Principles of Conservation Biology Set

Fitness

Ability of an individual to produce surviving fertile offspring

Implementation of restoration plan may involve modifying _________ & ________ factors.

Abiotic -Soil, hydrology, etc Biotic -plant and animal communities

Dri water -

Absorbs and releases water in drought areas

George Dorr had his ashes scattered ver this park, for which he was a prime fighter to establish and served as superintendent into his old age.

Acadia National Park

Which of the following is an example of contamination from afar which complicates managing water?

Acid rain

This man did important early research on wolves and and coyotes in the park, was often at odds with the NPS and fought against Mission 66 in Denali

Adolph Murie

What is evolutionary-ecological Land Ethic?

Advocated human uses of natural resources that are compatible with, or even enhance, biodiversity.

Psycho-spiritual Value

Aesthetic beauty, religious awe = intrinsic value

Meffe and Carroll

"A thing is right when it tends to disturb the biotic community only at normal spatial and temporal scales. It is wrong when it tends to do otherwise"

What is the "golden rule" of the Leopold Land Ethic?

"A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise."

Conservation International (CI)

"Biodiversity hotspots"

The Nature Conservancy (TNC)

"Conservation Risk Index"

Worldwide Fund for Wildlife (WWF)

"Global 200 priority areas"

Nuclear Energy

"green energy" - zero emissions, highly efficient, permits nuclear fission with U-235, BUT there could be nuclear waste, accidents, radiation, and decommissioned power plants

Alpha diversity

# of species that coexist in the same ecosystem

bet diversity

# of species unique to regions relative to each other

ESA costs:

$60,000 to list each organism Costs increase w/resistance from govnt $4 B/yr to remove all species from list in US ~1,000 in a pop when listed (100 for plants)

Nature Conservancy elements of conservation interest

(1-5 scale) - number of remaining populations or occurances - number of individuals remaining - extent of area - number of protected sites - degree of threat - innate vulnerability freshwater mussels and crayfish = most imperiled, birds = least

Direct Use Values

(private goods) for products harvested by people

Indirect Use Values

(public goods) benefits provided by biodiversity that do not involve harvest or destroying the resource

Which plus/minus set represents mutualism?

+/+

What plus and minus combination represents predation?

+/-

Which plus/minus relationship represents parasitism?

+/-

Which plus/minus relationship represents commensalism?

+/0

Kuna Yala Indigenous Reserve

- 60,000 ha of tropical forest and coral islands - 50,000 Kuna people in 60 villages - Practice traditional medicine, fishing, agriculture and forestry - Outside scientists conduct management research - Train and hire local people as guides and research assistants - Kuna local government attempts to control the type and rate of economic development

In Situ Agricultural

- A different approach is being used in the arid American SW - Focus is on dryland crops and genetic diversity - Native Seeds/SEARCH collects seeds of 1800 traditional crop cultivars for long-term preservation - Group encourages 4600 farmers and other members to grow traditional crops, provides seeds, and buys unsold production

CBC

- A review of 136 CBC projects - Degree of participation, environmental education and skills-training programs all significantly to win-win outcomes for the people and biodiversity - The most important feature was institutional capacity 1. Improving 2. infrastructure 3. Communication 4. Decision-making - Governments and conservation organizations can assist local conservation initiatives by: 1. Providing access to scientific expertise 2. Training programs 3. Financial assistance to develop infrastructure

What is the difference between rare and endangered?

- An animal can be rare, but not endangered - Rarity may be its natural state - An animal can be endangered, but not rare - Even common animals with strong negative influences from people can go extinct.

Species Introductions

- European colonization - agriculture, horticulture, and aquaculture - accidental - biological control (consume pests/control numbers) - shipping (ballast water)

Compensatory Mitigation

- Particularly true for wetlands - "no net loss policy" has been adopted by many jurisdictions

Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES)

- Pay landowners and local communities that protect critical ecosystems and ecosystem services - This approach pays for good stewardship of the land Becoming more popular - Government, nongovernmental conservation organizations, and businesses develop markets - Villagers and landowners participate by protecting and restoring ecosystems

Florida Panthers

- Population of 100-120 individuals - 31% of its range is on private land - Private lands are more fertile and provide a better prey base - Development continues

Kuna Yala Indigenous Reserve Continued

- Traditional conservation beliefs are eroding because of outside influences - Younger Kuna are questioning the need to rigidly protect the reserve - Kuna find it difficult to establish a stable organization that can manage the reserve and work with external conservation and donor groups - How do you integrate conservation into a changing society?

Military Land

- US Department of Defense - Manages more than 11 million ha - Contains about 420 threatened and endangered species - Military activities may harm or enhance habitat for species (fires, chemical) - US DOD spending on conservation - $73 million in 2012

Ecosystem Management

- a system of large-scale management involving multiple stakeholders, the primary goal of which is preserved ecosystem components and processes for the long term while still satisfying the current needs of society

Invasive characteristics

- absence of predator and parasites - ability to take advantage of disturbed environmental conditions - shown to be invasive other locations

keystone resources

- salt lick and mineral pools - deep pools - hollow tree trunks - rotting wood

Restored Ecosystems

- should be dominated by native species - contain representatives of all key functional groups of species - have a physical environment suitable for native species and ecosystem processes - be secure from detrimental outside disturbances - It may take a very long time to meet these goals

Overexploitation

- species can often recover when stopped - trickled down effects, ex. seed dispersal - threatens 1/3 of endangered species

Ecological Restoration must consider:

- speed of restoration - cost - reliability of results - persistence of target community

Kinds of extinction: ecologically extinct

-"the living dead" no longer fulfill ecological role -eg tiger endangered 2010, 50% decline in habitat 50% population reduction, tiger reserves empty of tigers, role as keystone species is gone

Which plus/minus combination represents competition?

-/-

Amendments

-1978- critical habitat provision, "God squad" cabinet-level committee that can override listing, can exempt an agency action from requirements of the end. spp. act. -1982- no economic considerations in listing- habitat conservation plans -1988- monitoring of candidate and recovered species is required -2004- exempted department of defense, which has its own natural resource plan procedure, it was clear that ESA has much power and that conservation species under ESA could be costly (1975) , wanted to built Telco dam- found fish that was endangered so couldnt build -1979- damn built because God squad had power to exempt also did similar things with NSO

Major Threats to: Rivers and Streams

-70% of largest NA rivers affected by diversion, irrigation, and reservoirs -2.5 million dams in America -->alter flood cycles, block fish migrations, flood out former wetlands

Total allelic diversity

-Alpine ibex, two diff DRB alleles in some pops, only one in others

Decisions in planning Reintroduction

-Choice of individuals to be reintroduced -Number of individuals to be reintroduced -Choice of sites for reintroduction -Transition period or not? -Public relations

Complications for Identifying Areas

-Climate Change -Limited Data

Adapting to Climate Change

-Confront sea level rise -Foster migration of species -Establish protected areas that are RESILIENT

Endangered Species Act of 1973

-US first country to give animals right to exist -instructs federal agencies to conserve species threatened by extinction and conserve the ecosystems in which they thrive in

Uniform

-a result of territoriality -->cutting out pieces of territory for themselves

More bird extinctions on islands than on mainland

-a trend that appears to be changing -extinction rates on islands going up over time, higher on islands than on mainlands -island species have higher rates of extinction than mainland species. freshwater species are more vulnearable to extinction than marine species

Environmental Protection Agency

-agency of federal gov't (created during NIXON) -protect human health and environment through regulation --> clean air and water act -->substantial research and outreach

Inbreeding carries fitness costs

-avoidance mechanisms in genetics, behavior, and ecology- morphological avoidance eg dioecious trees, odor attraction to unrelated mates (MHCs), dispersal -the tendency to mate with unrelated individuals of the same species- outbreeding

Clumping

-clumping around a source, like water -most common type of dispersion

Arguments in favor of de-extinction

-justice- making up for what we caused -re-establishing lost value- value of the extinct animal -creating new value- scientific achievement -a conservation last resort

Why do large islands have more species?

-large islands- more habitat types, larger pop sizes and number of pops, greater likelihood of speciation, smaller likelihood of extinction

Environmentalist vs Timber industry

-loss of jobs because of protecting species -numbers of owl still going down even though areas protected

Another recovery

-mauritius kestral reintroduction program 1987-1990

legal issues

-need to experiment with T&E species, despite legal protection eg collection of the last CA condors for captive breeding -experimental pops given diff status- ecperimental, essential- ridigly protected, opposition by land owners?,experimental, nonessential- research opportunities (BFF)

Random

-occurs when individuals don't have strong aversions or don't have control over their dispersal

Kinds of extinction: extinct in the wild

-persists only in captivity

In What Ways do Conservationists Help New Populations

-supplemental food/water during transition -acclimation areas/pens -careful monitoring -follow-up introductions -head-starting -->raising in captivity during juvenile years then releasing into wild

At low densities: allee effects

-the interaction among pop size, pop density, pop growth rate and behavior -Correlation between population size or density and the mean individual fitness of a population or species. -lower reproductive success at low densities -the social systems and breeding systems of many animals can be disrupted when the pop size or density falls below a certain level -many species that live in widely dispersed pops have difficulty finding mates once the pop density drops below a certain point -counterintuitive, given pop growth equations eg MSY ex dusky seaside sparrow (FL)- last 5 males lakeside daisy (IL)- last 3 same mating type

Urban Human-Wildlife Conflict

-transmission of disease -wildlife damage -lost pets

Bighorn Sheep

-what is the relationship between pop size and probability of extinction? below 50 all go extinct in 50 years, N>50 most survive

Name the three central themes of this class

1. Conserving endangered species 2. Conserving functional and structural aspects of populations 3. Working within political and social realities

Florida Panthers - Two viable possibilities to aid survival

1. Educate and pay landowners 2. Build special road underpasses

What are the five steps of ecological restoration in a plant community?

1. Examine historic and current reference conditions 2. Develop a restoration plan 3. Implement the plan 4. Monitor the outcome 5. Follow through with adaptive management

What is the hierarchical structure of biodiversity?

1. Genetic diversity 2. populations 3. species 4. ecosystems

Name the 3 ways used to describe species rarity

1. Geographic range - local endemics 2. Habitat specificity - only occur in specific habitats and these habitats are rare 3. Local population size - occur at

Evolution is a function of three key elements, what are they?

1. Selection 2. VARIATION 3. Heredity

List all the major wildlife applications of gel electrophoresis and PCR.

1. Species ID && Abundance 2. Taxonomy 3. Hybridization 4. Individual ID 5. Parentage 6. Movement 7. Genetic variation 8. Forensics

Critically endangered have at least one of the following characteristics:

1. Total population size less than 250 individuals or 50 breeders 2. Population has declined by 80% or more over the last 10 years or 3 generations 3. More than 25% decline is expected in numbers during the next 3 years or 1 generations 4. Range less than 100km^2 at a single location

Why is there higher species richness toward the tropics?

1. Tropical communities are more stable than temperate communities 2. Warm temps and high humidity provide favorable conditions for growth and survival 3. Tropical regions receive more solar energy

Steps of Ecosystem Preservation

1. establish individual protected areas 2. create networks of protected areas 3. manage protected areas 4. implement conservation outside of these areas 5. restore communities in degraded habitats

7 Majors Threats to Biodiversity

1. habitat destruction 2. habitat fragmentation 3. habitat degration (pollution) 4. global climate change 5. overexploitation of species for human use 6. invasion of exotic species 7. increased spread of disease

Evidence of Global Warming

1. increase temperature and heat wave incidences (extreme weather events - hurricanes, flooding, snowstorms, drought) 2. melting of glacier and polar ice 3. rising sea levels 4. earlier spring activity 5. shifts in species' range 6. population declines

Rare Species

1. live in narrow geographical range 2. occupy only one or a few specialized habitats 3. found in only small populations

Consequences of Small pops

1. loss of genetic variation- larger pops have greater genetic diversity -threatened species have lower genetic diversity- threatened taxa with small range had 35% lower genetic diversity than a related widespread species 2. loss of evolutionary flexibility- no genetic variation for adaptation to new events

To Reduce Spread of Disease

1. plants, animals, soils, and other biological material need to be inspected before cross boarders 2. reduce the interaction of endangered species with humans, domesticated species, and closely related species 3. monitor endangered species to detect outbreak of disease 4. appropriate living conditions and population densities

Reasons for Overexploitation

1. poverty 2. efficiency in harvesting 3. globalization

Roughly what amount of wetlands have been converted to dry land, symbolizing one of the biggest problems in aquatic habitat loss?

1/2

What percent of the world's seeds are currently housed in seed banks?

10%

Vulnerable

10% or greater probability of extinction within 100 years

Percent of land that is protected

13%

What is the global mean annual surface air temp? How much as the temp increased since 1880?

15 degrees C 0.7 degrees C

How many genetically distinct populations are lost each year?

160 million

Amount of protected areas

160,000 areas, 30 million km2, 2 million km2

megadiversity countries

17 countries which contain >70% of world's biodiversity

US Forest Service

194 Million Acres -National Forests and National Grasslands -Follows Conservationists efforts -->protect wilderness as well as oversee harvest of 1.5 billion trees

Speke Gazelle

1970: 1 male and 3 female. founder pop. one female did most of the breeding- Ne= 2 1982: pop size 29 ( less than our magic 50) pop highly inbreed, high juvenile mortality, start to show signs of inbreeding depression -management strategies- selected females producing higher number of offspring (inbreeding isnt affecting them as negatively), even out effect of founders-make sure everyones contributing evenly not just founding male

Estalbishing new populations- wolf re-introduction

1995- gray wolves from Jasper national park in canada become the first wolves to roam yellowstone since 1920s when the last pack was killed -by end of 1996, 31 wolves were relocated to the park -hunted because attack livestock -elk pop skyrocketed- park overgrazed -beavers able to come back after introduce wolf, landscape could recover -problem- still attacking livestock, protected so cant be hunted

Kyoto Summit -

1997 US didn't sign Kyoto protocol

Define ecosystem resilience. (2 definitions)

2 definitions: Ability of an ecosystem to resist or recover from a disturbance The magnitude of disturbance that can be absorbed or accommodated without causing fundamental change to the ecosystem

What do we now believe to be a manageable increase in temp? And what would we have to limit the CO2 ppm to only have that amount of temp increase?

