

Association area

area that integrates input from diverse brain regions ex. multiple inputs may be necessary to solve a complex puzzle, to plan ahead for the future, or reach a difficult decision

Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia

argues that delusions, halucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain

REM sleep (rapid eye movement)

arousal levels reach wakefulness, but muscles are paralyzed Paradoxical sleep: one's heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but individual is still asleep

Synaptic pruning

as we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered increasing the efficiency of our brains' ability to process information

linguistic relativity hypothesis

asserts when the language one speaks determines their thoughts and perceptions of the world 4.6

Method of loci

associating each item in the list with location along a route through a building that has already been memorized

Semantics

association of meaning with a word

Peer group

association of self-selected equals around similar interests, ages, and statuses; provide opportunity for friendship and feelings of belonging

Social construction model

assumes there is no biological basis for emotions but are based on experiences and situational context alone

Ego-defensive

attitudes that protect our self esteem or justify actions that are wrong

Inferior colliculus

auditory system

reflex

automatic behaviors that occur without thinking 5.3

self-consciousness

awareness of oneself 7.1

consciousness

awareness of self, internal states, and the environment 4.3

System for multiple level observation of groups

based on the belief that there are three fundamental dimensions of interaction: dominance vs. submission, friendliness vs. unfriendliness, and instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive

universal grammar

basic rules of language presumed to be innate that allow the human mind to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during sensitive developmental years in early childhood 4.6

Schizophrenia: prodromal phase

before diagnosis, patient goes through evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences

Functional autonomy

behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior

aggression

behavior that is forceful, hostile, or attacking. considered something that is intended to cause harm or promote social dominance within a group 7.3

Personality disorder

behavior that is inflexibile and maladaptive causing distress or impaired functioning ego-syntonic: individual perceives her behavior as correct, normal, or in harmony with her goals Ego-dystonic: individual sees illness as something thrust upon her that is intrusive and bothersome

Fad

behavior that is transiently viewed as popular and desirable by a large community

Role partner

behaviors and expectations change with the person with whom one is interacting

self-enhancement

behaviors that an individual engages to elicit a more favorable response from others

instinct

behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species 6.2

Dodson law of social facilitation

being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at and hinders performance of less familiar tasks (complex tasks)

selective priming

being predisposed to observe something because it has previously been encountered frequently or is expected 4.1

Illusion of morality (Irving Janis's Groupthink)

belief that the group's decisions are morally correct

procedural bias

bias related to how information is obtained and may occur when researchers put some sort of pressure on subjects to provide responses. By offering monetary compensation of any amount to subjects, researchers used incentive to obtain results, leading to this phenomenon

selection bias

bias that arises when the sample is not representative of the population, such as not being randomly chosen

Fundamental attribution error

biased toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions

Ganglion cells

bipolar cells synapse with ganglion cells which group together to form the optic nerve

hypothalamus

brain structure located above the brain stem that is involved in many autonomic processes including: •body temperature, •hunger, •thirst, •fatigue, •and sleep; it is also involved in the physiological aspects of emotion including sweating and increased HR 3.6, 4.4

hippocampus

brain structure located in the medial temporal lobe of the brain plays a key role in forming memories; damage to this part of the brain can lead to the inability to form new memories or anterograde amnesia 4.4

Bottom-up processing

brain takes up individual sensory stimuli and combines them together to create a cohesive image before determining what the object is Without this, it would be like we're looking at objects for the first time everytime

dyssomnias

broad category of disorders involving abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. Includes insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea 4.3

rapid eye movement (REM)

bursts of quick eye movements present in the last stage of sleep 4.3

sleep spindle

bursts of waves present in stage 2 sleep 4.3

Attachment type: Ambivalent attachment

caregiver has an inconsistent response to child's distress; child will be very distressed on separation from the caregiver but has a mixed response when the caregiver returns

Role performance

carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role; individuals can vary in how successful they are at performing a role

Babinski reflex

causes toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated

somatic symptom disorder

central complaint is one or more somatic symptoms-such as chronic pain or headaches or fatigue-and diagnosis also requires evidence of diminished functioning stemming from excessive preoccupation with and/or anxiety about the symptoms

Contralaterally

cerebral hemisphere communicates cross-sided

Compliance

change in behavior based on a direct request; person or group asks the individual to make the change typically has no actual power or authority to command individual, but ask him to change his behavior

Horizontal mobility

change in occupation or lifestyle that remains within the same social class

Obedience

changing one's behavior in response to a direct order from an authority figure

Internalization

changing one's behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group

Parkinson's disease

characterized by : bradykinesia (slowness in movement) resting tremor (appears when muscles are not being used) pill-rolling tremor (flexing/extending fingers while moving thumb back and forth, rolling something in fingers) masklike facies (static and expressionless facial features) cogwheel rigidity (muscle tension that intermittently halts movement) shuffling gait (stooped posture) Depression and dementia common symptoms

General personality disorder: Cluster C - Dependent

characterized by a continuous need for reassurance and depend on specific person to take actions and make decisions

Illness Anxiety disorder

characterized by being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition

Bipolar disorder

characterized by both depression and mania; manic episodes are characterized by abnormal and persistently elevated mood lasting at least one week with at least three of the following: 1. increasing distractibility 2. decreased need for sleep 3. inflated self-esteem or grandiosity 4. racing thoughts 5. increased goal-directed activity or agitation 6. pressured speech 7. high risk behavior

Conversion disorder

characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions; begin soon after individual experiences high levels of stress or traumatic event (ex. women goes blind after watching son die tragically)

olfactory receptors

chemoreceptors in the upper nasal cavity that responds to odor chemicals 3.5

gustatory receptors

chemoreceptors on the tongue that respond to chemicals in food 3.5

Errors of growth

child applies a grammatical rule in a situation where it does not apply (ex. runned instead of ran, funner instead of more fun)

Role taking

child begins to understand the perspectives and roles of others

Attachment type: disorganized attachment

child show no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver's absence or presence, but can show a mix of different behaviors; disorganized attachment associated with erratic behavior and social withdrawal by the caregiver and a red flag for abuse

Attachment type: Secure attachment

child will be upset when caregiver leaves and will be comforted by the return of the caregiver

Attachment type: Avoidant attachment

child will show little or no distress when the caregiver leaves and little or no relief when the caregiver returns

Parallel play

children play alongside each other without influencing each other's behavior

depressant

class of drugs that depress or slow down neural activity, includes: •alcohol, •barbiturates (tranquilizers), •and opiates 4.3

stimulants

class of drugs that speed up body functions and neural activity includes caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamines 4.3

intellectual disability

classification for individuals who have an IQ below 70 and functional impairment in their everyday lives; previously called mental retardation 5.2

Karl Marx

closely identifies with conflict theory, he argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and those who labor and provide the manpower for production; he believed that capitalism produced internal tensions which would ultimately lead to self-destruction of capitalist societies to be replaced by socialism; he along with Emile Durkheim and Max Weber are considered the founding fathers of sociology 8.1

Pygmalion effect

closely related to the self-fulfilling prophecy; the two terms are even considered synonymous in some circles; it is a type of self-fulfilling prophecy where if you think something will happen, you may unconsciously make it happen through your actions or inaction. It occurs in the workplace when a manager raises his or her expectations for the performance of workers, and this actually results in an increase in worker performance.

central route

cognitive route of persuasion based on the content and deeper aspects of an argument 5.2

peripheral route

cognitive route of persuasion that involves more superficial or secondary characteristics of an argument or an orator 5.2

B.F. Skinner

coined the term "operant conditioning"; he is famous for his box in which he used reinforcements to shape animal behavior 5.1

Ganglia

collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the central nervous system

factitious disorder

colloquially referred to as "Munchhausen Syndrome" (when imposed on one's self) or "Munchhausen by Proxy" (when imposed on someone else); a person has not just fabricated an illness but has gone the further step of either falsifying evidence or symptoms of the illness or inflicting harm to the victim to induce injury or illness

Iris

colored part of the eye composed of the dilator pupillae and constrictor pupillae

Cyclothymic disorder

combination of hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia that are not severe enough to qualify as major depressive disorder

Mnemonics

common way to memorize information particularly lists like acronyms and rhyming phrases

Twin studies

comparing condordance rates for a trait between monozygotic and dizygotic twins, are better able to distinguish the relative effects of shared environment and genetics

Retinal vessels

complex intermingling of blood vessels between sclera and the retina

Forebrain (prosencephalon)

complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes

secondary reinforcers

conditioned reinforcers that are learned through their direct/indirect relationship with primary reinforcers; e.g. money: it is not innately rewarding, but we have learned that it can provide access to primary reinforcers 5.1

Solomon Asch

conducted research on conformity and group pressure by placing subjects in a room with several confederates (the subjects believes the confederates to be fellow study subjects) and observing the behavior of the subject when the confederates provided clearly wrong answers to questions 7.2

Stanley Milgram

conducted research on obedience where he asked subjects to administer a shock to what they thought was another subject (but was just an actor) and he monitored the degree of subjects' compliance or obedience 7.2

Source-monitoring error

confusion between semantic and episodic memory (ex. a person hears a story of something that happened to someone else and later recalls the story as having happened to him or herself)

Émile Durkheim

considered the father of sociology and a major proponent of *functionalism* the pioneer of modern social research and established the field of sociology as separate and distinct from psychology and political philosophy 8.1

Carl Rogers

considered the founder of the humanistic psychology perspective, pioneered the person-centered approach to therapy 6.1, 7.1

parallel forms reliability

consistency between/among alternate versions of the same instrument; e.g. creating 2 parallel forms of a questionnaire (with difficult questions) and both tests show correlation