2 degrees C 550 ppm

Symbiotic Relationship

2 species always found together

What percent of solar radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere? the surface of the Earth? and what percent is reflected back and what reflects it?

20% atmosphere 50 % surface of earth 30% reflected back into space by atmospheric gases, clouds, and surface of earth (majority)

How many protected areas are there globally? What percent of land area of Earth do they cover? What percent of ocean area do they cover? What are the goals?

200,000 15% with a goal of 17% by 2020 3% with a goal of 10% by 2020

Paris Accords -

2015 Each country keeps emissions below levels that would trigger a +2 C global temp rise Pre-industrial

Percent of Earth's land managed for sustainable resource protection

23%

What are the global 200 ecoregions?

233 of the 867 ecoregions are targeted for conservation action based on regional biodiversity and stratified to represent all biomoes

Approximately what percentage of our medicines come from plants?

25%

What are the CO2 levels 100yrs ago, today, and 100yrs from now? What is the temp change from 100yr ago to today and today to 100yrs from now?

280 ppm 400 ppm 720 ppm 0.7 degrees C 2.8 degrees C

What other two lists (aside from IUCN) are maintained that describe species risk of extinction?

3. CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) 2. Nature Serve.

What is the number of ppm CO2 that is considered the maximum without major climate change consequences?

350

Earth formed how many years ago

4.5 bya

Mass Extinction

5 Episodes of natural mass extinction 1. Ordovician 2. Devonian 3. Permian 4. Triassic 5. Cretaceous - dinosaurs Current = Quaternary - due to human acitvity

Critically endangered

50% or greater probability of extinction within 10 years or 3 generations

What percent of land is owned by private, federal government, state and local government, and native american tribes? And what does this mean of conservation?

55% private 35% fed. gov 7% state & local gov 3% native american tribes Shows that we need to include private land owners in conservation

2,000 zoos worldwide with ______

600,000 terrestrial vertebrates. 600,000 fish

Solar Power

600x stronger than all other energy sources but is only during the day

What percent of the world's protected areas were created only in the last 45 years, and usually in short bursts when conditions aligned for it

80%

How much is unprotected land?

80% of world

Approximately how many ecosystems are in the World Wildlife Fund classification system?

825

If we continue with business as usual, models suggest temperatures in South Bend will increase how much by the years 2079-2099?

9-11

Indigenous Communities Own:

97% of Papua New Guinea 22% of the Amazon Basin of Brazil 1/5 of Canada 90 million ha in Australia

Area of Focus: Prairies

98% of prairies modified in US useful for educational value -what type do we restore?

How many species have been driven to extinction since 1600

> 1000

what percent of the world's terrestrial habitat currently lies outside of protected areas?

>80%

Environmentalism

A broad philosophy, ideology, and social movement regarding concerns for environmental protection and improvement of the health of the environment, particularly as the measure for this health seeks to incorporate the concerns of non-human elements.

What is a flagship species?

A charismatic species that helps raise awareness and/or funding for conservation

What is Hp?

A common measure of genetic variation within a population, aka the mean heterozygosity

A genetically unique and geographically isolated population of rat snake in Peninsular Florida would be called what?

A distinct evolutionary segment.

What is a phylogenetic species?

A group of individuals that are morphologically, physiologically, or biochemically distinct from other groups

What is a biological species?

A group of individuals that potentially breed among themselves and do not breed with individuals from other groups

Define Ecosystem

A group of interacting organisms (a community) and the physical environment they inhabit at a given point in time.

Community Type/ Natural Community/ Ecosystem Type

A group of species that occur together repeatedly in space, in association with a particular set of environmental conditions.

Adaptation

A heritable trait that increase fitness

Concept of utility

A measure of "well-being"

Vestigial Traits

A reduced or incomplete structure with little or no function value

What is the definition of a species according to its genetic structuring?

A species is a collection of populations with a hierarchical genetic structure based on degree of genetic similarity

Keystone species

A species on which other species in an ecosystem largely depend, such that if it were removed the ecosystem would change drastically. Example: bees, beavers,

keystone species

A species that has an unusually large effect on its ecosystem

What is a panmixia?

A species that is a single randomly interbreeding population

What is an umbrella species?

A species whose conservation also benefits a wide range of additional species

Option Value

A species' potential to produce economic benefits to society in the future

What is the IUCN Red List

A standardized list of species risk of extinction world wide

What are reserve systems?

A system of small protected areas, preferably linked by landscape level corridors

Define a reserve system.

A system of such protected areas (protected areas are defined by the IUCN)

What is a demographic bottleneck?

A type of genetic drift

Conservation easements -

A voluntary legal between a landowner and a land trust/government agency that permanently limits uses of land in order to protect its conservation values

What is the example of a likely emission scenario used in a global climate model that was given in the notes? And what are the results of this scenario when imputed into models?

A widely adopted, middle of the road emissions scenario is an increase of CO2 from 287ppm in 2010 to 720 ppm in 2100 The mean temp will increase to 18 degrees C with a range of increase from 1.4 degrees C to 5.8 degrees C, with greater warming at higher latitudes

IUCN Red List Criteria for the Assignment of Conservation Categories

A. observable reduction in number of individuals B. total geographical range occupies C. predicted decline in number of individuals D. number of mature Individuals currently alive E. probability the species will go extinct within a certain number of years

Bicultural Restoration

ACG staff teach basic biology and ecology on-site to 2500 students in 4th - 6th grades from 53 neighboring schools.

Convention of the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals

Bonn Convention, 119 countries, encourages international efforts to conserve bird, bat, and cetacean species

What causes demographic bottlenecks?

Bottleneck occurs when population size is greatly reduced by a catastrophic event, but then recovers

Gene mix -

Bottlenecking Proper robustness available when released?

Howell's capture, publicized in Forest and Stream, led to the rapid formation of regulations protecting wildlife in National Parks and probably saved this species from extinction

Buffalo

Fences -

Build up water Erode slopes

How can inbreeding depression be alleviated?

By out-breeding

The program, created under FDR's New Deal, was crucial for improvements to the national pakrs

CCC

This international agreement focuses on migratory species

CMS

What is the most important antropogenic greenhouse gas? What is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere relative to the other greenhouse gasses?

CO2

This program pays US farmers to set aside cropland for wildlife habitat

CRP

Which of the following is not true in regards to endemic species?

Can be naturally found in more than a single geographical area

Microsite placement -

Can't migrate Must be placed in the proper place

Agriculture also produces greenhouse gases. These two types of farming produce notable amounts of methane.

Cattle, rice

Warfarin, the common rodenticide works by doing what to mammals?

Causing internal bleeding

Increased genetic diversity allows species to adapt to

Changing environments

This biome is generally found on the western side of mid-latitude continents, with rich diversity and periodic fires?

Chaparral

In the case of zoos, the emphasis has tended to be on which groups?

Charismatic megafauna

List all 4 types of pollutants discussed.

Chemical Solid Light Noise

Government efforts:

Clean Air Act National parks Endangered species act

God squad -

Committee that can override ESA under exceptional situations Snail darter

Pedigree Analysis

Conduct this to avoid inbreeding during captive breeding. Find a pair of potential mates with the lowest kinship coefficient.

What is ex-situ conservation?

Conservation in captivity, rather than in the wild

Ex-situ conservation -

Conservation outside the area a species typically occupies Zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens, seed banks, game farms, etc.

Conservation developments -

Controlled-growth land use development that allows limited sustainable development while protecting land

Artificial insemination -

Controls for genes

What are the 3 limitations of ex situ conservation?

Cost (operating expenses of all US zoos totals $1 billion annually, 2008) Focus on individual species Space (to keep individuals in captivity, the larger they are the more space they require Captive animals

Debt-for-nature swaps -

Countries end up paying more in interest than original loan totals

Ex situ conservation

Create a new population in a human-controlled ("off site"), artificial environment -Zoos -Aquariums -Botanical Gardens

Translocation: Introduction

Create a new population outside the species' original range -DANGER!! Potential invasive species -Like assisted migration

Keystone resource

Crucial habitat that is important to many species in a community

The existence of un-described species incorrectly lumped with described species is called?

Cryptic biodiversity

Which pesticide was responsible for the decline of the bald eagle in the early/mid 1900s?

DDT

Which trophic level generally consumes all other trophic levels?

Decomposers

What is out-breeding depression?

Decrease individual fitness associated with gene flow among populations due to genetic swamping of locally adapted genes

What is the inbreeding depression?

Decreased individual fitness associated with increased frequency of homozyous genotypes

What are the two consequence of loss of genetic diversity?

Decreasing individual fitness and population size Decreased rate of evolution -because evolutionary rate is correlated with amount of genetic variability within a population

Kew Gardens -

Dedicates some facilities to seed storage

phylogenetic species concept

Defines a species as a set of organisms with a unique genetic history

What is natural selection?

Differential survival and reproduction of different genotypes in the population and usually decreases genetic diversity

The "ghost deer" of Boulder Junction, WI are an example of?

Differing allele frequencies

Consumptive and productive values fall under which type of use?

Direct

What is the main problems associated with plastics as environmental pollutants?

Direct mortality of sea birds, turtles, marine mammals, and they transfer of toxic compounds to filter-feeding plankton.

What are the three types of natural selection? And what do their graphs look like?

Directional selection Disruptive selection Stabilizing selection (the bottom part of the pic is what was in our notes)

What is the pro for the BII?

Doesn't require population data, uses ecosystem area and land use

Which of the following is not part of a federal cabinet, but is an independent cabinet-level agency?

EPA

Who enforces the Clean Air Act of 1963?

EPA

Hunting:

Earliest regulations Early effort to conserve wildlife for royalty

Why were National Parks created?

Early national parks set aside mainly for dramatic scenery

What is the major method used in making policy decisions?

Economic valuation

What would happen if the Gulf Stream current shut down due to the melting of Greenland?

Europe would get colder

What does nitrogen cause?

Eutrophication and hypoxia

What is Intrinsic Value

Every species has value even independent of its value to other species or within an ecosystem

What are the ethical principles of conservation?

Evolution should continue

Guiding principles of conservation biology

Evolution unites all of biology Ecosystems are complex Humans must be considered

Are rare and endangered the same thing?

False, an animal can be rare but not endangered and vice versa

The actual reproductive rate of a population is the?

Fecundity

Gathering Information

For each target (community type, species) gather data such as LOCATION and VIABILITY

US Endangered species act -

Founded 1969 Included plants 1973 CITES 1975 God squad 1978 Critical habitat focus 1982, 1988 Weaken power of fish, wildlife service 2008

Which measure of diversity deals with species per region?

Gamma

Who is often considered the "savior fo National Park wildlife"?

George Melendez Wright

What are Biosphere Reserves? What are two reserves in Texas?

Globally important ecosystems Includes Big Bend NP and Big Thicket NP

Public Goods

Goods accessible to all (clean air)

98% of this habitat has already been lost in the US mostly due to agriculture

Grassland

The control group is the

Group not exposed to the treatment

HCP -

Habitat conservation plans Reduce power of ESA

Who was the author of Walden?

Henry David Thoreau

C values are ______ in groups with high richness (insects) and _____ in groups with low richness (mammals).

High; low

Why is ocean acidification bad?

Higher acidity interferes with ability of organisms to incorporate calcium carbonate in their shells and leads to coral bleaching

Where has warming been greatest at?

Higher latitudes

Which of the following biomes is not one of those generally considered a biodiversity hotspot?

Hot deserts

Large mammals were driven to extinction by:

Hunting and indirectly by burning/clearing forest

Humans display which survivorship curve type?

I

Impact of Human Population Equation

I = PAT - P = number of people - A = average income - T = level of technology

Insects generally display which curve type?

III

What is intrinsic value?

Inherent - value that something has an end in itself (Biocentric)

What are the two values of biodiversity that conservation biologists try to convey to the rest of society?

Instrumental (utilitarian) Intrinsic (inherent)

What is Instrumental Value

Instrumental value can be the value of an organism in an ecosystem and to surrounding organisms

Bioregional Management

Integrates protection with human use and often focuses on a single large ecosystem

To feed a growing population, agriculture has largely switched from agricultural land expansion to what?

Intensification

Pahrump Goldfish -

Introduced from elsewhere

How has the precipitation changed in the US over the past century?

It has increase 10-15% and even more precipitation is predicted for the future

Why is extinction sometimes considered superkilling?

It kills future generations of the species and eliminates the process of evolution and speciation

Although not realistic because they do not consider the influence of natural selection, Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is useful because?

It provides a benchmark for comparison

the single largest expansion of protected conservation lands in world history occurred in Alaska under this president, who was burned by locals if effigy amidst staunch opposition to the plans

Jimmy Carter

Which important figure camped with President Roosevelt in Yosemite?

John Muir

Root ball -

Keeps roots and excess soil, etc. Does not control environment

The most common lethal dose rating of chemicals is?

LD50

Debt-for-nature swap steps:

LDC borrows from MDB to stimulate economy Economy not stimulated enough to pay back loan Debt grows NGO buys off loan for 1/6-1/10 value

Name 4 general exceptions to the rule that diversity is greater in the tropics

Lichen, sea birds, sea mammals, beetles

What are the secondary factors that contribute to population change?

Life history characteristics including sex ratio, age structuring, growth rate, time of first reproduction, and fertility.

Transitional features

Link older and younger species

Types of local conservation efforts:

Local Government NGO's Business Consumers Religious Media Scientists Economists Eco-colonialism

Audubon society -

Local conservation for birds

Extirpation usually refers to the situation where a species is made?

Locally extinct

LTERs

Long-Term Ecological Research sites; established by NSF; used to study ecological changes over decades

The number of individuals necessary to ensure the long-term survival of a species is known as the?

MVP

Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES)

Many people who benefit from an ecosystem service may live far from the ecosystem that provides them so PES provides an incentive to landowners to protect these ecosystems

Why do most species conservation efforts involve management of their habitats?

Many species occur together in a given landscape leading naturally to a landscape approach to conservation It is also more cost effective than single species management

This model is commonly used by governments to try to avoid overexploitation. Usually, for fast-reproducing species, it comes out to half of the carrying capacity. It is problematic due to lacking info.

Maximun sustainable yield

Animal social behavior -

May have lost key behaviors/skills Can be hard to release How to migrate, caring for young, reaction to predators Avoid human contact Mix wild w/captive individuals Puzzle solving skills Raise/reintroduce w/foster parents, siblings

What does inbreeding depression results in decreased....?

Metabolic efficiency Growth rate Reproductive output Disease resistance

This gas is nine times more powerful as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide

Methane

"Father of Conservation Biology"

Michael Soule

Other things to protect:

Migratory species Marine species Habitats - wetlands

The area of suitable habitat necessary for maintaining the previous question's group is the?

Minimum Dynamic Area

What is the minimum viable population(MVP)?

Minimum size of isolated population necessary for X% survival for Y years Usually conservationist use 99% probability of surviving for 1000 years

PVA of mexican palm (II)

Model II= low environmental variation, MVP=140

Why must conservation biologists participate in the development of economic models?

Models can provide strong support for the positive impact of biodiversity in local, regional, and national economies

Ecosystems are often most diverse under what schedule of disturbancefrequent, moderately frequent, or infrequent?

Moderately frequent

Adaptive Mangement

Monitor significant components of the ecosystem, gather the needed data, and then use results to adjust management in an adaptive manner

What are the two types of genes?

Monomorphic -allele:exists in single form Polymorphic -alleles:exists in 2 or more forms

Why do islands with large areas have more species than islands with smaller areas?

More habitats and greater geographic isolation/more populations for speciation

What are the common species definitions?

Morphological, biological, evolutionary

The movement of these ranges in the previous question is particularly problematic for species in these systems due to vertical movement.

Mountains

4 main needs for international agreements:

Movement of organisms, resources Movement of ecosystem services Transport of animals Environmental threats

Which long-term, NSF-funded ecological research program does the U of ND manage a site for?

NEON

Which act forces government agencies to do an environmental impact assessment before any action?

NEPA

What makes a species rare?

Narrow geographic range Narrow niche Small population size

NEON

National Ecological Observatory Network; funded by NSF, specifically climate change, land use, and invasive species impacts on biodiversity

The Grand Canyon was originally preserved as a?

National Monument

Which is the only agency which follows the preservationist ethic?

National Parks Service

Endemic

Native or restricted to a certain country or area.

USDA Departments

Natural Resources Conservation Service Wildlife Services US Forest Services

What is Ne and why is it smaller than N?

Ne is effective population size, or the number of breading individuals It is smaller than N, consensus population size, because not all individuals are equally capable or likely to breed

Which of the following is an example of a keystone resource which a manager may need to preserve or enhance for wildlife?

Nest sites, mineral licks, pools

Which famous landmark became over-commercialized prior to interest in Yosemite and Yellowstone, and is commonly referenced as a stark contrast to preservation?

Niagara Falls

Water particularly tends to remove which of these fertilizer macronutrients from the land, dumping it into aquatic systems?

Nitogen

Restoration ecology:

No action Replacement Rehabilitation Restoration Recovery Healing

Stop-gap -

No alternative for in-situ conservation

Are dominant species are usually keystone species

No they are not

Can we easily define where one ecosystem starts and the other ends?

No we cannot

Is sympatric speciation common?

No. Breeding mistakes happen.

NGO's -

Non-governmental organizations

The Yellowstone wolves represent which type of experimental population?

Noncritical

Which of the following is not generally considered an example of overexploitation?

North American hunting

Density-Independent Factors

Not affected by density of a population -weather, wildfires, storms

Experimental-nonessential -

Not as controlled reintroductions

NIMBY -

Not in my backyard Links conservation to physchology Good for you and everyone Yucca Mtn.

Stable ecosystems consisting of invasive and noninvasive species?

Novel ecosystems

Antarctica was largely preserved to prevent the development of what?

Nuclear missile bases

They hypothesis which assumes the control and experimental group will be equal is called?

Null

Effective Population Size

Number of breeding individuals of a population --smaller, often substantially because of population that cannot reproduce --------->lack of mates, sterility, malnutrition, social structure, genetic defect --usually around 11% of a population

functional diversity

Number of different functional types in a given area

The US Forest Service actually attempted to deceive FDR at one point to dissuade him from turning a national park a monument into what national park?

Olympic

How many migrations per generation are needed to sustain genetic diversity?

One

What is gene flows implications for conservation biology? (the rule of thumb)

One migrant per generation is necessary to maintain a rate of gene flow sufficient to minimize loss of heterozosity while allowing for local adaptation within a populations

Homonymy (cryptic species)

One name, many species

European Union Biodiversity Convention

One objective was to restore at least 15% of degraded ecosystems by 2020

Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW)

One of the first attempts to estimate national productivity while including resource use and degradation

What is directional selection? When is this common? Does it decrease or maintain genetic variation?

One particular phenotype is favored, so its frequency increases in a population over time Common when the environment is slowly changing Decreased genetic variation

allopatric speciation by vicariance

One population becomes two when a natural barrier is formed physically separating the two

Allopathic speciation by dispersal

One population becomes two when some members move to another geographical area

ESA problems:

Only addresses flagship species Need to use ecosystem approach Metapopulations not protected Guidelines need to be clarified Rarity in areas determines listing Limited public input Stochastic factors Demographics, biological, etc.

A condition of having weakened young because of mating with different species?

Outbreeding depression

This industrial pollutant, particularly a favorite of the paper industry, was banned in 1979 but still persists in many river sediments.

PCBs

A park, which receives no management, but exists in law, is a?

Paper park

Where is the Chicago Botanic Garden? What is it used for?

Part of Bureau of Land Management's Seeds of Success program -Goal is to collect seeds of entire flora of the United States~14,000 species -20 populations from each species (goal of collecting -95% of genetic diversity within each species) -10 yrs of work, costing an est. $500 million.

Compare and contrast a passive vs an active restoration plan.

Passive Restoration: Remove threat or disruptive factor and allow natural processes to occur Active Restoration: Activity manipulate abiotic/biotic factors, may involve both manual and mechanical work

Which of the following is an example of a species which does well in the US urban areas and thus are a focus of urban ecology?

Peregrine Falcon

Conservation banking -

Permanently protected lands that contain natural resource values

Which mass extinction came closest to wiping out all life on Earth?

Permian

Organic food must not use which?

Pesticides

Reducing pressure to collect from wild:

Pets Zoos Medicine Sport/gain Bushmeat Reintroductions

mammal survey

Photographs large traps, nets and snares, vocals

Embryo transfer -

Places eggs of one female into another

Conservation Targets

Planning teams identify the... -Natural Communities (different kinds) -Species (rare and vulnerable) that will be "targeted" for conservation

Setting Goals

Planning teams set goals for each of the targets... -How much? (populations and community types) -Where? (how target is distributed across landscape)

What is the best described group or organisms?

Plants

How do species avoid inbreeding?

Plants: physical or chemical barriers Animals: dispersal of one sex

Species richness can be looked at across four different geographic scales:

Point, Alpha, Gamma, and Beta richness

Ecosystem services used to value nature:

Pollinators

Liberation theology -

Poor are using resources because of immediate needs

Which is not a level of biodiversity?

Population

In order to conserve species, it requires knowledge about the factors that regulate their populations. The two sciences that study that are _________ &________.

Population ecology and demography

Why are populations models used in conservation?

Population models may be used to identify minimum viable population

What are the two types of population models we talked about in the notes?

Population viability analysis Spatially explicit population modules

Ex-situ techniques:

Population-level Individual-level

Name the other 2 levels of diversity we talk about in this course

Populations and Ecosystems

Fire -

Pre-burn Fire removal

The Red Queen Hypothesis refers to the evolutionary arms race spurred by which species interaction type?

Predation

What does the Wilderness Act of 1964 do?

Preserves primitive areas in their natural state Established National Wilderness Preservation System

Green washing -

Pretending to go green May have good intentions May have poor followthrough

Future scenarios for ex-situ:

Probable loss of 1/4-1/2 of all species by end of century Most vertebrates need saving 500-1000 yrs until wildlife #s increase again or stop decreasing Uses cryopreservation methods to reduce restoration time period

Productive Use Value

Products that are harvested and sold in markets

5 steps of CBA

Project definition Classification of impacts Conversion into monetary terms Project assessment Sensitivity analysis

Which of the following is not one of the three goals of conservation biology?

Promote activism within the environmental movement for future generations

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Promoted the spiritual side of nature, and called for its protection (mid 1800s)

Michael Soule

Proposed Conservation Biology as an interdisciplinary approach to preserving and restoring biodiversity.

What central role do protected areas play in conservation?

Protected areas are the foundation of conservation efforts and they prevent habitat loss, most habitat degradation, and exploitation.

Appendix 3 -

Protection in specific country ~73 species

Shariah (laws of Islam)

Protects animals from cruelty, conserves forests, and limits the growth of cities

What does the Endangered Species Act of 1973 do?

Protects engendered and threatened species from being killed, harmed, or harassed This includes protection of necessary habitat

The two major lab breakthroughs in genetics that enable use to conduct conservation genetics are?

Protein electrophoresis and polymerase chain reaction

Which term should you really never use in science?

Prove

Indirect Use Values

Provide economic benefits without being harvested. These do not appear in the GDP but are crucial to other natural products which do influence GDP

Three Gorges Dam Pros:

Provided water Reduced loss to flooding Reduced air pollution Provided electricity

What are the bio & eco effects sediment pollution?

Reduces efficiency of photosynthesis and interferes with feeding and sensory perception in animals

In restoration ecology, goals are often set by comparing ________ sites whose characteristics are considered the target

Reference

Buddhism

Regard all living beings as interconnected companions on the path to nirvana

What are Habitat Conservation Plans? Who makes and approves HCP's?

Regional plans that allow development in designated areas while setting aside protected areas for actually or potentially endangered species It is management at landscape/ecosystem level rather than on species by species basis HCP's are drawn upon by developers, conservation groups, and local governments and approved by FWS.

Soft release for plants -

Removed weeds near plant

Rehabilitation -

Repair ecosystem functions Water filtration, etc. Processes

The Four Rs

Representation Resiliency Redundancy Reality

Soft release -

Require care/effort after animal is released

Herbivory -

Require fences, cages for protection

Hard release -

Requires no additional care/effort given after animal is released

Competition -

Requires removal of competitors

Which of the following is not one of the "four Rs" of reservation design?

Resistance

Which ethic is the basic of sustainable development?

Resource Conservation Ethic

Which ethic is the basis for most government management agencies like the DNR?

Resource Conservation Ethic

Which president signed into law the Endangered Species Act?

Richard Nixon

Gamma richness?

Richness across larger spatial scales

What is point richness?

Richness at a single point in space

What is alpha richness?

Richness withing a single, small area

Enos Mills, often compared to John Muir, fought to have this park established

Rocky Mountain National Park

What is the equation for species-area realationship?

S = CA^z S - number of species A - area of the island C and z are constants depending on the type of islands and species

Species equation relative to area

S=cA^z A= area, c and z constant c= intercept z= slope on log log scale

What are some examples of early protected areas?

Scared groves of Asia and Africa Royal hunting preserves of Europe National Parked But most protected areas were designated withing the last 100 years

Who has to ultimately designate species as endangered under the endangered species act?

Sec of Interior

why do we get so many medicines from plants?

Secondary metabolites

What are the two types of solid waste pollutants?

Sediments and Plastics

ESA usefulness:

Seen as good model Seen as too strong/weak

What is Systematic Conservation planning?

Selecting of protected areas to protect representative sample of regional biodiversity and ecosystem functions

Eco-colonialism effort:

Setting up reserves, but disregarding local cultural uses of land

Terra-forming -

Shaping earth

What are the short-term, mid-term, and long-term conservation goals relative to genetic diversity?

Short-term(days-decades): prevent local extirpation and global extinction Mid-term(decades to millennia): Preserve potential for adoption to changing environmental conditions (evolution by natural selection) Long-term(millennia on): Preserve potential for future speciation

What are some issues to consider concerning ecological restoration?

Should resource be allocated to restoring degraded ecosystems or to conserving healthy ecosystems? Does support of restoration by conservation biologists imply to decision makers that conservation isn't necessary?

John Muir became the first president of this conservation organization, which fights for preserving habitats.

Sierra Club

SLOSS

Single Large Or Several Small

SLOSS Debate

Single Large or Several Small

What are the factors that help the IUCN place protected areas into the 6 different categories?

Size Status of included ecosystems(natural or anthopogenic) Amount of human activity Conservation goals

What influences the magnitude of genetic loss due to genetic drift during the bottleneck?

Size of bottleneck population Growth rate of population after bottleneck

Drought -

Slow-release seeds Dri water

What are the characteristics of Natural Monuments?

Small Ecosystem in natural state No direct resource exploitation allowed Protection of specific natural or cultural feature

Problems w/reintroduction for animals:

Social behavior Amount of post-release care Costs (duration) Negative human attitudes, actions Gene mix Removal of initial pressures Avoid disease carriers Variables that affect success

Species releases where special care and assistance may be required for them to be successful are called?

Soft releases

Supporting services

Soil formation Primary production Nutrient cycling

What is the greenhouse effect and how does it effect the global climate?