Slow-wave sleep

consists of NREM sleep stages 3 and 4; also called delta-wave sleep.

material culture

consists of physical objects that are particular to a culture which helps to explain the relationship between artifacts and social relations (e.g. saree in indian culture) 8.3

Fluid intelligence

consists of problem-solving skills, which peaks during early adulthood

symbolic culture

consists of symbols that carry a particular meaning and are recognized by people of the same culture these symbols can communicate the values and norms of the culture 8.3

Explicit (declarative) memory

consists of those memories that require conscious recall

General personality disorder: Cluster B - Histronic personality disorder

constant attention-seeking behavior; often wear colorful clothing, are dramatic, and are exceptionally extroverted; seductive behavior to gain attention

ideal self

constructed out of life experiences, societal expectations, and admirable traits, from role models, the ideal self is the person you ought to be while the real self is the person you actually are 7.1

Septal nuclei

contain one of the primary pleasaure centers of the brain

Elaboration likelihood model

continuum based on processing of persuasive information; based on central route processing and peripheral route processing

Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

controlling alertness and wakefulness In the sympathetic system, promote fight-or-flight response and mostly produced by the adrenal medulla

Hindbrain

controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes like sleeping and waking

Anterior hypothalamus

controls sexual behavior

Superior colliculus

controls some responses to visual stimuli and reflexive eye movements

Transduction

conversion of physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other information from our internal and external environment to electrical signals in the nervous system

Basal ganglia

coordinate muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information to the brain and spinal cord

vagus nerves

cranial nerve pair X very large mixed nerves (that carry both sensory input and motor output) innervate virtually every visceral organ especially important in transmitting parasympathetic input to the heart and digestive smooth muscle 3.4

Associative learning

creation of a pairing or association either between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response

Genetic compatibility

creation of mate pairs that have complementary genetics; attraction to others who have starkly different genetic makeups reduces the probability of offspring being homozygotic for disease-carrying allele

Illusion of invulnerability (Irving Janis's Groupthink)

creation of optimism and encouragement of risk-taking

Broca's aphasia

damage to broca's area, speech comprehension is intact but patient has reduced/absent ability to produce spoken language

Relative deprivation

decrease in resources, representations, or agency relative to the past or to the whole of society

Parkinson's disease (biological)

decreased dopamine production in substantia nigra (layer of brain cells that produce dopamine to permit functioning of basal ganglia) Treatment: L-DOPA (precursor converted to dopamine once in brain)

alogia

decreased or absent speech

central route processing

deep thinking in elaboration likelihood model

Aphasia

deficit of language production or comprehension

Racialization

definition or establishment of a group as a particular race

Pragmatics

dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge (ex. we are more formal to a stranger but casual language with friend)

Seasonal Affective Disorder

depressive symptoms are present only in the winter months related to abnormal melatonin metabolism and treated with bright light therapy

Yerkes-Dodson Law

describes an upside down U-shaped relationship between arousal and performance asserts that a moderate level of arousal creates optimal performance too little arousal leads to complacency too much arousal can be overwhelming 4.4

Symbolic ethnicity

describes specific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life

intragenerational mobility

describes the differences in social classes between different members of the same generation 8.4

Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)

detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the body

Sensory bias

development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population (ex. fiddler crabs are naturally attracted to structures that break up the level horizon because they may indicate a food source; male crabs build pillars around their territory to attract mates)

Jean Piaget

developmental psychologist who formulated a 4 stage theory of development for children 4.2

stranger anxiety

developmentally typical anxiety displayed by children from approximately 8-12 months of age toward close contact with strangers may be expressed by crying and clinging to familiar caregivers 5.3

Differential association theory

deviance can be learned through interactions with others; intimate exposure to others who engage in deviant behavior lays the groundwork for one to engage in deviant behavior him- or herself

Role strain

difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role

Role conflict

difficulty in statisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles

Socialization

discussing of the process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs

temperament

dispositional emotional excitability tends to be fairly stable through the life span 4.4

Scalae

divides cochlea into three parts

Top-down processing

driven by memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole object and then recognize the components based on these expectations Allows us to quickly recognize components based on these expectations Would have difficulty discriminating similar objects without this processing

Role exit

dropping of one identity for another

anxiety disorder

emotional state of unpleasant physical and mental arousal; a preparation to fight or flee. the anxiety is intense, frequent, irrational (out of proportion), and uncontrollable; it causes significant distress or impairment of normal functioning 6.3

Self-determination Theory (SDT)

emphasizes roles of ... Autonomy: need to be in control of one's actions and ideas Competence: need to complete and excel at difficult tasks Relatedness: need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships

Working memory

enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and manipulate that information

Catecholamines or monoanimes or biogenic amines)

epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine

Disconformation principle

evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work

Implicit memory: procedural

ex. retain skill of riding a bike

Ludwig Gumplowicz

expanded upon Marx' ideas about conflict theory proposing that society is shaped by war and conquest and that cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups 8.1

Self-fulfilling prophecy

expectation create conditions that lead to confirmation of those expectations ex. people tell you a class is hard and most people fail, you start to get nervous and do bad, validating their opinion

social roles

expectations for people of a given social status 7.3

Robber's cave experiment

experiment which showed that even arbitrary group distinctions (camp teams) can cause a bitter rivalry and discrimination, thus demonstrating in-group/out-group biases

Game theory

explain decision making behavior

Opponent-Process Theory

explains continuous drug use where the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology (ex. body counteract repeated use of alcohol that will last longer than the drug resulting in withdrawal symptoms) Withdrawal creates dependence on drug

Incentive theory

explains that behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments

Attitude

expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, thing, or scenario

Erik Erikson

extended Freud's theory of developmental stages in two ways. He added social and interpersonal factors, to supplement Freud's focus or unconscious conflicts within a person. And he delineated additional developmental stages and conflicts in adolescence and adulthood, to supplement Freud's focus on early childhood. His stages include: •trust vs. mistrust, •autonomy vs. shame and doubt, •initiative vs. guilt, •industry vs. inferiority, •identity vs. role confusion, •intimacy vs. isolation, •generativity vs. stagnation, •and integrity vs. despair 6.1

Adaptive value

extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species thus leading to adaptation through natural selection

stigma

extreme disapproval of a person or group based on the person or groups' actual or perceived deviance from society 7.2

Stigma

extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society (ex. HIV, obesity)

General personality disorder: Cluster C - Avoidant

extreme shyness and fear of rejection; sees herself as socially inept and socially isolated despite intense desire for social attention and acceptance

Interpersonal attraction

factors that affect attraction including similarity, self-disclosure, reciprocity, and proximity

Short term memory

fades quickly around 30 seconds without rehearsal and limited to 7+/-2 rule

kinship

familial relationship including blood-ties, family-ties, and common ancestry 8.2

Automatic processing

familiar or routine actions can be performed

Phineas Gage

famous case of a man who suffered damage to his prefrontal cortex after a railroad tie blasted through his head. His symptoms due to damage to this area included: impulsivity, an inability to stick to plans, an inability to demonstrate empathy 4.4

Albert Bandura

famous for his Bobo doll studies that demonstrated observational learning; also pioneered the idea of the importance of self-efficacy in promoting learning 5.1

Ivan Pavlov

famous for naming and describing the process of classical conditioning by training dogs to salivate to the sound of a ringing bell 5.1

Panic disorder

fear and apprehension, trembling, sweating, hyperventilation, sense of unreality

Agoraphobia

fear of being in places or situations where it might be hard for an individual to escape

Separation anxiety

fear of being separated from the parental figure

Polyandry

female having exclusive relationships with multiple partners

REM stage

final stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, and beta waves which are seen in individuals when they are awake; despite these wave patterns, however, the sleeper is paralyzed aside from small twitches leading to the description of the stage as 'paradoxical sleep', this is generally when dreams occur 4.3

Material support

financial or material contribution to another person

Direct benefits

fitness of species; provide material advantages, protection, emotional support

Force field theory (Kurt Lewin)

focus on current state of mind

Capitalist economies

focus on free market trade with little intervention from central governing bodies; a private owner or corporation maintains and profits from the success of the business which encourages division of labor, where specific components of a larger task are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals, promoting specialization and efficiency

Humanistic perspective

focus on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach, describing those ways in which healthy people strive toward self-realization

Rational choice theory

focuses on decision-making in an individual and attempts to reduce this process to a careful consideration of benefits and harms to the individual

Strain Theory

focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance; anomic conditions include excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation

Malthusian theory

focuses on how the exponential growth of a population can outpace growth of the food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder

Signal detection theory

focuses on the changes in our perception of the same stimuli depending on both internal and external context ex. How loud would someone need to yell your name in a crowd to get your attention?