Solar radiation is reflected form Earth's surface and absorbed by clouds and greenhouse gases and re-emitted downwards. They essentially get "trapped" in atmosphere.

What is genetic drifts implications on conservation biology?

Some alleles may not be passed to the next generation by chance alone leading to rapid loss of genetic diversity, but this is much more likely in a small population

What makes a species vulnerable?

Specialization Rarity Narrow habitat range Low density Low reproduction rates Co-evolutionary dependencies

What is sympatric speciation?

Speciation that occurs in one large population that mates non-randomly because of behavioral or habitat niche differences

When we study diversity what level of diversity are we usually studying genes or species?

Species

Island Biogeography Model

Species - Area Relationship: S = CA^z - S = number of species on an island - A = area of the island - C and z are constant that depend on type of island and types of species - number of species occurring on an island represents a dynamic equilibrium between extinction rate of species and colonization (and evolution) - equilibrium rates higher for larger islands - more species the greater the likelihood that species will go extinct Also used to predict the number of species that would become extinct if habitats were destroyed - reducing area of natural habitat on island would effectively result in smaller island that support fewer species - asymptotic relationship Assumptions: - based on typical values (across various species) - endemic species are eliminate from the area - areas of habitat are eliminated at random - degree of habitat fragmentation may affect extinction rates

Which math is the language of biology?

Statistics

This leader of the national parks was prone to bouts of depression, which were hidden from the public.

Stephen Mather

What are the IUCN's 6 categorys of protected areas?

Strict nature reserves and wilderness areas National Parks Natural Monuments Habitat/species management areas Protected landscape/seascape Managed resource protected area

Humans & conservation coexisting:

Suburbs - greenway Selective logging Rotation logging Shade coffee Government zones Powerline right of ways

Henry David Thoreau

Suggested that experience with nature was necessary to counteract the impact of civilization on humans in the (mid 1800s)

Judeo-Christian Stewardship Ethic

Suggests that humans are stewards of the creation, intrinsic value of nature by divine decree

Acid mine drainage, particularly coal mines, often contains a high amount of this element, which substantially acidifies streams and soils.

Sulfur

Biodiversity Intactness Index?

Summed abundance of species across all ecosystem types in the presence of impacts divided by the abundance of those same species in a pristine world = the proportion of biodiversity that remains intact

NGO efforts:

TNC Land trusts Audubon society Conservation leasing Conservation easements Conservation banking Conservation developments Are land trusts elitist?

True or False: Juveniles usually disperse further then adults?

TRUE.

Relocation/transplantation -

Taken into captivity long enough to be able to be transplanted elsewhere Bighorn sheep Taken from healthy populations, transplanted where needed Metapopulation dynamics

Which type of scientist do we specifically need more of for identifying species?

Taxonomists

What is the source of nitrogen?

Terrestrial ecosystems, but nitrogen fertilizers has doubled terrestrial input into the nitrogen cycle

What is an example of the ecosystem approach to conservation?

Texas Nature Conservancy - Freshwater conservation strategy protects habitat for wildlife and prevents urban runoff and pollution from entering Edwards Aquifer

What is an example of the source-sink dynamics?

The Louisiana Black Bear The young males dare dispersing from LA to OK, ARK, and East Texas

Define Conservation Biology

The applied science of maintaining the Earth's biological diversity

Ecology

The branch of biology that deals with the relations of organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings.

Islam

The central concept is tawhid, or unity. Believers must therefore maintain the integrity of the Earth, its flora and fauna, its wildlife and environment.

Local & regional extinction

The condition of a species (or other taxon) that ceases to exist in the chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere.

What is inbreeding depressions implications to conservation biology?

The consequences of inbreeding are more severe in small, isolated populations because related individuals are more likely to breed

What does a high Beta richness mean?

The cumulative number of species increases rapidly as additional areas are censuses along an environmental gradient. Species may also drop out rapidly along this gradient

What is Hypoxia?

The decomposition of excess photosynthetic biomass by bacteria depletes oxygen in the water

Confucianism

The destruction of ones social and environmental context is thus self-destruction

What is the ecosystem approach to conservation?

The ecosystem approach to conservation considers species in their ecological context and seeks to maintain ecosystem structure and function in perpetuity. It addresses conservation actions at large (landscape scale) It includes human presence/activities in conservation planning and includes diverse stakeholders in management decisions.

Environmental Ethics

The ethical value of the natural wordl

sympatric speciation

The formation of new species in populations that live in the same geographic area.

What is gene flow?

The movement of genes from one population to another

TNC -

The nature conservancy Buy land, given to parks services to run, etc.

Species richness

The number of species

species richness

The number of species in a given area

If two communities have the same species richness how can you tell which one is more diverse?

The one that has more species evenness

What is heterozygosity (H) ?

The proportion of gene loci for which an individual is heterozygous This is a common measure of genetic variation within an individual

Fecundity

The reproductivity of a population (measured by females)

What is a dominant species?

The species that predominates in an ecological community, particularly when they are most numerous

Extinction

The state or process of a species, family, or larger group being or becoming extinct.

What was the temp and greenhouse gasses like in the cretaceous period?

The temp is 10 degrees C hotter then and the greenhouse gasses where more abundant during the cretaceous but have declined since then, until now

What do ice cores for past 740,000 years indicate?

The temp is strongly correlated with abundance of greenhouse gasses

Willingness to Accept Compensation

The value of the compensation a person would accept for losses suffered as a result of a conservation action

Willingness to Pay

The value of the satisfaction a person derives from knowing a species/resource exists

What is not a difference between hypotheses and theories?

Theory can no longer be proven

Charles Darwin & Alfred Russell Wallace

Theory of evolution

What is sea level rise attributed to?

Thermal expansion of water and melting of polar ice sheets & glaciers

What are the reserve system designs like now?

They aim to protect threatened species or umbrella species, protect BV hotspots, and protect large and functioning ecosystems and their services

Human technology can replace some services, but:

They are costly Can solve one problem & create new ones

What is environmental variability?

They are relatively common and regular disturbances such as annual flooding.

What are catastrophes?

They are relatively uncommon and irregular disturbances and species are unlikely to be adapted to them

What are the limitations to captive breading animals?

They lose behaviors needed for wild survival Lose genetic variation Undergo morphological or physiological changes that would decrease survival in wild Acquire diseases in captivity

What secondary role do protected areas play in conservation?

They provide ecosystem service for humans, protect indigenous cultures, and provide recreational opportunities

Species considered at risk of becoming endangered are listed under Endangered Species Act as?

Threatened

IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Conservation Categories

Threatened: Critically Endangered (CR) Endangered (EN) Vulnerable (VU)

How are modern economies achieving growth?

Through the non-sustainable consumption of natural resources

Jainism

To free one's soul, one must follow ahisma (non-injury of living things) and asceticism (giving up all forms of physical pleasure)

Appendix 1 -

Trade is banned ~825 plants/animals

What is noise pollution caused by?

Transportation, industry, sonar (pervasive in urban areas and marine ecosystems)

Permafrost and low species diversity are characteristic of this biome.

Tundra

Long-term propagation -

Typically over whole lifespan of individual Extinct in wild Possibility of reintroduction Przewalskis horse

Nuclear power plants primarily use this as fuel

U-235

Which group was initially responsible for protecting Yellowstone?

US Cavalry

Organic Agriculture

US Federal Organic Foods Production Act of 1990, less than 1% of grain land is organic, lower yield and higher costs

What system do we have in the US to standardize ecosystems based on vegetation?

US National Vegetation Classification

There is a general _______ relationship between species richness and water depth in oceans.

Unimodal

What are the characteristics of managed resource protected areas?

Variable size Ecosystems may or may not be modified by humans Managed resource exploitation Protect BV & ecosystem function while allowing sustainable exploitation of natural resources

Option Value

We don't know which species have the benefits; so it is important to preserve them all

What watershed do we live in?

We live in the Texas Gulf watershed....further broken down into the Sabine and Neches river watershed

Diversity

Weighted abundance in a given area

What are some questions and difficulties that conservation biologists face when they are trying to identify or prioritize groups for conservation?

What is the appropriate unit for conservation? What level of genetic uniqueness qualifies a group for conservation action? Even above the species level, not all taxa places at the same taxonomic rank are equivalent in age and genetic diversity and uniqueness

Extinction cascade

When a keystone species is lost and many other species are lost as a result

What is stabilizing selection? Does it decrease or maintain genetic variation?

When intermediate phenotypes are favored over extreme, so the frequency of intermediate phenotypes increases in a population over time Decreases genetic variation

What is source-sink dynamics? What is the source and what is the sink?

When populations occur in habitats patches of differing quality it may lead to different reproductive success The source is a high quality habitat with high reproductive output, higher birth rate than mortality rate, and excess individuals The sink is a low quality habitat with low reproductive output, higher mortality than birth rate, and the population only survives because of constant immigration from source

What is market failure?

When the market fails to benefit society as a whole

What is disruptive selection? Does it decrease or maintain genetic variation?

When two extreme phenotypes are favored over intermediate phyenotypes, so the frequency of the two extremes both increase in a population over time Maintains genetic variation May lead to speciation

Admixture

When two previously isolated populations begin to interbreed

Florida panthers -

Work with landowners to protect species on land

State preference (hypothetical market)

Would you pay a specified price for a specified increase in environmental quality cons: how to take into accoun different incomes hypotheical

Where is the Antiquities Act null and void because of a park dispute?

Wyoming

Colter's Hell is another name for?

Yellowstone

Which was the first national park?

Yellowstone

Novel Ecosystems

a system that contains a mixture of native and nonnative species coexisting in a community unlike the original or reference site.

Define perpetuity.

a thing that lasts forever or for an indefinite period, in particular.

postzygotic isolation

a type of reproductive isolation that occurs after fertilization Offspring either don't survive or are sterile

Resistance

ability to maintain the same state even with ongoing disturbances

habitat/species management areas

aim to protect particular species or habitats and management reflects its priority; may need frequent intervention

ecocentric

all aspects of the environemtn livng and non living have inherent value

Seedlings, juveniles and adults ____

all have different ideal environments.

Species are Interdependent

all part of nature should be protected, It is in the long-term survival interest for humans to protect biodiversity, species extinction can have an effect on other species

Genetic Variation Purpose

allow species to adapt to environmental change - heterozygotes have grater fitness, growth, survival, and reproductive rates

How much rainfall do tropical forest get

almost 50%

Debt-for-Nature Swaps

another country swaps debt in exchange for nations agreement to perform conservation activity

Human dominion over the creation

anthropocentrism

20,000 of 22,000 varieties of plants _____

are used as food sources.

Complete Restoration

area is completely restored to its original species composition and structure by an active program of site modification and reintroduction of original species

minimum dynamic area

area of suitable habitat necessary for maintaining the MVP

Marginal Human Habitat

areas will remain uninhabited because of climate (deserts, tundra) or political or cultural reasons (Korean DMZ)

indicator species

associated with an endangered biological community or set of unique ecosystem processes

Partial Restoration

at least some of ecosystem is functional and some original, dominant species are restored -replacing degraded forest with tree plantation

Mather's mission throughout much of his tenure was to do what?

attract more park visitors

Experimental, Non-essential

authority to remove problem animals, reducing conflict

The introduction of this to the national parks is sometimes viewed as a "devil's bargain"?

automobiles

Which of the following does not describe science? a. A way of knowing b. an infallible method c. A quest for knowledge d. A process of inquiry

b. an infallible method

How was the Bald Eagle translocated? Why did they become endangered?

became endangered largely because of *pesticide DDT*, now off the endangered species list, natural recovery supplemented by translocation. Young birds reared in hacking boxes.

novel ecosystems

benefit, mixture of nonnative and native species is best suited to NEW conditions of an environment

Mutualistic Relationship

both species benefit, reach higher densities when they occur together

The decline of wildlife populations due to food hunting is called the?

bushmeat crisis

Adaptive Restoration

changing plan of ecological restoration based on goals achieved

No Action

choose to keep land as it is and don't touch it and see it if improves -passive restoration, let nature take care of itself

What is a gyre?

circulating pattern where the surface water move in a clock and counter clockwise motion

Which of the following biomes is represented by Antarctica?

cold desert

Seed Banks

collection of seeds from wild and cultivation -~10% of plant species in seed banks

What are seed banks?

collection of seeds, usual stored in cold, dry conditions (seeds of many species can remain dormant for long periods)

seed banks

collections of seeds from the wild and cultivation; 10% of plant species in seed banks now; reserve a variety of seeds from various geographical sources also important in preserving plant genetic diversity

John muir

communion with nature bring people closer to god, this use of nature is morally superior to exploitation - Preservation ethics

ecosystem management

cooperation to provide for human needs and maintain the health of wild species and ecosystems

Limitations of Ex-Situ Conservation

cost population size and genetic variability adaptation-->overly familiar with captivity concentration-->too many rare species in zoo ethical?

What bacteria is responsible for accumulation of atmospheric oxygen

cyanobacteria

wetlands

damaged or filled in, unappreciated, 50% wetlands gone, some of hardest systems to fix

Reconciliation Ecology

developing urban places where people and biodiversity can coexist

botanical gardens

easier to raise plants in captivity; base of food chain; serve as source of seed banks for rare species

Beavers are examples of?

ecosystem engineers

Parasites which live on the outside of the host are?

ectoparasites

What is the short term goal of ex situ conservation?

establish viable, genetically diverse captive breeding populations (esp. for threatened and endangered species)

Clean Water Act of 1972

established regulatory system for navigable waters on public and private land -meant to stop pollutant discharge

biofuel

ethanol and biodiesel

Environmental Ethics

ethical value of the natural world

Extinction Debt

eventual loss of species following habitat destruction and fragmentation

ethanol

fermentation of sugars -> ethanol + CO2

provisioning services

food, fresh water, wood, fuel; things that provide basics for life

Hydrologic cycle

forests regulate 33% of planets watershed. 5 billion people rely upon.