Social Interactionist Theory

focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes where language acquisition is driven by the child's desire to communicate in a social manner

Attribution theory

focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior

Social cognition

focuses on the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior

Altruism

form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at the cost to him or herself

Telencephalon

forms cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system

Diencephalon

forms thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland

general intelligence

foundational base of intelligence that supports more specialized abilities 5.2

Urban renewal

fueled by gentrification= when upper or middle class populations purchase and rennovate neighborhoods in deteriorated areas, displacing low-SES population

Adaptive

function of attitude that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed

Ego-expressive

function of attutude that allows us to communicate self identity such as wearing sports hat so you are identified as fan of the team

nodes of Ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath of the axons of the peripheral neurons; action potentials can jump from node to node; thus increasing the speed of conduction (saltatory conduction) 3.1

G factor

general intelligence

Network support

gives a person a sense of belonging

Just-world hypothesis

good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people

Display rules

govern which emotions can be expressed and to what degree

General personality disorder: Cluster B - Narcissistic personality disorder

grandiose sense of self-importance, preoccupation with fantasies of success, need for constant admiration and attention, feelings of entitlement

Group conformity

group holds power over its members, creating group pressure that ultimately shapes members' behaviors; individuals are compliant with the group's goals, even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to the individual's goals

Reference groups

groups that establish the terms by which individuals evaluate themselves

primary groups

groups that play a more important role in an individual's life (often meeting emotional needs); these groups are usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages with in person, in long-term, emotional ways 7.2

Ampulla

hair cells are located here in the semicircular canals

Cochlea is tonotopically organized

hair cells are vibrating gives the brain an indication of the pitch of sound

Somatic symptom disorder

have at least one somatic symptom which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition

Magnocellular cells

have very high temporal resolution but low spatial resolution so it can provide a blurry but moving image of an object

Adoption studies

helps understand environmental influences and genetic influence on behavior

executive functions

higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making 4.4

Fovea

highest concentration of cones

Bipolar cells

highlight gradients between adjacent rods or cones

melatonin

hormone produced by the pineal gland that affects sleep/wake cycles, and seasonal functions 4.3

Mate bias

how choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate

Spatial inequality

how geography influences social processes, unequal amounts of qualities or resources and services depending on the area or location, such as medical or welfare

Religiosity

how religious one considers him/her-self

Syntax

how words are put together to form sentences

Bipolar II disorder

hypomania with at least one major depressive episode

Sensory memory

iconic (visual) and (echoic) memory in which the memory lasts a very short time like under one second

Primacy effect

idea that first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions

Albert Bandura's Reciprocal determinism

idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation

Constancy

idea that we perceive certain characteristics of objects to remain the same, despite differences in the environment

Tectorial membrane

immobile membrane

spontaneous recovery

in classical conditioning a reoccurrence of a previously extinct conditioned response in the presence of a conditioned stimulus often occurs after a period of time has passed since the initial extinction of the response 5.1

generalization/ stimulus generalization

in classical conditioning, the process by which stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus also become conditioned stimuli that elicit the conditioned response 5.1

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the process of learning the association between a conditioned stimulus and response 5.1

extinction

in classical conditioning, the unpairing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, accomplished by introducing the conditioned stimulus repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus 5.1

punishment

in operant conditioning, a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated; types includes positive and negative punishment 5.1

shaping

in operant conditioning, the process of reinforcing intermediate proximal behaviors until a final desired behavior is achieved 5.1

confederates

in psychological and social research, a confederate is a person who is working with the experimenter and posing as a part of the experiment, but the subjects are not aware of this affiliation 7.2

sucking reflex

in response to anything touching the roof of the baby's mouth, it will begin to suck 5.3

tonic neck reflex

in response to its head being turned to one side, a baby will stretch out its arm on the same side and the opposite arm bends up at the elbow this reflex lasts about 6-7 months 5.3

palmar grasp reflex

in response to stroking a baby's palm, the baby's hand will grasp. This reflex lasts a few months 5.3

Babinski reflex

in response to the sole of the foot being stroked, a baby's big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other toes fan out 5.3

walking/ stepping reflex

in response to the soles of a baby's feet touching a flat surface, they will attempt to "walk" by placing one foot in front of the other this reflex disappears around 6 weeks and reappears around 8-12 months when a baby learns to walk 5.3

rooting reflex

in response to touching or stroking on of a baby's cheek, the baby will turn its head in the direction of the stroke and open its mouth to "root" for a nipple 5.3

dynamic equilibrium

in sociology, a dynamic equilibrium occurs when complex societies contain many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability 8.1

church

in sociology, a type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the political and economic structures of society, and attempts to provide an all-encompassing worldview for followers 8.2

postganglionic neuron

in the autonomic division of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in an autonomic ganglion (where a pre-ganglionic neuron synapses with it) and whose axon synapses with the target organ 3.4

preganglionic neuron

in the autonomic nervous system of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in the CNS and whose axon extends into the PNS to synapse with a second neuron at an autonomic ganglion (the second neuron's axon synapses with the target organ) 3.4

back stage

in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we can "let down our guard" and be ourselves, as opposed to the "front stage," where we are playing a role for others 7.3

front stage

in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people 7.3

Anterograde amensia

inability to form new memories

Dissociative amnesia

inability to recall past experiences, often linked to trauma Disociative fugue: sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one's home or location of usual daily ctivities

false memory

inaccurate memory created by the power of imagination of suggestion 4.3, 5.4

serial position effect

includes the primacy and recency effect; when information is presented serially in a list format, individuals are more likely to recall the first and the last items presented 5.4

Gross motor skills

incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion like sitting, crawling, and walking

reaction formation

individual deals with an objectionable impulse by behaving in a manner diametrically opposite to that impulse e.g. being super sweet to a group of girls you greatly despise

Trait theorists

individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors

Bystander effect

individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are present

depersonalization/derealization disorder

individuals feel detached from their own mind and body (depersonaliation) or from their surroundings (derealization)

Deindividuation

individuals in a group setting lose individual identity

Reliance on central trait

individuals tend to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that are most relevant to the perceiver

Self-serving bias/self-serving attribution bias

individuals view their own success based on internal factors while viewing failures based on external factors

Grasping reflex

infant closes his or her fingers around an object placed in his or her hand

Moro reflex

infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms then slowly retracting their arms and crying

long-term memory

information that is retained long-term, potentially indefinitely; it is believed to have an infinite capacity 5.4

language acquisition device

innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during sensitive developmental years in early childhood as hypothesized by Noam Chomsky 4.6

Freud - Instinct

innate psychological representation of a biological need Life instinct (Eros): promote individual's quest for survival through thirst, hunger, sexual need Death instinct (Thanatos): represent unconscious wish for death and destruction

Instinct Theory

innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli; people are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts

Bony labyrinth

inner ear bone

Membranous labyrinth

inner ear structures bathed with this potassium-rich fluid called endolymph

Primary group

interactions are direct with close bonds providing warm, personal, and intimate relationships to members, last long period of time,

Secondary group

interactions are superficial, with few emotional bonds, last short period of time

trait

internal, stable, and enduring aspects of personality that should be consistent across most situations 6.1

Michaelangelo phenomenon

interpersonal self: manner in which others influence creation of the ideal self

positive punishment

introduction of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behavior; tends to decrease the likelihood of that behavior 5.1

Nondominant sphere (Right)

intuition, creativity, muscle cognition, and spatial processing

Social capital

investments people make in society in return for rewards like through social networking

Fine motor skills

involve smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes, providing specific and delicate movement

nonverbal communication

involves all of the methods of communication that we use that do not include words 7.3

Social exclusion

involves the lack or denial of resources, rights, goods and services, and the inability to participate in the normal relationships and activities, available to the majority of people in a society, often problem of being impoverished

Prejudice

irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, prior to an actual experience with that entity

Class consciousness

is a term used in political theory, particularly Marxism, to refer to the beliefs that a person holds regarding their social class or economic rank in society, the structure of their class, and their class interests.

Relearning

is a way of measuring retention by measuring how much faster one relearns material that has been previously learned and then forgotten.

Halo effect

it is the tendency to allow a general impression about a person(I like judy) to influence other more specific evaluations about a person(judy is trustworthy, Judy can do no wrong)

cultural relativism

judging another culture based on its own cultural standards 7.2

repression

keeping that which is painful/anxiety producing from one's conscious mind

Labeling theory

labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also the person's self image

infantile amnesia

lack of explicit memory for events that occurred before the age of roughly 3.5 years, while people are unable to recall memories from this part of their life, learning and memory do still occur, the reason for infantile amnesia is unknown 5.3

avolition

lack of motivation or purpose

Dominant hemisphere (Left)

language, logic, and math skills

K complex

large and slow wave with a duration of a half-second that occurs in stage 2 sleep 4.3

Propaganda

large organizations and political groups attempt to create prejudices in others

Door-in-the-face technique

large request is made at first and if refused, a second and smaller request is made

nonassociative learning

learning that occurs in the absence of associating specific stimuli or events; two types are habituation and sensitization 5.1

Latent learning

learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced

latent learning

learning this takes place in the absence of any observable behavior to show that it has occurred; this learning can later manifest and be demonstrated as observable behavior when it is required (learning about cancer when your close family member has been diagnosed with it, even though you don't have to study it for a school test) 5.1

Prestige

level of respect shown to a person by others

Pons

lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and medulla

Anterior chamber

lies in front of the iris

Jung - Persona

likened to a mask that we wear in public

Long term memory

limitless warehouse for the knowledge that we are then able to recall on demand Elaborative rehearsal: information gets converted into long-term memory

Broca's area

located in front of inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe, controls motor function of speech via connections with the motor cortex

Wernicke's area

located in superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe; responsible for language comprehension

Olfactory chemoreceptors

located in the olfactory epithelium in upper part of nasal cavity

Parietal lobe: Somatosensory cortex

located on postcentral gyrus and involved in somatosensory information processing

Frontal lobe: Primary motor cortex

located on precentral gyrus (in front of central sulcus that divides frontal and parietal lobes) and initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward muscles

Ethnic enclaves

locations with high concentrations of one specific ethnicity

Stereocilia

long tufts on top of hair cells that sway back and forth causing the opening of ion channels Hair cells are connected to the tectorial membrane and the hair cells are involved in amplifying the incoming sound

Distant networks

looser and contain weaker ties, include acquaintances

Parkinson's disease (related to dopamine)

loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia where disruptions lead to resting tremors and jerky movements