Endemic Species

found in a particular location and no where else

Endemic

found naturally only in a single geographic location

gasohol

gas + ethanol

Biophilia

genetic disposition to like biodiversity

Gene Flow

genetic transfer between populations (due to member of one population mating with member of different population)

Without the natural greenhouse effect, what would the global mean annual surface air temp be?

global mean annual surface air temp would be 33 degrees C lower that it is, or -18 degrees C

Survivorship Curve

graphical representation of life table data

survivorship curve

graphical representation of life table data (proportion of cohort that are still alive over time)

Several Small Cons

habitat fragmentation (edge effects, small population size, small densities, unable to support larger species, unable to support multiple habitats per preserve)

Minimum Dynamic Area

habitat needed to sustain minimum viable population

which of the following can be used dramatically reduce wildlife vehicle-collison mortalities and reduce habitat fragmentation impacts?

habitats corridors

Islands have...

high endemism

Type 3 survivorship curve

high reproductive rates but few make it to adulthood (ex: insects)

artificial incubation

human care of eggs when mother unable or under pressure

Ecosystem Approach

idea is to protect species, you must first protect the ecosystem they inhabit

Nature reserves aimed at saving a single species were first created...

in Poland in 1564 (wild cattle)

What are two examples of loss of genetic variability (loss of genetic diversity)?

inbreeding and loss of local adaptations

inbreeding depression

individual receives an identical defective copy of an allele from each parent; fewer, weak, sterile offspring with a higher mortality

biocentric ethic

individualistics: intrinsic value in every living thing

Species take precedence over

individuals

Extinct in the Wild

individuals of the species remain alive only in captivity or in human controlled situations

Invasive species often _____

inhibits return of native species.

Carbon monoxide kills animals by doing what to the blood?

interfering with hemoglobin's ability to bind with oxygen

UNESCO Biosphere Reserves Program

international agreement to protect biosphere

What is risk spreading?

isolated enough to buffer against single catastrophic events and to prevent the spread of disease and invasive species

Islands

isolation leads to diversification endemic species are common on islands

Qualitative data differs from quantitative data in that

it is descriptions, not numbers

reference sites

its characteristics are considered the target; act as controls for restoration experiments; can use old photos or historical accounts

Why is systematic conservation planning difficult?

knowledge of regional BV is rarely complete, so planning for comprehensiveness and representativeness often requires use of surrogate for total biodiversity.

Challenges in Park Management

lack of resources, management in a rapidly changing environment,

Aldo Leopold

land ethic - nature has intrinsic value, regardless of value to people

Paper Preserves

laws that lack funding, regulation, and protection for environmental problems

passive restoration

let nature take care of itself (ex: abandoned farm fields)

What is adequacy?

lg. enough to protect biodiversity and ecosystem functions over the long term and allow for continued evolution

The life table, an age-specific summary of survival patterns, was originally first developed by?

life-insurance companies

Habitat Corridors

link isolated patches using strips of protected land DOWNSIDE: highway for invasive species? Link for hunting? Some animals are weary of using them

Adaptive radiation

local adaptation and subsequent speciation

Habitat Destruction

main cause of loss of biodiversity result of: - agriculture - commercial developements - water projects - outdoor recreation - livestock grazing - pollution - infrastructure and roads - fire ecology - logging - desertification

Large Reserve Pros

maintain large, wide-ranging species, minimize amount of edge effects, encompass more species & have greater habitat diversity, more likely to preserve entire ecosystem processes, lower extinction rates

Keystone species

makes up a small proportion of a community's biomass, but has a huge impact on community richness, structure, and survival

Which group of animals tends to be dominant in tundra systems?

mammals

Fish surveys

may be seasonal -nets and traps electrofishing

genetic variation and metapopulations

measure genetic variation within a sub pop, within each sub pop diff defree of heterozygosity Ht= Hp + Hpt Hp= H1+H2+H3/3, average Hpt= average among variations between sub-pops, high Hpt siggests these two pops are similar, need to protect more areas protect all sub pops

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

measures economic activity within a country without accounting for all costs, particularly environmental ones

sustainable development

meets present and future human needs without damaging the environment and biodiversity

Cretaceous period ended how

meteor Iridium concentration spike in soil

clumping dispersion

most common; ex: cities around routes and water

tidal power

movement of water from tides (moon's gravity)

prairies

native species can grow without fertilizer, easy to incorporate volunteer labor

Ecological Resilience

natural ability to recover

Humans intensify ____

natural disturbances, create novel ones.

Common property resource (public goods)

natural resources that are owned by society

preservationist ethic

nature has spiritual values that are generally superior to tangible material gain obtained by their exploitation

Active Management

need human monitoring and intervention to survive, can be because of global effects

What area is most diverse

neotropics )afrotopics and indo-Malaya

Acid Rain

nitrogen and sulfer oxides into the air decline in ecosystem productivity and fertility, increase in mortality

Locally Extinct/ Extruoated

no longer found in a specific area the species once inhabited but can be found elsewhere

Paper Parks

no management; gradually lose species; abused because of lack of protection

density independent factors

not affected by current density (ex: tornadoes, forest fires, floods)

experimental, non-essential

not considered critical to species survival

effective population size

number of breeding individuals in a population - focus on females

Minimum Viable Population

number of individuals necessary to ensure the long term survival of a species --uses long term population data and habitat assessment

minimum viable population

number of individuals to ensure the long-term survival of a species

Density

number of individuals within a unit of area/volume -increased by immigration -decreased by emigration

density

number of individuals within a unit of area/volume; increased by birth and immigration, decreased by deaths and emigration

random dispersion

occurs because individuals don't have strong aversions or control over their dispersal

Genetic Bottleneck

occurs when a population is greatly reduced in size and loses its rare alleles --florida panther

Inbreeding Depression

occurs when individuals receive 2 identical copies of a defective allele from each of its parents result = higher mortality of offspring, fewer offspring, or offspring that are weak or sterile and have low mating success

Semelparity

one massive reproductive effort (conserve a lot of energy to create one huge event)--create a lot and weak ones will die out

semelparity

one massive reproductive event

Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

one of the most important (179 countries), restrict trade and halt destructive overexploitation of endangered species

The prospect of future value in terms of benefits to society is called?

option value

Antiquities Act of 1906

originated from concerns of Indian Artifact Robbery -allows president to set aside federal land as park or conservation land

Unprotected areas

over 80% terrestrial habitat

Gamma diversity

overal diversity for all ecosystems withing a large area

the issue with marine protected areas is that many of them are

paper preserves

dispersion

pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population

Conservation Reserve Program (USDA)

pays farmers to set aside some land as wildlife habitat, reduce soil erosion, and improve water quality

Conservation Reserve Program in US

pays farmers to set some crop land aside as wildlife habitat, reduce soil erosion, improve water quality

bioagumentation

people have to physically add the organisms

Biomagnification

pesticides become concentrated as they ascend the food chain - can also happen with water pollution

Draw the population regulation chart that includes density dependent and density independent regulations.

pg 25 of notes That picture is not the chart, but it tells what density dependent and independent factors are, but you do not need to know it because it is not in the notes

Roadless Area Conservation Rule (2001)

placed 1/3 of National Forests off-limits to road-building, logging, and development

Dingell-Johnson Act of 1950

places excise tax on fishing equipment, boats, and motorboat fuel --DOI distributes to state

Sink Population

population where poor habitat leads to high mortality rates and immigrants are needed to sustain numbers -->high disease, low resources, high predation, high exploitation etc.

Source Population

population which produces stable numbers and number of individuals migrate out

What did James Mason Hutchings not do for the conservation and national park idea?

prevented the logging of Yosemite forests and grazing of meadow

Type III Curve

produce a lot of young but they die quickly (insects)

Type I Curve

produce a small amount of young, but survive a long time (human)

Lacey Act of 1900

prohibits and regulates trade in wildlife, fish, and plants -regulates introduction of birds and other animals where they have never been before

Reconciliation energy

promote biodiversity in human-dominated landscapes - create habitat in urban settings - try to create situations where unprotected areas complement protected areas

Hotspot Approach

protect areas of high species richness

World Heritage Convention

protect cultural/natural areas of international importance

What is comprehensiveness?

protect examples of all species, pop, ecosys features, etc. in a region

Natural Monuments

protect specific natural monuments, which can be landforms, sea mounts, caverns, or even living features; generally small with high visitor value

protected landscapes/seascapes

protected areas where the interaction of people and nature have produced an area of distinct character with significant ecological, biological, cultural, and scenic value; safeguard interactions

Hotspot Approach

protecting areas that have great areas of biodiversity -megadiversity countries

The Species Approach: Umbrella Species

protecting based on species -broken up into indicator and flagship species

Species Approach

protection of umbrella species protects habitat for several other species

Natural Resources Conservation Service

provides technical service and advice to farmers, private landowners, and managers -->particularly soil surveys, habitat restorations, and water quality

flagship sp

public interest in conservation

What is the Global Crop Diversity Trust? Who manages it and where is it?

public, private partnership for preservation of genetic variation of crop plants for eternity -manages the Svalbard global seed vault (located within a mountain near Longyearbyen, Norway, holds over 500,000 samples)

Vulnerability

rare species (narrow range, specialized habitat, small populations) * declining population size * hunted or harvested (economic value to humans) - species that need large home range - large bodies species - not effective dispersers (can't cross roads, etc.) - seasonal migrants - little genetic variability - niche requirements - stable, pristine environment species - aggregation species - no prior human constant - species with relatives recently exteinct

Beta Diversity

rate of change of species composition along an environmental or geographical gradient (if you are comparing 3 mountains) - calculated: gamma diversity/alpha diversity

discount rate

rate which the capital could return if invested in some other way

Holistic

recoginizes species or aggregates of living things, but species are not living, so one could argue that a holistic approach isn't possible

developing urban places where people and biodiversity can coexist is called?

reconciliation ecology

Biota

region's flora and fauna

Clean Air Act of 1970

regulates air emissions from area, stationary, or mobile sources -meant to protect atmospheric resource

Theory of Island Biogeography

reserves often treated as habitat islands; basis for many design strategies

reinforcement program

restock or augment individuals existing populations to increase size and gene pool

Reinforcement Program

restock or augment individuals existing populations to increase size and gene pool --hatchery releases

uniform dispersion

result of territoriality

Metapopulation

series of population exhibiting this pattern of extinction and recolonization

Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (1980)

single largest preservation act (Carter) -placed 157M acres as parks, wildlife refuges, monuments, etc.

Populations in a metapopulation which are dependent on immigrants to sustain them are called?

sinks

Novel Ecosystems

sites with a mixture of native and nonnative species

Feeding and sheltering animals in the wild until they lean to survive, sometimes in pens, is known as?

soft release

nonegalitarion

some living thanings have greater value than others

plant surveys

speciemans must be fertile (flowering or with seeds) multiple visit required to complete inventory

Representative Sites

species and environmental conditions characteristic to that ecosystem

Objections of survey

species management - pattern spcies richness biodiversity hotspot - create protected areas

Invasive Species

spread and increase in abundance rapidly, sometimes at the expense of native species through competition for resources, prey, alter habitat - when invasive species dominate a community, diversity and native plant specie abundance declines - islands, lakes, and streams more vulnerable (no predator defenses)

Department of Natural Resources

states have own form of protecting wildlife --in midwest this is common

Extant

still living

demographics

study of the vital statistics and how they change over time

biosphere reserves (UNESCO)

surround a core of restricted habitat area surrounded with a buffer of limited human use, then transition zone of sustainable use

Type 2 survivorship curve

susceptible to disease equally throughout lifespan

Several Small Pros

target multiple species/ecosystems (more species for your buck), more socially acceptable, more financially feasible, easier to manage entire habitats, avoid "all eggs in one basket" by treating them as metapopulations

This is the biome of Notre Dame

temperate deciduous forest

More effort spent on pets ____

than ex-situ conservation worldwide. 50 million cats/dogs as pets

Sentience

the ability to experience pleasure and pain

Preservation

the action of preserving something

Minimum Dynamic Area (MDA)

the area of suitable habitat necessary for maintaining the minimum viable population

Environmental ethics

the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings to and also the value and moral status of, the environment and its nonhuman contest.

Alpha Diversity

the number of SPECIES in a certain community or designated area (if you could only save 1 mountain)

Gamma Diversity

the number of species in a large region or continent (if you could only save 1 mountain range)

Genetic Drift

the random process of allele frequency change that causes a loss in genetic variation due to which individuals survive to sexual maturity, mate, and reproduce

Define biodiversity as per The Wildlife Society

the richness, abundance and variability of plant and animal species and communities and the ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES THAT LINK THEM WITH ONE ANOTHER AN WITH SOIL, AIR, & WATER

Restoration Ecology

the science of ecological restoration

Restoration Ecology

the science of restoration; the research and scientific study of restored populations, communities, and ecosystems

phenology

the study of the relationship between climate and periodic (usually annual) biological phenomena ex- bird migration and plant flowering.

Demographics

the study of vital statistics of populations and how they change over time

what is genetic variation?

three levels 1. individual or heterozygosity 2. within population 3. between populations

this form of hydroelectric power uses the gravitational pull of the moon instead of the flow of rivers

tidal power

Leopold said the main goal of conservation should be....

to maintain the health of ecological processes

Revealed preference

travel cost method, how much do individuals pay to get here

Soil stores 1.8 times the carbon and 18time the nitrogen plants can use.

tru

National Environmental Funds

trust funds for supporting conservation in developing countries

National Environmental Funds

trust funds for supporting conservation in developing countries -money comes from world bank and conservation organizations like World Wildlife Fund

Wind Energy

turn wind turbine, water pumps, grain grinders, ship movement, <1% of all electricity but can be hazardous to birds and not aesthetically pleasing

Types of Dispersion

uniform, clumping, random

Biocontrol

use one type of organism to manage another

Theory of Island Biology

used to anticipate and assess reserve designs

Artificial Insemination

used to promote genetic diversity, sometimes animals lose interest in mating when in captivity

Aquaria have a prominent role in conservation of what species?

whale conservation (personnel often respond to whale strandings, etc. (2008)

Founder Effect

when a few individuals leave a population and colonize a new one, but there is not a ton of genetic variability --Isle Royale wolves, founded in 1940s by 1F and 2M

Phyletic Evolution

when a population has undergone so much genetic change that it is no longer able to interbreed

Kyoto Protocol -

Agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions below 1990 levels Very popular/important

Border controls:

Agricultural inspections Diseases

Coral bleaching, an expected consequence of climate change, is largely caused by disrupting symbiotic relationships between corals and what group?