Retrograde amnesia

loss of previously formed memories

Agnosia

loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds; caused by physical damage to the brain such as a stroke or MS

alpha waves

low amplitude, high frequency brain waves present in a relaxed state. the first indicator that a person is ready to drift off into sleep 4.3

Cerebellum

maintain posture and balance and coordinates body movements as well as speech

fundamentalism

maintenance of strict adherence to religious code instead of shifting towards rationality and scientific thinking

Bipolar I disorder

manic episodes with/without major depressive episode

General personality disorder: Cluster A - Paranoid

marked by pervasive distrust of others and suspicion regarding their motives and may be in prodromal phase of schizophrenia

biofeedback

means of recording and feeding back information about subtle autonomic responses to an individual in an attempt to train the individual to control previously involuntary responses (for example, muscle tension, heart rate, respiratory rate) 4.5

Inclusive fitness

measure of an organism's success in the population; based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, the ability of the offspring to then support others; promotes altruistic behavior which can improve fitness and success of a species as a whole

modeling

mechanism behind observational learning in which an observer sees a behavior being performed by another person; this model is utilized to allow the observer to later imitate the observer 5.1

Decay

memories are simply lost naturally over time as neurochemical trace of a short term memory fades

explicit (or declarative) memory

memories that can be consciously recalled, such as factual knowledge 5.4

semantic memory

memory for factual information 5.4

echoic memory

memory for sound, which lasts for about 3-4 seconds 5.4

Context effects

memory is aided by being in the physical located where encoding took place

Anterograde amnesia

memory loss characterized by not being able to establish new long-term memories whereas memory for events that occurred before brain injury is usually intact

Retrograde amnesia

memory loss of events that transpired before brain injury

Alzheimer's Disease

memory loss proceed in retrograde fashion with loss of recent memories before distant memories Associated with neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques Sundowning: increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening

chunking

memory technique in which information to be remembered is organized into discrete groups of data. This clustering allows more information to be remembered overall 5.4

short-term memory

memory that is limited in duration and in capacity 5.1, 5.4

schemas

mental frameworks/blueprints that shape and are shaped by experience 4.2, 5.4

availability heuristic

mental shortcut of making judgments on the frequency of something occurring based on how readily it is available in our memories 4.2

heuristics

mental shortcuts used for problem solving, using these sometimes sacrifices accuracy for speed 4.2

Biopsychosocial approach

method assumes there are biological, psychological, and social components to an individual's behavior

Organ of Corti

middle scala housing the actual hearing apparatus and composes of thousands of hair cells bathed in endolymph

meditation

mindfulness technique for training attention in a particular way; may involve intense focus on one object of attention or broad attention to a field of awareness 4.3

Threshold

minimum amount of a stimulus that renders a difference in perception

Absolute threshold

minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system

False consciousness

misperception of one's actual position in society. expounded by some Marxists for the way in which material, ideological, and institutional processes in capitalist society mislead members of the proletariat and other class actors.

spotlight model

model for visual attention, with a spotlight representing one's attention and its ability to unlock from a current target, move focus, and lock onto a new target 4.1

attenuation model of selective attention

model of selective attention in which the mind has an attenuator, like a volume knob, that can tune up inputs to be attended and tune down unattended inputs, rather than totally eliminating them. Accounts for the cocktail party effect 4.2

elaboration likelihood model

model that explains when people may be persuaded by just the content of an argument, and when they may be persuaded by more superficial characteristics such as the appearance of the person delivering the message or the length of the argument 5.2

information processing models

models for cognition that assume that information form the environment is processed by our computer-like minds through a series of steps including: attention, perception, and storage into memory 4.2

Opiates

morphine and codeine Opioids: oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin

insomnia

most common sleep disorder characterized by difficult falling or staying asleep 4.3

fundamental movement skills

movement patterns that involve different body parts. They are the foundation movements or precursor patterns to the more specialized, complex skills used in play, games, sports, dance, gymnastics, outdoor education and physical recreation. (Autistic children have the ability to master these)

ciliary muscle

muscle that helps focus light on the retina by controlling the curvature of the lens of the eye 3.5

white matter

myelinated axons 3.4

Strain theory

natural reaction to the disconnect between social goals and social structure (ex. American dream hard to acquire because education/opportunity not available to all)

Primary drives

need for food, water, and warmth, which motivate us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis

Self-enhancement

need to maintain self-worth and can be done through internal attribution of successes and external attribution of failures

Push factors

negative attributes of the old location that encourage the immigrant to leave

social exclusion

negative impact of poverty in which low SES individuals are excluded from mainstream society & social benefits. They may also resort to crimes/rebel to meet their basic needs.

feral children

neglected/abandoned children who grow up without human contact/care. Much of our knowledge about socialization comes from these individuals who were not socialized 7.1

Mirror neurons

neurons are located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs an action and hen that individual observes someone else performing that action

mirror neurons

neurons that fire when a particular behavior or emotion is observed in another; may be responsible for vicarious emotions and a foundation for empathy 5.1

acetylcholine (ACh)

neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction, throughout the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), and by the pre-ganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) 3.2

mores

norms that are highly important for the benefit of of society and so are often strictly enforced, mores are general (but not always) formal norms 7.1

folkways

norms that are more informal, yet shape everyday behavior (style of dress, ways of greeting, etc.) 7.1

Folkway

norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions such as shaking hands after a sports match

Karen Horney - Object relations Theory

object refers to representation of parents or other caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infanc; objects prsist into adulthood and impact our interactions with others

Phenotypic benefits

observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex; traits indicate increased production and survival of offspring

OCD

obsessions: persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses Compulsions: repetitive tasks that relieve tension but cause significant impairment in a person's life

Primary socialization

occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of our parents and other adults in close

penis envy

occurs during phallic stage (the 3rdof Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a female realizes she does not have a penis 6.1

projective identification

occurs in close relationships, where one person induces feelings/impulses which are viewed as unacceptable in the other person

role-strain

occurs when a single status results in conflicting expectation, e.g. a homosexual man may feel pressure to avoid being "too gay" and also "not gay enough" 7.3

amalgamation

occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group 7.1

Groupthink

occurs when members begin to focus solely on ideas generated within the group while ignoring outside ideas; may limit to group's options or views

Retroactive interference

occurs when newly acquired information causes us to have trouble remembering old information.

retrograde amnesia

occurs when one is unable to recall information that was previously encoded 5.4

self-reporting bias

occurs when subjects skew their responses often to impress/appease researchers

Neurulation

occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds

overgeneralization

occurs when the individual comes to a conclusion based on one episode or bit of evidence; e.g. the subject has recently experienced a single episode of insomnia and consequently believes he or she is prone to suffering from it in the future

role conflict

occurs when there is a conflict in the society-s expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person, e.g. 'male' and 'nurse' 7.3

false consensus

occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do (even though they may not) 7.2

projection bias

occurs when we assume that others have the same feelings we do due to our tendency to look for similarities between ourselves and others 7.2

gender bias in medicine

occurs when women and men receive different treatment for the same disease or illness 8.4

double-blind study

of or relating to an experiment or clinical trial in which neither the subjects nor the researchers know which subjects are receiving the active medication, treatment, etc., and which are not a technique for eliminating subjective bias from the test results.

SES (socioeconomic status)

often defined in terms of: •power (the ability to get other people to do something), •property (sum of possessions and income), •and prestige (reputation in society), because these three concepts tend to (but not always) be related in the US society 8.4

Reversed attribution bias

often seen in depressed people; viewing their successes as caused by external factors and failures as caused by internal factors

Proactive interference

old information is interfering with new learning (ex. moved to a new address and had trouble recalling individual pieces of the new address)

Resocialization

one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change and can have positive/negative connotations

acculturation

one group adopts the behavior and cultural patterns of another after the two have made contact

Empathy-altruism hypothesis

one helps another person when feeling empathetic regardless of the cost

Schwann cells

one of the 2 peripheral nervous system supporting (glial) cells; they form the myelin sheathe on the axons of peripheral neuron 3.1

sleep cycle

one of these consists of the progression through sleep stages 1-4 in sequence followed by an ascension from 4 back to 1 and then a transition into REM sleep; typically takes about 90 min 4.3

Adaptation

one way the mind and body try to focus attention on only the most relevant stimuli, which are usually changes in the environment around us

self-esteem

one's overall self-evaluation of one's self-worth 7.1

Rods

only allow sensation of light and dark because they all contain a single pigment called rhodopsin

coercive organizations

organization in which members do not have a choice in joining 7.3

Identification

outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally taking on these ideas

stereotypes

oversimplified ideas about groups of people, based on characteristics (race, gender, sexual orientation. religion, disability) can be positive or negative 7.2

acting out

overt expression of unconscious emotions and impulses without insightful understanding of one's behavior

nociceptors

pain receptors found everywhere in the body except the brain 3.5

authoritarian parenting

parenting style in which parents impose strict rules that are expected to be followed unconditionally in an attempt to control children. this style is demanding and often relies on punishment 5.3

permissive parenting

parenting style that creates few rules and demands and little discipline; parents are warm and loving to their children, but very lenient and allow their children to be in charge 5.3

authoritative parenting

parenting style that places limits on behavior and consistently follows through on consequences, but also expresses warmth and nurturing and allows for two-way communication between parents and children 5.3

episodic buffer

part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that interacts with information in long-term memory 4.2

central executive

part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that oversees the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer. Responsible for shifting and dividing attention 4.2

phonological loop

part of Alan Baddely's model of working memory that allows for the repetition of verbal information to aid with encoding it into memory 4.2

Knowledge

part of functional attitudes theory, it provides consistency and stability

General personality disorder: Cluster B - Antisocial

pattern of disregard for and violations of rights of others; illegal acts, aggressiveness, lack of remorse for said action

General personality disorder: Cluster A - Schizotypal

pattern of odd or eccentric thinking; have ideas of reference (delusions of reference) and magical thinking (superstitious or clairvoyance)

cultural universals

patterns or traits that are common to all people; tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs, such as securing good and shelter, and also pertain to events that every human experiences, including: birth, death, and illness 8.3

Strong ties

peer group and kinship contacts which are quantitatively small but qualitatively powerful

Sanctions

penalties for misconduct can be used to maintain social control and often include fines or incarceration

Stereotype threat

people being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group

Correspondent inference theory

people pay closer attention to intentional behavior than accidental beavior when making attributions especially if the behavior is unexpected

Mere exposure effect/familiarity effect

people prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently (ex. first hearing a song you hate, but after hearing it many more times, you like it)

Social facilitation

people tend to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others

Self-presentation/Impression management

people use specific strategies to shape what others will think of them

aggregate

people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity 7.2

peripheral route processing

people who focus on superficial details such as appearance of person delivering the argument, catchphrases, slogans

fundamentalists

people who observe strict adherence to religious beliefs 8.2

category

people who share similar characteristics but are not otherwise tied together as a group 7.2

Cultural relativism

perception of another culture as different from one's own, but with recognition that the cultural values, mores, and rules of a culture fit into that of culture itself; just perceives other culture as different, not bad

Law of pragnanz

perceptual organization will always be regular, simple, and symmetric

General personality disorder: Cluster C - Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

perfectionistic and inflexible, tends to like rules and order not same as OCD because OCPD is life long while OCD is acquired

Projection areas

perform simple perceptual and motor tasks

Major depressive disorder

period of two weeks with at least five of following symptoms: 1. prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood 2. loss of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities (anhedonia) 3. appetite disturbances 4. substantial weight changes 5. sleep disturbances 6. decreased energy 7. feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt 8. difficulty concentrating or thinking 9. psychomotor symptoms (slowing down) 10. thoughts of death or attempts at suicide

Dysthymia

persistent depressive disorder where depressed mood isn't severe enough to meet criteria of major depressive episode; most of the time for at least two years

Generalized anxiety disorder

persistent worry about many different things for at least six months; is often accompanied by physical symptoms

Body dysmorphic disorder

person has unrealistic negative evaluation of his or her personal appearance and attractiveness

William Sheldon's Somatotypes

personality types based on body types Type A: competitive and compulsive Type B laid-back and relaxed

General personality disorder: Cluster B - Borderline personality disorder

pervasive instability in terpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image; profound identity disturbance with uncertainty about self-image, sexual identity, long-term goals, or values; may use splitting (all good or all bad mentality) Suicide and elf-mutilation are common

General personality disorder: Cluster A - Schizoid

pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and restricted range of emotional expression NOTE: Schizotypal and schizoid are not the same as schizophrenia

cocktail party effect

phenomenon of information of personal importance from previously unattended channels "catching" one's attention 4.1

cones

photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to bright light and provide color vision 3.5

rods

photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to dim light and provide us with black and white vision 3.5

Semantic encoding

place meaningful context to how we encode information Semantic encoding is the strongest encoding and visual encoding is the weakest

Serotonin

play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming Oversupply of serotonin produce manic states while undersupply is thought to produce depression

Dopamine

plays important role in movement and posture where high concentrations are normally found in the basal ganglia which help smooth movements and maintain postural stability

Vestibule

portion of the bony labyrinth that contains the utricle and saccule sensitive to linear acceleration

Statuses

positions in society that are used to classify individual

Learning theory

posits that attitudes are developed through different forms of learning such as direct contact, influence from friends, parents, etc.

Social cognitive theory

postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others

Ethnocentrism

practice of making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture

Carl Rogers

practices client-centered, person-centered, or non-directive therapy Rogers believed people have the freedom to control their own behavior and are neither slaves to the unconscious or subjects of faulty learning

Gestalt therapy (humanistic)

practitioners take a holistic view of the self, seeing individual as complete person

Ageism

prejudice or discrimination of the basis of a person's age

racism

prejudices and discriminatory actions that are based on race (or ethnicity), or hold that one race/ethnicity is inferior to another 7.2

Urban decay

previously functional portion of a city deteriorates and becomes decrepit over time

meaningful encoding principle

principle that states that experts use prior knowledge in the encoding of new domain-specific information

Anticipatory socialization

process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships (ex. marriage)

Cultural assimilation

process by which an individual's or group's behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group, mean that groups with different cultures begin to merge into one

classical conditioning

process in which two stimuli are paired in a way that changes a response to one of them 5.1

Confabulation

process of creating vivid but fabricated memories and thought to be an attempt made by the brain to fill in the gaps of missing memories

Retrieval/recall

process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained

Observational learning

process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others

Secondary socialization

process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society; occurs outside of home and is based on learning the rules of specific social environments

associative learning

process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another. Two general categories include classical and operant conditioning 5.1

Recognition

process of merely identifying a piece of information that has been previously learned

Encoding

process of putting new information into memory

Shaping

process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors

Adrenal cortex

produces corticosteroids such as cortisol

GABA

produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and play role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain GABA exerts its effects by causing hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membrane

Choroid and ciliary body

produces the aqueous humor that bates the front part of the eye before draining into the canal of Schlemm

Indirect benefits

promoting better survival in offspring

encoding specificity principle

proposed by researchers Thomson and Tulving states that memory is most effective when information available at encoding is also present at retrieval; explains why a subject is able to recall a target word as part of an unrelated word pair at retrieval with much more accuracy when prompted with the unrelated word than if presented with a semantically related word that was not available during encoding

Vygotsky Cultural and Biosocial Development

proposed the engine driving cognitive development is the child's internalization of his or her culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language. As child develops, help from adults or other children can develop skills further

Gate theory of pain

proposes that there is a special "gating" mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, affecting whether or not we perceive pain

Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

provides signals to stop eating

Informational support

providing information that will help someone

Racial formation theory

racial identity is fluid and dependent on concurrent political, economic, and social factors

Delirium

rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes; can be caused by electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, etc.

Bureaucracy

rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control with characteristics such as paid, non-elected officials on a fixed salary, regular salary increases, seniority, etc.

Priming

recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory

Amacrine and horizontal cells

receive input from multiple retinal cells in the same area before the information is passed on to ganglion cells Accentuate slight differences between the visual information in each bipolar cell and important for edge detection

Midbrain (mesencephalon)

receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body

electroencephalogram (EEG)

recording of electrical impulses in the brain 4.3

electrooculogram (EOG)

recording of eye movements 4.3

electromyogram (EMG)

recording of skeletal muscle movements 4.3

McDonaldization

refer to a shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculabiity, and control in societies

Consistency cues

refer to consistent behavior of a person over time; the more regular the behavior, the more we associate that behavior with the motives of the person

Distinctiveness cues

refer to extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios; likely to form situational attribution to explain it

Concordance rates

refer to the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait

stereotype threat

refers to a self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype 7.2

Mass hysteria

refers to a shared, intense concern about the threats to society

Urbanization

refers to dense areas of population creating a pull for migration

Nonverbal communication

refers to how people communicate, intentionally, or unintentionally, without words such as facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, etc.

Individual discrimination

refers to one person discriminating against a particular person or group

Kinesthetic sense or proprioception

refers to the ability to tell where one's body is in space

Institutional discrimination

refers to the discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution

Difference threshold/JND

refers to the minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference

Two-point threshold

refers to the minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli

Subliminal perception

refers to the perception of a stimulus below a given threshold

Response bias

refers to the tendency of subjects to systematically respond to a stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensory factors

Attitude: affective

refers to the way a person feelings toward something and emotional component of attitude (ex. snakes scare me)

institutional discrimination

refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives (e.g. laws and decisions that reflect racism, such as the Plessy vs. Ferguson U.S. Supreme Court case. The verdict of this case ruled in favor of separate but equal public facilities between African Americans and non-African Americans.) 7.2

Broca's area

region of the brain located in the left hemisphere of the frontal lobe. Involved with speech production. Damage to this part of the brain results in Broca's aphasia, where individuals know what they want to say but are unable to express it verbally 4.6

pineal gland

region of the brain responsible for the production of melatonin: a hormone that influences sleep/wake cycles and seasonal functions 4.3

Homeostasis

regulation of internal environment to maintain an optimal, stable set of conditions; homeostasis contains negative feedback loops

Variable-ratio Schedule

reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior, but the average number of performances to receive the reward is relatively constant FASTEST response rate

Variable-interval Schedule

reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time

Fixed-ratio Schedule

reinforce behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior Continuous reinforcement: fixed-ratio schedule in which behavior is rewarded every time it is performed

Fixed-interval Schedule

reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed

fixed-interval schedule

reinforcement schedule in which a reward is offered after a set period of time has passed 5.1

fixed-ratio schedule

reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after a set number of instances of a behavior 5.1

variable-ratio schedule

reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after an unpredictable number of occurrences of a behavior 5.1

variable-interval schedule

reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after an unpredictable time interval 5.1

Consensus cues

relate to extent to which a person's behavior differs from others; likely to form dispositional attribution about person's behavior

Attribution theory: situational (external)

relate to features of the surroundings, such as threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure ex. friend nominated for academic reward, you believe it is due to luck

Attribution theory: dispositional (internal)

relate to the person whose behavior is being considered including their beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics ex. friend nominated for academic reward, you believe it is because she is hard working