Algae

Hinduism

All beings are a manifestation of the one being (Brahman). To harm other beings is to harm oneself

Australia, which has really been hit hard by invasives, is dealing with?

All of the above

Wildlife parks in Africa -

Allowing trophy hunting in conservation areas Population monitoring

Put these in order of greatest to least genetic difference among populations Mammals, Amphibians, Birds, Insects

Amphibians, Mammals, Insects, Birds

monophyletic group

An ancestral population and all its descendants

Indicator species

An indicator species is an organism whose presence, absence or abundance reflects a specific environmental condition. Example: Salmon are an indicator species for wetland ecosystems

What is a keystone species?

An organism that plays a unique and crucial role in the way an ecosystem functions

Where is the "hole" in the ozone layer?

Antarctica

Which law grants the US President the power to preserve any piece of government land as a National Monument?

Antiquities Act

Which of the following allows the president to create National Monuments without the authority of Congress?

Antiquities Act

What is an ecotone?

Area of transition between two ecosystems

Classification of Communities

Areas with similar physical limiting factors often support similar communities.

What are the trends in atmospheric CO2 concentration? (know numbers*)

Atmospheric CO2 has increased from 280 ppm in 1750 to 400 ppm today****** Emissions have increased from 2 billion tons annually in 1850 to 35 billion tons annually in 2009 Adding about 2 ppm per year

Trout -

Augmented in Lake Mead Artificial augmentation Population decline due to water quality

Precautionary Principle

Avoid practices that could lead to irrevocable harm

What are the four primary factors that contribute to population change? Tell weather each factor cause an increase or a decrease in population size.

BIDE: Birth & Immigration: cause increase in population Death and Emigration: cause decrease in population

Transplanting:

Bare root Root ball

morphospecies concept

Based on size shape and morphology

Why is the global 200 ecoregions a better representation of all biomes than biodiversity hot-spots?

Because biodiversity hot-spot approach does not represent low biodiversity regions

Why are plastics pollutants? About how many are there? And where do most of them come from?

Because discarded plastic objects photo-degrade into small pellets and those pellets accumulate in subtropical gyres Estimated 5 trillion pieces of plastic Most from fishing nets and buoys

Why is the ocean acidifying?

Because the ocean absorbs about half of human created CO2 and that CO2 reacts with water to make carbonic acid

Why can ecological restoration be a scientific opportunity?

Because you can study more simple ecosystems and then introduce more and more components and see how it effects the ecosystem

Problems w/zoos:

Behaviors may be altered in zoos Increased risks of disease/infection Highly concentrated #s of species

Conservation Virtues

Behaviors that advance conservation in everyday life, which are based on conservation values

Land Undesirable to Humans

- Border areas (North and South Korea - Mountain areas -Desert and Tundra

Extractive Reserves Example

- Brazil - medical plants, edible seeds, rubber, resins, and Brazil nuts are collected from reserves - 300 million ha - Guarantee local people's way of life - Protect against cattle ranching and farming - Yet, populations of large wild animals are sometimes reduced by subsistence hunting - Densities of Brazil nut seedlings reduced

Baboon Sanctuary

- Conservation biologists provide: 1. Training to local nature guides 2. Scientific information about local wildlife 3. Funds for a local museum of natural history 4. Business training for the village leaders

Integrated Conservation Development Projects (ICDPs)

- Conservation projects where the economic needs of local people are included in conservation management plans to the benefit of both people and reserve - Attempt to reduce poverty, create jobs, improve health, and ensure food security

In Situ Agricultural Continued

- Countries like Israel and India have established reserves to conserve areas containing wild relatives and ancient landraces of commercial crops - Plants include wild relatives of wheat, oats and barley as well as citrus

IUCN Redlist

- Extinct - Extinct in Wild - captivity (some reintroduced) - Critically Endangered - 'extremely high risk' - Black Rhino - Endangered - 'very high risk' - Whooping Crane - Vulnerable - 'high risk' - orangutan - Near Threatened - focus of conservation programs to ensure they do not reach CE, E, or V status - Least Concern - Widespread and abundant - Data Deficient - Not Evaluated

PES Concepts

- Forest owners may receive direct payments from a city government for the ecosystem services provided by the forest 1. Drinking water 2. Flood control 3. Etc. - Landowners and farmers paid for allowing large predators on their land; additional payments for damage - Rural people can be drawn into newly developing international markets for ecosystem services (carbon credits)

Community-based initiatives

- In many areas, local people already protect natural areas and resources - This is called community conserved areas, or community-based conservation (CBC) - Enforced by village elders because of the benefits to local people - Benefits include maintaining natural resources (food and water) - Maintain land for religious and traditional practices - A goal of a CBC is to align ecological, economic, and social goals

Multiple-use Habitat

- Large parcels of government land that are managed to provide a variety of goods and services - Conflicts can arise as to how lands should be used - Especially important in areas like Nevada where 83% of the land is owned by the government

Private Land

- Large tracts may be subjected to low impact and maintain much diversity (European Estates) - Also important on small properties; even yards - Back

Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) programs in Africa

- Local landowners and communal groups are given the authority to manage and profit from the wildlife on their property

In Situ Agricultural Conservation

- Long-term health of modern agriculture depends on the preservation of the genetic variability maintained in local varieties of crops cultivated by traditional farmers - Idea - subsidize villages as in situ (in-place) custodians of traditional varieties of crop species - This is being done with rice in China

Evaluating Conservation Initiatives That Involve Traditional Societies

- Many ICPDs end abruptly if funding ends. - Many projects that appear successful are not monitored and evaluated properly. - These types of project are often very difficult and even impossible.

Unprotected Waters

- Most marine diversity exists outside of protected areas - Aquatic species appear to have higher abundances inside protected areas

Unprotected Grasslands

- Mowed edges of roadsides - provides an open grassland community that is critical for species such a butterflies - Mowed power lines may provide corridors; 2 million ha in the US - Remnant prairies

Tukano Indians of NW Brazil

- Strong religious and cultural prohibitions against cutting the forest along the Upper Rio Negro - They recognize this as important to the maintenance of fish populations

Extractive Reserves

- Traditional people have historically extracted products - Use, barter and sell are a major part of people's livelihood - Extractive reserves - protected areas where local people can still extract resources in a way that minimizes damage

Biosphere Reserves

- United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organization's (UNESCO) World Network of Biosphere Reserves allows traditional people to use resources from a designated buffer area around protected core areas - 621 Biosphere Reserves in 117 countries - Ex. Kuna Yala indigenous Reserve on the northeast coast of Panama

Biodiversity Crisis

- caused by increased human population, widespread poverty, and unequal consumption of resources

Variation in reproductive output

- disproportionate representation of individuals in gene pool in next generation - reduces Ne - greater variation in output = more effective population size is lowered

Ethical Principles of Conservation Biology

- diversity of species and ecosystems should be preserved - ultimate extinctions of populations and species should be prevented - ecological complexity should be maintained - evolution should continue - biodiversity has intrinsic value

Evidence of extinction vortices

- for 10 monitored pop extinction events: 4 out of the 10 increases in abundance were never observed after N<50, 2 out of 10 icreases in abundance were observed even with fewer than 10 individuals but increases wer short-lived -final census counts were N=2 to 26 before extinction -as populations near extinction, stochastic events become more impt: greater variability in pop size - the pull of the vortex: smaller pops are more likely to decline, more likely to go extinct

Species Diversity

- greatest in tropics (rain forest, coral reefs, tropical lakes, deep sea, and shrublands) - increase with decreased elevation and increased solar radiation and precipitation (hot, rainy, lowlands) - larger areas = large range of habitat for species to evolve and live (niche specialization) - increase towards the equator

Global Climate Change

- happening very quickly, species will not be able to adjust - climate regions in the northern and southern temperate zones will be shifted towards their poles - small changes can have large effects - habitat fragmentation could prevent animals from migrating to better suitable environments - some plants will adapt to use more CO2 - massive flooding of coastal cities - only fast-growing species will be able to survive (coral reefs) - increase temperature, decrease pH, increased sea levels

why does destruction of nature continue

- information failures -market failures -perverse subsidies

Loss of Genetic Variation

- limit species ability to respond to new condition and long-term changes in the environment - limit environmental flexibility - rate of evolutionary change in a population is directly related to the genetic variation in the population

Increase in Genetic Variation

- mutation (v. low) - migration (gene flow)

Extinction

- occurring 100 times faster than the natural rate of extinction, natural process

Co-management

- partnership of traditional people, government agencies, and conservation organizations working together - involves sharing management decisions and their consequences; avoid ecocolonialism

population fluctuation/bottlenecks

- population size is between lowest and highest numbers of breeding individuals Ne = t / (1/N1 + 1/N2 + 1/N3 ... + 1/Nt) - calculated over a period of years - most determined by the years in which population size was the smallest - bottleneck = reduces size and loses rare alleles - type of bottleneck = founder effect = leave one population to establish another, new population has less genetic variability - result = reduced genetic variability, high levels of sperm abnormalities, reduced reproductive rates, increased cub mortality and higher rates of infection - rapid expansion can restore - random fluctuation in birth and death rates, disruption of social behavior follow decreased population density, and environmental stochasticity all contribute to instability in population size leading to local extinction

ICDP Strategies

- range from wildlife management to ecotourism - may or may not include protected land - attempt to combine protection of biodiversity and the customs of traditional societies with aspects of economic development

Arguments for Conservation Biolody

- religious - god's creation - ethical - economical - enlightened self-interest - human well-being - intrinsic value of species - moral responsibility - future generations - quality of life - environmental justice (respect for all life) - deep ecology (equal rights)

Unprotected Forests

- selective harvest can be compatible with conservation - Most ecosystem services can be maintained

Blackfooted ferret history

-1970s: decling in wild, small captive pop- closely related (genetic probs) and infected with canine distemper virus (CDV), result: few offspring, died out -1979: species presumed extinct -1981: new pop discovered but declining- CDV and sylvatic plague in wild pop -> 50% decline in 4 years (env. stochasticity), new captive pop but no successful repro until added older males (demographic stochasticity) -1986091: captive pop increasing, from 7 genetic founders, 4500 juveniles to date

Conservaion Effort, a timeline

-1975, declared threatened in oregon -1989 congress established the interagency scientific committee to develop a scientifically defensible conservation strategy for WA, OR, CA -1990 was declared threatened under ESA -1990 ISC recommended the establishment of an extensive network of large reserves -1992, FWS designated 6.9 million acres of critical habitat in CA, OR, WA

Reintroduction program

-1991-2001: 1200 captives released into several wild pops -preconditioning- enclosures on release area, dig praire dog burrows, train young to avoid predators -successful? maybe- some pops stable or increasing, others not

50/500 Rule

-50 individuals to reduce inbreeding depression (based on studies of domestic animals) -500 individuals to produce mutations that compensate for losses due to genetic drift -though nifty the 50/500 rule is considered outdated, not viable over many generations -revision: should really be the 500/5000 rule

context for current extinction rates: Historic extinctions

-6 mass extinctions- 1. Ordovician: 50% of animal families including many trilobites 2. Devonian: 30% of animal families 3. Permian: 50% of all animal families including over 90% of marine species; many trees, amphibians etc 4. Triassic: 35% of animal families including many reptiles and marine mollusks 5. Cretaceous: reptiles (dinosaurs): many marine species, due to astroid 6. Current: many groups. extinctions largely the result of human activities -relatively number of groups increases over time

Edge Effects

-Changes in population or community structure that occur at the boundary of two habitats. -As edge effects increase, the boundary habitat allows for greater biodiversity. -out perimeter of fragmented piece of land is negatively affected by land surrounding the fragments. animals at edge could get killed by outside of the park, spp outside might migrate in that arent good for fragment environment, vegetation cant grow -perimeter/area- small park will have larger ratio of edge to area, effects of this are stronger in small parks

Cloning vs Deep de-extincition

-Cloning used to bring species back that have recently gone extinct -deep de-extinctions purpose is bring species back that have been extinct for decades, centuries, or even millennia. -In de-extinction the scientist tries to reconstruct a close approximation of the extinct species using - genome information found in preserved DNA (e.g. DNA found in fossil) - genetic information from close living relatives - interspecies somatic cell nuclear transfer (cloning)

Species Migration

-Consequence of warmer climate -As climate shifts, areas best suited to each species will also shift -Species migrate POLEWARD and UPSLOPE -Less mobile species may not be able to migrate quickly enough

CMS or Bonn Convention

-Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals -signed by 119 countries -encourages international efforts to conserve bird, bat, and cetacean species

Limitations of Ex situ Conservation

-Cost -Continuity -Population Size -Adaption (more docile) -Learning Skills -Genetic Variation

Captive Breeding Techniques

-Double-clutching and cross-fostering -Artificial incubation -Artificial insemination -Embryo transfer

Scales of Conservation Planning

-Global -Regional -Local

What species are vulnerable to extinction?