Drug addiction

related to mesolimbic reward pathway including nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, and connected by medial forebrain bundle This pathway involved with motivation and emotional response as well as positive reinforcement and substance use

Psychophysics

relationship between the physical nature of stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they evoke

posterior pituitary

release ADH and oxytocin

Adrenal medulla

releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of the sympathetic nervous system

Depth perception

rely on monocular and binocular cues

prospective memory

remembering to do something in the future 5.4

Esteem support

reminding someone of the skills they possess to tackle a problem can bolster their confidence

Maintenance rehearsal

repetition of a piece of information to keep it within working memory or store it into short-term then long term memory

Lowball technique

requester will get an initial commitment from an individual then raise the cost of the commitment (ex. boss ask you to head committee with a time commitment of five hours per month of meetings; you agreed to head the committee, but discover there are written reports and presentations required as well)

Merkle cells

respond to deep pressure and texture

Pacinian corpuscles

respond to deep pressure and vibration

Meissner corpuscles

respond to light touch

Free nerve endings

respond to pain and temperature

Ruffini endings

respond to stretch

Osmoreceptors

respond to the osmolarity of the blood

social reciprocity

responding to a kind or generous action with another kind or generous action

Duplexity or duplicity theory of vision

retina contains two kinds of photoreceptors: light and dark detection and color detection

Serial position effect

retrieval cue that appears while learning lists; higher recall for the first few and last few items on the list

Interference

retrieval error caused by the existence of other information

recognition

retrieving information from memory with the use of cues such as a multiple choice format 4.2, 5.4

recall

retrieving information from memory; free recall involves retrieval without any cues, whereas cued recall prompts retrieval with a cue 4.2, 5.4

positive reinforcement

reward immediately following a behavior; tends to increase the frequency of that behavior; e.g. praise 5.1

sanctions

rewards and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms 7.1

Vestibular sense

rotational and linear acceleration

Acute stress disorder

same PTSD symptoms last for less than one month (but more than three days)

Pheromones

secreted by one person or animal and once bonded with chemoreceptors, compel or urge another to behave in a specific way

Pineal gland

secrets melatonin and receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight

Foraging

seeking out and eating food driven by biological, psychological, and social influences

Inductive reasoning (Bottom-up)

seeks to create a theory via generalizations; starts with specific instances and draw a conclusion from them

Mate choice/intersexual selection

selection of a mate based on attraction

Reference group

self-concept depends on whom we are comparing ourselves to

hair cells

sensory receptors found in the inner ear, cochlear hair cells respond to vibrations in the cochlea caused by sound waves, and vestibular hair cells respond to changes in position and acceleration used for balance 3.5

Role

set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms that define expectations for those who hold the status

Parvocellular cells

shape is detected by parvocellular cells which have very high color spatial resolution and permit us to see very fine detail but have low temporal resolution

Cultural syndrome

shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme

working memory

short term memory for information in immediate awareness according to Alan Baddeley, working memory consists of 4 components: •a central executive •a phonological loop •a visuospatial sketchpad •an episodic buffer 4.2

Indicator trait

signify overall good health and wellbeing of an organism which increases its attractiveness to mates

acute stress disorder

similar to PTSD, but symptoms are present for less than a month and for as little as three days

Cognitive dissonance

simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions

state

situational factors that can influence personality and behavior states are unstable, temporary, and variable 6.1

narcolepsy

sleep disorder in which the individual experiences periodic overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last less than 5 minutes 4.3

sleep apnea

sleep disorder in which the individual intermittently stops breathing during sleep and may wake up gasping for breath 4.3

somnambulism

sleepwalking 4.3

A-delta fibers

smaller diameter, less myelin

Weak ties

social connections that are personally superficial but are large in number and provide connections to a wide range of other individuals (ex. social media)

Peer pressure

social influence placed on an individual by a group of people or another individual

Proactive

social movements that promote social change

Reactive

social movements that resist social change (ex. white supremacist movement)

Groupthink

social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision

Ascribed status

socioeconomic status determined by external characteristics or outward appearances (skin color, gender, age)

Ethnicity

sorts people by cultural factors such as language, nationality, religion, and other factors One can choose whether or not to display ethnic identity, while racial identities are always on display

Conduction aphasia

speech production and comprehension are intact but patient unable to repeat something that has been said because connection has been lost

Cultural diffusion

spread of norms, customs, and beliefs throughout the culture

resource model of attention

states that attention is a limited resource if multiple tasks do not exceed this limit, they can be done simultaneously; if they do, then they interfere with each other and are difficult to do simultaneously 4.1

Functional attitudes theory

states that attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense

Iron law of obligarchy

states that democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group

Expectancy-value Theory

states that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success in reaching the goal and degree to which he or she value suceeding at the goal

Implicit personality theory

states that there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related

Weber's law

states that there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a JND and the magnitude of the original stimulus

Cognitive neoassociation model

states that we are more likely to respond to others agressively whenever we are feeling negative emotions, such as being tired, sick, frustrated, or in pain

Master status

status by which a person is most identified

achieved status

statuses that are considered to be due largely to an individual's efforts 7.3

Long-term potentiation

stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase, increasing receptor density

trial and error

strategy of problem-solving that involves trying different alternatives sequentially until success is achieved 4.2

nucleus accumbens

structure located in the brain stem and part of the dopaminergic reward pathway; releases dopamine in response to many drugs contributing to addictive behavior 4.3

Morphology

structure of words

hypnotism

structured social interaction in which an individual is instructed to focus attention a particular way, relax, and let go, individuals that have gone through this may be more susceptible to accepting suggestions 4.3

behavioral genetics

study of the role of inheritance in interacting with experience to determine an individual's personality and behaviors 5.2

insecure attachment

style of relating to others that forms when an infant has caregivers who are inconsistently responsive or unresponsive to needs; in Ainsworth's experiments, these infants were found to be less likely to explore their surroundings in the presence of their mother; they may be extremely upset or demonstrate indifference when the mother returned to the room 5.3

Counterculture

subculture group gravitates toward identity that is at odds with the majority culture and deliberately opposes the prevailing social mores

insight learning

sudden flash of inspiration that provides a solution to a problem; the aha moment where previously learned ideas or behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways 4.2, 5.1

dopamine hypothesis

suggest that the pathway for the NT dopamine is hyperactive in people with schizophrenia

stress-diatheses theory

suggests that while genetic inheritance provides a biological predisposition of schizophrenia, stressors elicit the onset of the disease

temporal summation

summation by a postsynaptic cell of input (EPSPs or IPSPs) from a single source over time 3.2

Choroidal vessels

supplies nutrients to the eye

Perilymph

suspends inner ear membranous labyrinth

Cultural lag

symbolic culture is slower to change than material culture

Interaction process analysis

technique for observing, classifying, and measuring the interactions within small groups

Group polarization

tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group Risky shift: group makes riskier decisions than individuals Choice shift: groups shift toward caution

Social loafing

tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually

Mental set

tendency to approach similar problems in the same way

Overconfidence

tendency to erroneously interpret one's decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible

oral stage

the 1st Freud's 5 psychosexual stages; in this stage, the child seeks sensual pleasure through oral activities such as sucking and chewing 6.1

ossicles

the 3 small bones found in the middle ear (malleus, incus, and stapes) that help to amplify the vibrations from the sound waves; the malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and the stapes is attached to the oval window of the cochlea 3.5

latency stage

the 4th of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages; in this stage, sexual interest subsides and is replaced by interests in other areas such as school, friends, and sports 6.1

social cognition

the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception 7.2

divided attention

the ability to focus on multiple tasks simultaneously 4.1

empathy

the ability to identify with others' emotions 7.3

social mobility

the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system 8.4

social perception

the ability to understand others in our social world; the initial information we process about other people in order to try and understand their mindsets and intentions 7.2

retention interval

the amount of time elapsed since information was learned and when it must be recalled 5.4

crude death rate

the annual number of deaths per thousand people in a population 8.3

crude birth rate

the annual number of live births per thousand people in a population 8.3

general fertility rate

the annual number of live births per thousand women of child-bearing age within the population 8.3

Wernicke's area

the area of the brain located in the posterior section of the temporal lobe in the language-dominant hemisphere of the brain (left for most people) involved with the comprehension of speech and written language individuals with damage to this area are unable to understand language and produce nonsensical sounds with the same rhythm and syntax as speech 4.6

visual cortex

the area of the occipital lobe responsible for processing visual information 3.5

auditory cortex

the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information 3.5

neuron

the basic functional and structural unit of the nervous system; it is a highly specialized cell designed to transmit action potentials 3.1

self-efficacy

the belief in one's own competence and effectiveness 7.1

internal locus of control

the belief of an individual that she is able to influence outcomes through her own efforts and actions 7.1

optimism bias

the belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us 7.2

external locus of control

the belief that once does not have control over outcomes, but they are controlled by outside forces 7.1

self-schemas

the beliefs and ideas people have about themselves 7.1

race

the biological, anthropological, or genetic origin of an individual, and includes the following U.S. census categories: •white, •black or African American, •American Indian or Alaska Native, •Asian, •and Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander 8.3

optic disk

the blind spot of the eye; this is where the axons of ganglion cells exit the retina to form the optic nerve; there are no photoreceptors here 3.5

iconic memory

the brief photographic memory for visual information which decays in a few tenths of a second 5.4

fluid intelligence

the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge; it involves the ability to identify patterns and relationships that underpin novel problems and to extrapolate these findings using logic.

adjustment disorder

the causes include stressor as opposed to trauma the symptoms last less than six months once the stressor has been eliminated

soma

the cell body of a neuron 3.1

thalamus

the central structure of the diencephalon of the brain acts as a relay station and major integrating area of sensory impulses 3.4

telencephalon

the cerebral hemispheres 3.4

cornea

the clear portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball, found over the iris and the pupil 3.5

beliefs

the convictions or principles that people within a culture hold 8.2

cochlea

the curled structure in the inner ear that contains the membranes and hair cells used to transduce sound waves into action potentials 3.5

choroid

the darkly-pigmented middle layer of the eyeball, found between the sclera (outer layer) and the retina (inner layer) 3.5

mortality

the death rate in a population 8.3

face validity

the degree to which a procedure, especially a psychological test or assessment, appears effective in terms of its stated aims to a casual observer, the transparency or relevance of a test as it appears to the test participants

construct validity

the degree to which a test actually measures what it claims (purports) to be measuring, the appropriateness of inferences made on the basis of observations or measurements (often test scores), specifically whether a test measures the intended variable

illness anxiety disorder

the distress is predominantly psychological, people experience persistent preoccupation with both their health condition and health-related behaviors, including seeking treatment

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the division of the peripheral nervous system that innervates and controls the visceral organs (everything but the skeletal muscles). It is also known as the involuntary nervous system and can be subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches 3.4

integrity vs. despair

the eighth and final of Erik Erikson's developmental stages; involves the person's need to look back on life; if he or she regrets their life and lacks personal worth, they may feel hopeless, guilty, resentful, and self-rejecting

social facts

the elements that serve some function in society such as laws, morals, values, religions, customs, rituals, and roles that make up a society 8.1

incongruity

the emotional result when the real self falls short of the ideal self 7.1

acetylcholinesterase

the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft 3.2

religiosity

the extent that religion influences a person's life 8.2

global inequality

the extent to which income and wealth is distributed in an uneven manner among the world's population 8.4

bystander effect

the fact that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other people around 7.2

source traits

the factors underlying human personality and behavior 6.1

identity vs. role confusion

the fifth of Erik Erikson's developmental stages; involves the adolescent's need to test limits and clarify his or her identity, goals, and life meaning; if not met, he or she may develop role confusion

trust vs. mistrust

the first of Erik Erikson's developmental stages; involves the infant's physical and emotion needs; if not met, as an adult he or she may mistrust the world and interpersonal relationships

basilar membrane

the flexible membrane in the cochlea that supports the organ of Corti (the structure that contains the hearing receptors). The fibers of the basilar membrane are short and stiff near the oval window and long and flexible near the apex of the cochlea. This difference in structure helps the basilar membrane to transduce pitch 3.5

industry vs. inferiority

the fourth of Erik Erikson's developmental stages; involves the school-age child's needs to understand the world, develop a gender-role identity, succeed in school, and set and attain personal goals; if not met, he or she may feel inadequate as an adult

reinforcement schedule

the frequency and regularity with which rewards are offered; they can be based on: •a number of target behaviors (ratio) •or on a time interval (interval); types include: •fixed-ratio, •variable-ratio, •fixed-interval, •and variable-interval 5.1

urbanization

the growth of urban areas (as people move from rural to urban areas) as the result of global change tied to industrialization, and industrialized countries have more people living in urban areas than non-industrialized countries do 8.3

Lateral hypothalamus (LH)

the hunger center because it has special receptors thought to detect when the body needs more food or fluids

looking-glass self

the idea that a person's sense of self develops from impersonal interactions with others in society and the perception of others; according to this idea, people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them 7.1

principle of aggregation

the idea that an attitude affects a person's aggregate or average behavior, but cannot necessarily predict each isolated act 6.4

depth of processing

the idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered 5.4

Teacher expectancy

the idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students

social behaviorism

the idea that the mind and the self emerge through the process of communicating with others 7.1

absolute poverty

the inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities: •clean drinking water •food •safe housing •reliable access to healthcare 8.4

sensory memory

the initial recording of sensory information in the memory system; it is a very brief snapshot that quickly decays 5.4

retina

the innermost layer of the eyeball; it is made up of photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and a layer of ganglion cells 3.5

summation

the integration of input (EPSPs and IPSPs) from many presynaptic neurons by a single postsynaptic neuron either temporally or spatially summation of input can either stimulate the postsynaptic neuron and possible lead to an action potential or it can inhibit the neuron. reducing the likelihood of an action potential 3.2

manifest function

the intended or obvious consequences of a social structure 8.1

corpus callosum

the largest bundle of white matter (axons) connecting the two cerebral hemispheres 3.4

organic amnesia

the loss of memory due to biological factors such as: •brain disorders, •tumors, •strokes, •degenerative diseases, •or any other of a multitude of other disruptions of neurological function

belief perseverance

the maintenance of beliefs even in the face of evidence to the contrary 4.2

oval window

the membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear 3.5

representativeness heuristic

the mental shortcut where one judges the likelihood of things based on typical mental representations or examples of those things 4.2

mere presence

the most basic level of interaction between individuals; when people are simply in each other's presence either completing similar activities or just minding their own business 7.2

Alzheimer's Disease

the most prevalent form of dementia, characterized behaviorally by an inability to form new memories, known as anterograde amnesia 6.3

Recency effect

the most recent information we have about an individual that is the most important in forming our impressions

depolarization

the movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from the resting potential to a more positive membrane potential 3.1

optic nerve

the nerve extending from the back of the eyeball to the brain that carries visual information; it is made up of the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina 3.5

norepinephrine (NE)

the neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system at the post-ganglionic organ-level (synapse) 3.2

cultural capital

the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility Knowledge, skills, education, and similar characteristics that are used to make social distinctions and that are associated with different social status 8.4

personality

the nuanced and complex individual patterns of thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with each person 6.1

replacement level fertility

the number of children that a woman or couple must have in order to replace the number of people in the population who die 8.3

life expectancy

the number of years that an individual of a certain age can expect to life at present mortality rates 8.3

phenotype

the observable characteristics and traits of an organism 5.2

master status

the one status that dominates the other statuses and determines that individual's general position in society (e.g. occupation, disability, role, etc) 7.3

effector

the organ that carries out the command sent along a particular motor neuron 3.3

adrenal cortex

the outer region of the adrenal gland. produces cortisol in response to long-term (chronic) stress produces aldosterone in response to low BP or low blood osmolarity 3.6

scapegoat

the people or group who are unfairly blamed for something, or at whom displaced aggression is directed 7.2

social support

the perception that one is cared for and part of a social network; supportive resources can be tangible or emotional 7.3

relative refractory period

the period of time following an action potential, when it is possible, but difficult, for the neuron to fire a second action potential, due to the fact that the membrane is further from threshold potential (hyperpolarized) 3.2

conformity

the phenomenon of adjusting behavior or thinking based on the behavior or thinking of others 7.2

social facilitation effect

the phenomenon that describes how people tend to perform simple well-learned tasks better when other people are present 7.2

group polarization

the phenomenon where groups tend to intensify the pre-existing views of their members until the average view is more extreme than it initially was 7.2

social loafing

the phenomenon where people tend to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable 7.2

Beneficence

the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest

hypophysis

the pituitary gland 3.6

healthcare disparities

the population-specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and qualities of healthcare in different social groups 8.4

midbrain

the portion of the brain responsible for visual and auditory startle reflexes 3.4

outer ear

the portion of the ear consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal; it is separated from the middle ear by the tympanic membrane (eardrum) 3.5

diencephalon

the portion of the forebrain that includes the thalamus and hypothalamus 3.4

medulla oblongata

the portion of the hind brain that controls respiratory rate and blood pressure and specialized digestive and respiratory functions such as vomiting, sneezing, and coughing 3.4

social capital

the potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility 8.4

endogamy

the practice of marrying within a particular group 8.2

mindguarding

the pressure to conform within a group causes individuals to censor their own opinions in favor of consensus which creates an illusion of unanimity When some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating the group by filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group This tends to lead to groupthink 7.2

estrogen

the primary female sex hormone. It stimulates the development of the female secondary sex characteristics during puberty, maintains those characteristics during adulthood, stimulates the development of new uterine lining after menstruation, and stimulates mammary gland development during pregnancy 3.6

retrieval structure principle

the principle which states that experts develop memory mechanisms (called retrieval structure) to facilitate the retrieval of information stored in the long-term memory; these mechanisms operate in a fashion consistent with the meaningful encoding principle to provide cues that can be later regenerated to retrieve stored information effectively without a lengthy search

integrative reminiscence

the process by which older people may take stock of their lives and come to terms with previously unresolved conflicts

selective attention

the process by which one input is selected to focus on out of the field of possibilities in the environment 4.1

avoidance learning

the process by which one learns to perform a behavior in order to ensure that a negative or aversive stimulus will not be present 5.1

language acquisition

the process by which the infants learn to understand and speak their native language 4.6

assimilation

the process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture. Generally, this individual is a member of a minority group who is attempting to conform to the culture of the dominant group 7.1

informational social influence

the process of complying because we want to do the right thing and we feel like "others know something I don't know" 7.2

role exit

the process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one's self-identity to take on a new role 7.3

relearning

the process of learning material that was originally learned 5.4

encoding

the process of transferring sensory information into the memory system 5.4

socialization

the process through which people learn to be proficient members of a society; a lifelong process where people learn the attitudes, values, and beliefs that are reinforced by a particular culture 7.1

meninges

the protective connective tissue wrappings of the CNS (dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater) 3.4

cerebellum

the region of the brain that coordinates and smooths skeletal muscle activity 3.4

negative reinforcement

the removal of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behavior; tends to increase the frequency of that behavior 5.1