-Highly specialized -One/few populations -Small population size -Highly over-exploited -Declining populations

Consequences of Predator Control

-Huge increases in large grazing animals -Destruction of vegetation by grazers -Deer overpopulation and starvation

Assembling Portfolios

-Info analyzed by teams using computer modeling -Teams design an efficient network of conservation areas ("portfolio") -If the portfolio is protected in its entirety, preservation of biodiversity within the ecoregion will be assured.

What gives a protected area "resilience" to climate change?

-Landscape Diversity (heterogeneity) -Landscape Permeability

Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP)

-Large human population, heavy oil tanker traffic, weak tides - Pollution from cities, agriculture, and industry threaten the ecosystem, tourist industry, and fishing industries

Value of Ex situ conservation?

-May be only way to perpetuate some species -Allows biologists to work closely with an organism and develop technology -Organisms can be used for public education -Can limit disease and predation -Can control breeding: "Captive breeding"

Planning at Regional Scales

-More effective than at the global level -More easily executed -Appropriate unit: ECOREGION

Non-matrix communities

-Occur as patches within or adjacent to matrix forest -Contains unique species and groups of species

Introduction Diffficulties

-Outbreeding/Inbreeding (eliminate hybrids) -often expensive and difficult -high emotionality -risk of dependency on people

What do matrix forests do?

-Provide habitat and corridors for large, free-roaming vertebrates -Surround natural communities that occur as small patches, buffering them -Buffer rivers and floodplains

Management of Vulnerable Species

-Set and enforce regulations -Establish new populations -Increase population size

Assessing Viability

-Team assesses health of each occurrence of each conservation target -Goal is to ensure persistence by choosing the best and most healthy examples of each target

Spotted Owl Management ISC proposal

-acknowleged biological and non-biological data -addressed two source of threats: pressure from human activity, stochastic phenomena -developed to assure 100 year of owl's persistance -did not considered genetic -based on spatial data 1. current and historical distribution NSO 2. current and historical distribution of habitat 3. survery/census of populations 4. land ownership -based on hypothesis testing (using maps) H1: growth, NSO is increasing H2: habitat specialization, NSO doesnt differentiate between habitat H3: habitat loss, no habitat has occurred in habitat selected by NSO -hypothesis all rejected

Life tables

-age specific summaries of survival tactics of a species (developed by life insurance companies) -often follow fate of a cohort (or generation)

Old Growth Forest- 1950

-almost all has been harvested in private lands in WA, OR, CA -remaining 10-15% was found almost exclusively in public lands as well

Population viability Analysis (PVA)

-an estimate of the ability of a pop to persist in the future -using existing pop demography and environmental data to predict future pop sizes -can add in various other factors (eg management strategies) to see how they would influence pop size ex Mexican palm -the effects of demographic variation, low environmnetal variation and moderate environmental variation affect the probablilyt of extinction of a pop of mexican palm species -MVP defined as the pop size at which there is less than 5% chance of the pops going extinct within 100 years, number of indivs needed to give the pop a 95% prob of persisting for 100 years

IUCN Red List criteria

-based on the developing methodds of pop viability analysis -criteria focus on pop trends and habitat condition -provides a standard method of classification -detailed lists o endangered species by group and country

Major Threats to: Boreal Forest

-being heavily logged at an alarming rate -old growth at risk

Inbreeding can be positive

-by crossing individuals possessing deleterious alleles. it might be possible to derive some offspring that dont have these deleterious alleles (assuming allele is not fixed) -inbreeding can be used to fix desirable alleles/traits eg short legs, resistance to pathogen etc

Islands have endemic species

-by default more rare and vulerable -endemics: specialized to a naroow range of habitats, susceptible to novel predators and diseases

what does it mean to be rare

-can be sparsley distributed throughout its range like american chestnut or spottym relict pops like tea mangrove

Step 3: recovery?

-canine distemper and plague, genetic bottleneck, poor prey base (prairie dogs hibernate) -but 59% exponential growth of pop since 2005 -225 animals alive in wild in 2006 -early survival and recruitment are key stages

Mitigation

-create new habitats or pops elsewhere as compensation for others damaged or destroyed -low success rate -artificial habitats not as good as functional not as diverse -top priority = protect exisiting pops and habitats

sixth extinction

-currently going through 6th extinction -when any species goes extinct whole genetic library of tht species is lost

biological consequences of fragmentation

-decreased genetic diversity, local extinction, reduced accesss to resources, trophic level effect, reduced gene flow/biodiversity, dec in immigration rate- even lower colonization, barriers, crowding, edge effect, change in climate-microclimate

Uncertainty in human-caused extinction rates

-difficult to conclusively document absence -competing theories of exteinction drivers esp. for prehistoric extinctions, eg hunting -documentation only for conspicuous species eg birds and mammals -EXTINCTION DEBT- habitat loss will result in extinctions in the future not yet realized -similarly, species thought to be extant may be really be extinct

Major Threats to: Temperate Deciduous Forests

-extensive settlement, logging, and conversion to agriculture

Kinds of extinction: Locally extinct

-extinction of a population, the species survives elsewhere -eg American Burying Beetle: previously widespread now an "island" species

Bottlenecks

-extreme reductions in pop size -loss of individuals with rare alleles -loss of gen. variation (unequal representation of surviving genotypes)

Extinction Votices

-feedback that pull small pops toward extinction: 1. loss of genetic variability- inbreeding depression and genetic drift 2. demographic fluctuations from random variation in birth and death rates 3. environmental fluctuations and natural catastrophes

Founder effects

-few colonizing individuals have a non-random incomplete set of genes as compared to the larger pop -applications to conservation biology: captive breeding, disease epidemics, re-introductions, invasive species

Major Threats to: Savannas and Thorn Forest

-fires set by humans maintain savannas but kill saplings and seedlings -cattle ranching and overhunting have reduced large mammal numbers

captive population and avoidance of inbreeding

-founder effect in zoos- only few individuals begin the new captive population: result: immediate loss in allelic diversity -management strategies: know pedigree of animals and track who breeds with who

Edge effect: Fragments- parks

-fragment forest, does size of fragment have affect on species diversity? -higher dec in biomass in patches closer to edges

why should we care to lose genetic variation?

-genetic variation allows for adaptations and respond to changes in the environment eg respond to climate chane 1. natural selection and evolution- the rate evolutionary change in a pop is proportional to the amount of genetic diversity available 2. heterozygosity- high genetic variation within individuals or pops is often related to fitness

Endangered Species Act

-goal: to provide a means whereby ecosystems upon which threatened and endangered species depend are conserved, to provide a program for the conservation and recovery of species -endangered- likely to become extinct due to human activities or natural causes in most of all of its range -threatened- likely to become endangered in the near future

IUCN- International Union for Conservation of Nature

-has establihed conservation categories to mark status of rare and endangered species -uses quantitative info including area occupied by the species and the number of mature individuals presently alive, to assign species to categories

Major Threats to: Chaparral

-heavily settled and turned into agriculture and urban settings -humans exacerbate fire frequency

Successful program traits

-identify original causes for decline -careful site selection crucial -use many sites -use many, older individuals- keep sex ratios balanced, add adults, add >100 individuals) -repeat several times- keep adding indivs for many years -soft release -monitor pops and threats for success- evidence of survival, breeding, pop inc?, what prevents recovery?, informs management, suggests changes (=adaptive management) -address genetic issues (Ne, etc) -involve local community- incentives not penalties, educational and employment opportunities

Maintenance of genetic diversity: Migration

-immigrants buffer loss -in a pop of Ne=120, 1 migrant is plenty to maintain genetic diversity

Free-ranging cats

-impact on islands: have contributed to species extinction in islands. -impact on mainlands: also an effect on species on mainland but measuring impact on species mortality has been difficult -problem of Trap-Neutor-Return programs- Cats that are neutered are release to the wild, and they will continue killing birds and small mammals. It slows down population growth of free ranging cats only

Meta-population dynamics

-in some cases, meta-population dynamics are needed to understand pop viability -meta-population- subpops spatially isolated, connected through migration -loss of one pop can negatively affect other pops

Outbreeding depression

-incompatible mating of 2 (sub)species or populations -condition that results in weakness, sterility or lack of adaptability to environment eg horses + donkeys= sterile mules

Whooping Crane

-intensively managed under ESA -1942: 16 birds -2014: >500 birds, 400 in the wild -what makes crane vulnerable- hunted for meat and feathers, live in wetlands which are lostm migratory species- need to stop at various wetlands -challenges- legal protection..enough?, development of international agreement, this species migrates between canada and usa, create and manage protected areas, research, captive programs -captive program- birds lay two eggs, one os left with wild pair, one is moved to MD, eggs incubated by whooping cranes and sandhill cranes and/or incubators, training: wore whooping crane costume, after hatching learn with a puppet to eat, young cranes imprint on ultralight aircraft to show them how to migrate, rarely reproduce successfully- probably because of a lack of interactions with any actual parents so were unable to teach their own, live in wetlands which are constantly degrading, also reproduce slow

Major Threats to: Aquatic and Wetlands

-invasive species -climate change -trawling -over-fishing -filling -water pollutants

Species area relationship

-islands with larger areas have more species than islands with smaller areas- inc likelihood of speciation and dec the probability of local extinction S=CA^Z -explains half of observed variation -S= number species, A= area, C,Z= constants, depend on type of island and taxonomic group -number of species occuring on an island represents a dynamic equilibrium between the colonization of new species and the extinction rate of existing species -larger islands will have higher establishment rates becuase larger target for dispersing animals to find and more likely to have suitable habitat for colonization. -the extinction rates will be lower on larger islands because of greater habitat diversity and greater numbers of pops -rates of immigration higher for islands near mainland since dispersing is easier

Local conservation methods

-land trusts- private, non-profit groups that purchase or accept donations of land for conservation -conservation easements- a legal restriction placed on a property and its resources the sale of rights to subdivide or develop -sustainble development- development that satisfies needs of the present and future eg conservation development

What is the purpose of protected area shape? What shape is ideal?

-large and with low perimeter to area ratio to *minimize edge effects and to minimize costs of maintaining boundaries* -roughly circular areas are ideal

island size can predict species richness

-larger area-> more species fond

National conservation measures beyond the end spp act

-laws- in addition to the end spp act, regulate: harvest levels, natural resource extraction, trade -environmental impact statements- disclosure of type and amount of env. damage caused by a particular project (required by NEPA) and alternatives -ecological risk assessments- process that evaluates the likelihood of ecological harm from a stressor eg pesticide or chemical exposure -designation of protected areas

Major Threats to: Deserts

-long distance travel allows human settlement -irrigated agriculture & urbanization reduced natural biodiversity

Why do small populations go extinct abruptly?

-loss of genetic variability -environmental fluctuations, such as floods, storms, disease, natural disasters -demographic fluctuations, random variations in birth and death rates

Where is species diversity the greatest?

-low altitude (or shallow water) tend to have more - larger land masses have more species. - areas with medium disturbance levels have more species. - areas with more structure complexity - areas with higher alpha richness tend to be more stable --> small changes less catastrophic. less susceptible to invasion

Population Size

-minimum viable population (MVP)= smallest number of individuals having very high (99%) chance of surviving for the foreseeable future (1000yrs) -similar to flood control, plan for the "50 yr flood" (not avg water level) -probably 500-5000 individuals needed to minimize genetic and demographic problems -requires detailed demographic and environmental info -problem- many species have pop sizes smaller than these recommended minimums

Is ESA effective?

-most species listed when already at low numbers -60 candidate species (biologically warrant listing)- this number has declined greatly (from almost 300) under the current administration -151 species with outstanding petition for listing -difficult to recover sufficiently to remove from list -current total: 1585 listings- 62 delisted, 33 recovered, 10 extinct, 50% still declining, 50% stable, 20% of listed species= data deficient -more effective with: greater funding, longer time of listing, critical habitat and recovery plan, buy-in from private property owners -longer protection usually means better chance of improving status

Kinds of extinction: Globally extinct

-no longer exists anywhere -ex. Dodo -widespread decline and extinction of Australian mammals- 273 endemic terrestrial mammals, going extinct at 0.05% per year for 200 years or 1 species per decade total of 11% are extinctand 21% of extant spp assessed as threatened, taxonomically unique: monotremes, marsupials

Habitat

-old growth forest -often in forest dominated by Douglas fir -nesting and foraging in old growth -some nesting second growth forest (70-140 year old forest) -distribution- 3 subspecies

put it together: extinction vortex

-once a pop becomes small it is even more likely to decrease further environmental,demogrpahic and genetic variation interact and increase vulnerability -hard to get out of this feedback loop (vortex) -will require highly favorable conditions at all 3 levels to recover -extinction vortices progressively lower pop size, leading to local extinctions of species

why would your observed number of species in parks be different than the expected using the equation?

-perhaps a park is very isolated and therefore migrants cant reach is from surrounding parks and it will have fewer than the expected number of species than that predicted -if a park is irregularly shaped, edge effects may predominate and it may contain the number of species predicted for a much smaller area park -given park may be affected by certain esoteric features, threats or events, for ex if polluted -also park is diff than island and eq is for islands

Major Threats to: Coral Reegs

-physical damage from fishing practices -coral bleaching from climate change (changes acidification)

Why is it so difficult to recover species?

-political, administrative, financial considerations -USFWS uses $350 million/year for land acquistion and legal expenses -estimated needs= $4 billion to delist all spp, species listed faster than money earned -govt must compensate private landowners for lack of economic development when land protected for T&E spp

How to asses at-risk status?