negative punishment

the removal of a positive or rewarding stimulus following a behavior; tends to decrease the likelihood of that behavior 5.1

deception

the research equivalent of lying to participants, frequently used to mislead participants so that they do not learn what the actual purpose of the research may be

dishabituation

the restoration to full strength of a response to a stimulus that had previously become weakened through habituation 5.1

autonomy vs. shame and doubt

the second of Erik Erikson's developmental stages; involves the toddlers need to explore, make mistakes, and test limits; if not met, as an adult he or she may be dependent rather than autonomous

anal stage

the second of Freud's five psychosexual stages the child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination 6.1

residential segregation

the separation of groups into different neighborhoods, which most often occurs due to racial differences, ethnic differences, and/or socioeconomic differences; it is NOT based on laws, but rather enduring social patterns, which are attributed to sub-urbanization, discrimination, and personal preferences 8.4

generativity vs. stagnation

the seventh of Erik Erikson's developmental stages; involves the person's need to feel productive by helping the next generation and resolving differences between actual accomplishments and earlier dreams; if not met, he or she may become stuck in psychological stagnation

intimacy vs. isolation

the sixth of Erik Erikson's development stages; involve the young adult's need to form intimate relationships; if not met, he or she may become alienated and isolated

social identity

the social definition of self including race, religion, gender, occupation, and the like 7.1

organ of Corti

the structure in the cochlea of the inner ear made up of: •the basilar membrane, •the auditory hair cells, •and the tectorial membrane; the Organ of Corti is the site where auditory sensation is detected and transduced to action potentials 3.5

social reproduction

the structures and activities in a place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one generation to the next; cultural capital and social capital are two mechanisms by which social reproduction occurs 8.4

sociobiology

the study of how biology and evolution have effected human social behavior, primarily it applies Darwin's principle of natural selection to social behavior, suggesting there is a biological basis for many behaviors 8.3

sociology

the study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently shaped by the society in which they live 8.1

demography

the study of human population dynamics, including: •the size, •structure, and •distribution of a population, •and changes in the population over time due to birth, death, and migration 8.3

social epidemiology

the study of the distribution of health and disease across a population, with the focus on using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness in a population 8.4

central nervous system

the subdivision of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord 3.4

self-serving bias

the tendency to attribute our success to ourselves and our failures to others and the external environment 7.2

just world phenomenon

the tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve; when bad things happen to others, it is the result of their actions or their failure to act, and when good things happen to us, it is because we deserve it 7.2

self-reference effect

the tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves, a prediction comes true because the individual accepts something as the truth and receives the feedback about his belief from at least one other person 5.4, 7.1

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities 7.2

negativity bias

the tendency to focus or remember the negative aspects of experiences

ethnocentrism

the tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one's own culture 7.2

activation-synthesis theory

the theory that dreams are simply byproducts of brain activation during REM sleep. Suggests that the content of dreams is not purposeful or meaningful 4.3

initiative vs. guilt

the third of Erik Erikson's developmental stages; involves the preschool-age child's need to make decisions; if not met, as an adult he or she may feel guilty taking initiative and instead allow others to choose

phallic stage

the third of Freud's psychosexual stages; in this stage, the child seeks sensual pleasure through the genitals 6.1

prejudice

the thoughts, attitudes, and feelings that someone holds about a group that are not based on an actual experience; a pre-judgment or biased thinking about a group and its members 7.2

object permanence

the understanding that things continue to exist once they're out of sight 4.2

latent functions

the unintended or less recognizable consequences or a social structure, can be considered beneficial, neutral, or harmful (e.g. A newspaper acting as a fly swatter) 8.1

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

the universal authority on the classification and diagnosis of psychological disorders; the current latest edition is the fifth edition of the DSM (the DSM-5) 6.3

norms

the visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society; they help define what type of behaviors are acceptable and in accordance with a society's values and benefits; formal norms are generally written down; laws are examples of formal norms Informal norms are generally understood, but are less precise and often carry no specific punishments 7.1, 8.3

circadian rhythm

the waxing and waning of alertness throughout the 24-hour day 4.3

Attitude: behavioral

the way a person acts with respect to something (ex. avoiding snakes)

social stratification

the way that people are categorized in society; people can be categorized by race, education, wealth, and income, among other things 8.4

sclera

the white portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball 3.5

Canon-Bard Theory

theory of emotion that asserts that the *physiological and cognitive aspects of emotion occur simultaneously* and collectively lead to the behavioral reaction 4.4

Schachter-Singer Theory

theory of emotion that asserts that the experience of psychological arousal occurs first, and is followed by a conscious, cognitive interpretation/appraisal that allows for the identification of the experiences emotion arousal --> interpretation to identify emotion 4.5

James-Lange Theory

theory of emotion that claims that emotional experience is the result of physiological and behavioral responses (e.g. forcing a smile makes you feel slightly happy) Physiological and behavioral CAUSES emotional 4.4

Oedipus complex

this complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a male child is sexually attracted to his mother and hostile towards his father who is seen as a rival. 6.1

Electra complex

this complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud's five psychosexual stages) when a female child is sexually attracted to her father and hostile toward her mother, who is seen as a rival 6.1

Sapire-Whorf hypothesis

this hypothesis asserts that people understands their world through language and that language in turn shapes how people experience their world 8.3

Weber's law

this law pertains to sensory perception and dictates that two stimuli must differ by constant proportion in order for their difference to be perceptible 3.5

frustration-aggression principle

this principle suggests that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggression 7.3

cortisol

this steroid hormone is released during chronic stress; it shifts the body's use of fuel from glucose toward fats and proteins, thus "sparing" glucose for the brain's use. Prolonged release of cortisol is associated with suppressed immunity and increased susceptibility to illness 3.6, 4.5

psychoanalytic therapy

this therapy approach uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his or her unconscious motives and to gain insight into the emotional issues and conflicts that are causing difficulties 6.1

behavioral therapy

this type of therapy uses conditioning to shape a client's behaviors in the desired direction 6.1

ascribed status

those statuses that are assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts 7.3

George Kelly's Personal Construct Psychology

thought of the individual as a scientist who devises and tests predictions about behavior of significant people in his or her life

escape learning

through operant conditioning, this is the process of learning to engage in a particular behavior in order to get away from a negative or aversive stimulus 5.1

ego defense mechanisms

to cope with this anxiety and protect the ego, all people develop ego defense mechanisms that unconsciously deny or distort reality. normal, and become unhealthy only when taken to extremes; developed by Sigmund Freud 6.1

cognitive psychology

tradition of psychology that focuses on the brain, cognitions, and thoughts as mediating learning and stimulus-response behaviors 5.1

Verbal communication

transmission of information through the use of wods, whether spoken, written, or signed; dependent on nonverbal cues for receiver to understand sender's full meaning

Virtreous

transparent gel that supports the retina

Direct therapy

treatment that acts directly on the individual such as medication or periodic meetings with a psychologist

Socialist economies

treats large industries as collective, shared businesses, and compensation is provided based on the work contribution of each individual into the system

Noise trials

trial to measure response bias in which the signal is not presented

Catch trials

trials in which the signal is presented

Dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality disorder)

two or more personalities recurrently take control of person's behavior

grey matter

un-myelinated neuron cell bodies and short, un-myelinated axons 3.4

primary reinforcers

unconditioned consequences that are innately satisfying of desirable; may be biologically driven 5.1

discrimination

unjust treatment of a group, based on group characteristics (such as age, sex, race, ethnicity, disability) 7.2

Crystallized intelligence

use of learned skills and knowledge, peaks in middle adulthood

Fornix

used to help the hippocampus communicate with other portions of the limbic system

night terror

usually occurs during stage 3 sleep, unlike nightmares; the individual may sit up or walk around, babble, and appear terrified although none of it is remembered the next morning 4.3

Otoliths

utricle and saccule contain modified hair cells covered in otoliths As body accelerates, these otoliths resist that motion

social cues

verbal/nonverbal hints guide social interactions 6.1

Superior colliculus

visual sensory input

theta waves

waves of low to moderate intensity and intermediate frequency present during stage 1 of sleep 4.3

Attitude: cognitive

way an individual thinks about something, justifying for the other two components (ex. snakes can be dangerous)

Hierarchy of salience

we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment

Self-reference effect

we tend to recall information best when we can put it into the context of our own lives

generalized other

when a person tries to imagine what is expected of them from society, they are taking on the perspective of the generalize other 7.1

Identity shift effect

when an individual's state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group and start to experience internal conflict

mood-dependent memory

when learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state 5.4

positive transfer

when old information facilitates the learning of new information 5.4

environmental injustice

when people in poorer communities are more likely to be subjected to negative environmental impacts to their health and well-being 8.4

justification of effort

when people modify their attitudes to match their behaviors, specifically those involving effort 6.4

self-fulfilling prophecy

when stereotypes lead a person to behave in such a way as to affirm the original stereotypes 7.2

normative social influence

when the motivation for compliance is a desire for the approval of others and to avoid rejection 7.2

Wernicke's aphasia

when this area is damaged, motor production and fluency of speech is retained but comprehension of speech is lost; patients speak nonsensical sounds and inappropriate word combo

fundamental attribution error

when we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person's character or personality on their behavior 7.2

Sclera

white of the eye

Mores

widely observed social norms

Self-censorship (Irving Janis's Groupthink)

withholding of opposing views Illusion of unanimity: false sense of agreement within the group

ego defense mechanisms (list them)

•Repression; •Denial; •Reaction Formation; •Projection; •Displacement; •Rationalization; •Regression; •Sublimation 6.1


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