-pop size- # of individuals -subpops- # of distinct pops -condition- viability of pops -range- extent of occurrence and area of occupancy -trends- change in #indivs, # pops, # areas -threats- known, suspectedm likely threats -fragility- biological traits -protected occurrences- # protected pops

Local extinctions= loss of genetic diversity

-population loss is roughly equivalent to habitat loss eg 90% of area lost= 90% of pops lost -ultimately can threaten a species' existence

Some life history traits

-predator- feed at night, mainly wood rats, mouse and squirrels -pairs mate for life -begin breeding 2-3 yr ago, produce 2-3 eggs -young disperse as far as 60-125 miles -territorial need large areas for hunting/nesting

Species-area relationship on a linear scale

-predict loss of species with loss of area -IBT can be used to predict how many species will go extinct due to habitat loss. can be used to predict how many species will remain in protected areas of different sizes -loss of 50% area= loss of 10% species -loss of 90% area= 50% species gone

"Take"

-prevents harming or taking of listed species, including by indirect means (eg habitat loss of alteration) -may limit private landowners on personal property- 10% listed species only on private land

Specialized habitat

-problem: global (climate) change and habitat loss, cant survive elsewhere -solution: protect and manage habitat ex: salt marsh plants, serpentine soils

small population sizes

-problems: loss of genetic diversity important, stochastic events -solutions: reduce fragmentation, maintain connections between subpops, promote interchanges gene flow, protect many pops ex- florida panther -greater vulnerability to demographic and environmental variation

Wildlife Services

-provides leadership skills to solve human-wildlife conflict and wildlife damage management -provides technical support for groups interested in science based research into wildlife problems

Why do some species go extinct and not others?

-rarity: some species normally at low abundance or few pops (keep them here) -vulnerability: different species have different sensitivies to environmental factors- may be associate with biology or with threats, different problems require diff solutions

Background Extinction Rate

-rate at which species go extinct without human influence- look at extinction over time through fossils -species live 1 to 10 million years -in any year, chances are 1 in 1 million to 1 in 10 million that a given species will go extinct -given about 10 million species alive -> 1 to 10 species will naturally go extinct each year -calc the background extinction rate: 1 to 10/10,000,000= .000001 to .0000001= 0.0001% to 0.00001% per year -current rate of extinction: empirical: 0.01% to 0.1% per year- extinction rates are 100x the background rate

Maintenance of genetic diversity: Mutation

-realistically mutation rate wont be high enough to maintain genetic diversity -realistic mut rate is 0.0001 to 0.001, need mut rate of 0.1

Habitat Conservation Plans

-regional plan, allows development in designated areas but protect patches with T&E spp. developers pay into conservation fund -goal: to enhance the propagation or survival of the affected species and to the maximum extent practical, minimize and mitigate' the impacts of actions prohibited under the Act

Vulnerability- major factors

-restricted geographic range- oceanic islands, lake spp, mtn tops -specialized habitat -small pop size- FL panther -declining pop- the #1 predictor of extinction likelihood, ex many amphibians -few # pos- FL panther -hunter species- sea turtles -large home range- tigers, jaguars -large body size- whales -poor dispersers- unionid mussels -migrants- monarch butterflies -low genetic variation- cheetah -specialized niche requirements- hellbenders -intolerant of disturbance- old growth species -aggregating species- bats

Legal Process

-secretary of the interior (terrestial and aquatic) or commerce/(marine) can list and delist species - >1500 US species listed since 1973, majority plants -all govt agencies must consult prior to activities: will activities harm T&E species or their habitats? many on federal lands -also prevents "take" on private property (controversial)

Island size and distance

-size- smaller areas lose species faster, gain species slower -distance- more isolated areas lose species faster, gain species slower

Leadbeater's possum

-small nocturnal, endangered -surveys of meta-population, sub-populations, individual colonies in den trees -pops expected to decline by 90% in 20-30 yrs due to timber and paper forestry and fire -management implications: large reserves, corridors within timber areas, retain habitat on logged sites

Behavioral Considerations

-social animals learn from others- group hunting, migration, mating rituals (whooping cranes) -captivity does not encourage learning, exploration or experimentation -train captives to dangers of life in the wild - first captive bred CA condor chicks imprinted to their human caretakers so had to use puppet

Types of release (animals)

-soft (continued food, help) -Hard (sink or swim) -initial CA condor realeases: ate antifreese, electrocuted by power lines, had to learn to avoid human obstacles, eventually overcame once power line taken down- success story)

Conclusions

-sometimes only a single founder can lead to perfectly healthy population -when inbreeding follows a founder event, deleterious alleles are often expressed- the correct strategy: to maximize growth of the pop, select for inbred with higher reproductive effect, equalize founder effect

Major Threats to: Tundra

-sparsely settled, but being exploited for mineral and oil

Narrow Geographic range

-stochastic- random and unpredictable events important -problem: problematic to move to increase pop number or habitat area -solution: protect and manage carefully its small range ex golden toad -especially vulnerable to to global climate change

Some species more likely to recover

-survery of bird and mammal reintroductions -actual success rate= 16/145 (11%)- fish 26%, reptiles (0%) very low -game species (86%)> T&E (44%) -high (84%) > low (38%) quality habitat -core of historic range (78%) >elsewhere (38%) -wild caught (75%) > captive reared (38%)

Extinction in geographic realms

-terrestrial: endemics, islands -marine: fewer extinctions (detected) major pop reductions in many species- more marine species being listed -freshwater: mainland, water conflict

Demographic Variation

-the variation in birth and death rates among individuals and accross years within a given pop -affects at the level of individuals -pops fluctuate normally -when at low numbers (N<50) more susceptible to future demographic flux -species with highly variable birth and death rates and those with low birth rates are most susceptible to demographic stochasticity -random flux in death rates can -> flux in pop size (and sec ratio), most impt when small pops

Diversity has increased over time

-trend of increasing number of species diversity over time

Major Threats to: Temperate Grasslands

-turned into agriculture -overgrazing leads to desert

Arguments against de-extinction

-unnatural -animal welfare concerns-can cause animals to suffer -ecological and heath concerns-could be a threat -hubris-"playing god" -luxury- doesnt address any pressing social or ecological problems

Environmental stochasticity

-unpredictable changes in competitors, predators, prey abundance -catastrophic changes in environment (eg storms, floods, drought) -can also cause changes in pop size even in stable pops -often affects whole population -more impt than demographic variation in terms of extinction- pop can go extinct even when increasing

Island Biogeography model

-used to est future extinction rates -relationship between number of species and area, number of species depend on 2 opposite forces, immigration and extinction rate -dynamic equilibrium- point where immigration and extinction rates are equal, immigration rate goes down as number of species increases -immigration rate- number of new species over time, so colonization rate goes down as species diversity increases because the more species there are the lower chance that a species arriving is new. -extinction rate- number of species going extinct in a certain time period bc inc competition for resources, extinction rates go up as species diversity increases because as species increase competition for resources increases too

Northern Spotted Owl

-west coast species -IUCN- near threatened, ESA- recognized as threatened -controversial case- The god squad- 1991 charged for series of event against endangered law, stopped logging in owl habitats, lost many jobs

Habitat fragmentation

-when large continuous blocks of habitat are turned into several smaller patches of habitat that have very different dynamics -Increased edge effects

Inbreeding Depression

-when offspring receive identical defective alleles from both parents 1. highr mortality of offspring 2. fewer weaker or sterile offspring 3. recessive homozygotes expressed -vicious cycle -often a problem of captive or small pops

Implications

-when pops are already small, they become increasingly difficult to recover -so many conservation efforts are aimed at species already on the brink (including ESA listing) -however, conservation efforts are more effective for larger pops

What are some locations in witch ex-situ conservation happens?

-zoos and game farms -aquaria -botanical gardens and arboretum -seed banks

How might we mismeasure biodiversity using species richness and evenness?

...

In environmental science, which p-value is generally the highest we will accept as being significant difference?

0.05

Failures of Traditional Management

1) Focus is on resource extraction, usually of a single resource.

TNC's Approach to Ecoregional Planning

1) Identifying Conservation Targets 2) Gathering Information 3) Setting Goals 4) Assessing Viability 5) Assembling Portfolios

How do we buffer biodiversity from climate change?

1) Mitigation (prevent climate from changing) 2) Adaptation (Change occurs, deal with it)

4 million plants in ______

1,775 botanical gardens worldwide.

A species lasts about _____ before going extinct or evolving into a new species.

1-10 my

How many species would be lost per year as a result of non-human extinction?

1-10 species

Genetic diversity functions at three levels

1. Among populations 2. Within populations 3. Within individuals

Examples of ICDPs

1. Biosphere Reserves 2. In Situ Agricultural Conservation 3. Extractive Reserves 4. Community-based initiatives 5. Payments for Ecosystem Services

Benefits of forming a conservancy

1. Can form joint ventures with tour operators; 5 - 10% of gross earnings paid to conservancy (guards, wildlife management) 2. Funds provide for campsites for tour groups, direct revenue, and employment 3. Can apply for a trophy-hunting quota; some animals may bring over $11,000; meat is distributed to group members 4. Four species (gemsbok, springbok, kudu, and warthog) can be hunted for subsistence. Hunting often done by PH's; meat distributed

What are the 7 biological impacts of climate change?

1. Changes in phenology 2. Changes in geographical distribution 3. Extirpation & extinction 4. Changes in species composition 5. Changes in ecosystem function 6. Increased vulnerability to forest fires 7. Changes in current patterns of agricultural productivity

Name other general economic uses of biodiversity

1. Clothing 2. Shelter 3. Tools 4. Fuel 5. Recreation

What are the 9 principles of systematic conservation planning?

1. Comprehensiveness 2. Representativeness 3. Adequacy 4. Efficiency 5. Flexibility 6. Rick Spreading 7. Irreplaceability 8. Connectivity 9. Protected area shape pg 43 in notes

What are the 6 characteristics of Conservation Biology?

1. Crisis discipline 2. Multidisciplinary 3. An inexact science 4. A value-laden science. Mission-oriented. 5. Evolutionary time scale 6. Eternal vigilance

What are the 6 steps in adaptive management?

1. Define conservation objectives 2. Develop management plan 3. Develop monitoring plan 4. Implement management plan 5. Monitor outcomes 6. Refine management plan

What are the five important US National Laws concerning conservation?

1. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937 2. Clean Air Act of 1963 and amendments 3. Wilderness Act of 1964 4. Clean Water Act of 1972 and amendments 5. Endangered Species Act of 1973

What are the 3 ways that we miss organisms/do not identify them?

1. Geographic isolation 2. Usefulness/need 3. Cryptic species

Why has evolutionary-ecological land ethic been embraced by modern conservation biology?

1. Humans have been an integral part of most ecosystems 2. Excluding humans from natural areas is unlikely

What are the four guiding principles for conservation of ecosystems?

1. Include entire ecosystem ( ex: watershed) 2. Include all ecosystems that are functionally linked ( ex :river & surrounding upland areas) 3. Include all ecosystems that are effected by common threats (ex: Rivers and upland areas both are effected by acid rain) 4. Include enough area that populations can maintain themselves in spite of normal environmental variability

List 3 ways we sustain genetic diversity.

1. Manage the "matrix" 2. Establish movement corridors 3. Translocation (assisted migration

What are the three international treaties important for conservation biology?

1. Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 2. International Convention for Regulation of Whaling of 1946 3. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of 1975

Four Approaches to Restoration

1. No Action 2. Rehabilitation 3. Partial Restoration 4. Complete Restoration

Four main approaches that define the outcomes when considering the restoration of biological communities and ecosystems

1. No action 2. Rehabilitation 3. Partial Restoration 4. Complete Restoration

What are the advantages of conserving intact communities/ecosystems?

1. Potentially more efficient and precautionary than saving individual species 2. Also provides benefits to humans, by preserving ecosystem services

Trophic Levels

1. Primary Producers - photosynthetic species 2. Primary Consumers - herbivores 3. Secondary Consumers - carnivores or predators - primary carnivores and secondary carnivores 4. Decomposer and detritivores - eat dead plant and animal tissue and waste 5. Disease Casing Organisms

Why do ecologists use diversity indices?

1. Provide an excellent measure of difference between communities 2. Allow us to separate the effects of richness and evenness on overall diversity

Conservation biologists often simply use richness, because:

1. Rare species are often of primary interest 2. In many cases richness is the only data available

Introduction Types

1. Reintroduction programs- create new pop in original environment, serious long term commitments, expensive, difficult -not appropriate for all species but may be best hope ex wolves in yellowstone -problem- may go back to other location 2. Introduction programs- new pop in new envirnment, beyond historic range -scimitor horn oryx- extinct in wild, early effort to reintroduce, trying to introduce to chad 3. Augmentation program- increase exisiting pops with new individuals (new indivs, original environment) -ex lynx- reintroduced in colorado many died and didnt reproduce, breed lynx for years, add these individuals

What are the two main points of the resource conservation ethic?

1. Resources should be fairly distributed among present consumers, and between present and future consumers 2. Resources should be used efficiently.

What are the 6 geophysical effects of increasing global mean annual surface air temp?

1. Rising sea level 2. Melting of glaciers & ice sheets on land -especially in Greenland and Antarctica 3. Melting of floating sea ice -especially in Arctic and Antarctica 4. Warming and thawing of permafrost -especially in Arctic 5. Changes in precipitation patterns 6. Changes in ocean chemistry

Stating that resources should be used efficiently suggests that:

1. Some uses might be more valued than others 2. Resources might have multiple uses 3. Aesthetic and intellectual uses of resources can compete with material uses

3 Levels of Biodiversity

1. Species Diversity - evolutionary and ecological adaptations of species in environments 2. Genetic Diversity - reproductive vitality, disease resistance, ability to adapt 3. Ecosystem Diversity - collective response of species to different environmental conditions

Name 3 disadvantages of species translocation.

1. Spread of disease 2. Disrupts behavior and social structure 3. Outbreeding depression

What are the 4 methods of speciation?

1. Sympatric speciation 2. Allopathic speciation 3. Peripartric speciation 4. Parapatric speciation

What are the two main goals of conservation biology?

1. To investigate human impacts on species, communities, and ecosystems 2. To develop practical approaches to prevent the extinction of species, communities, and ecosystems and potentially restore them to their natural, functioning state

Important Principles

1. Use best science to develop a coordinated plan for the area that is sustainable; biological, economic, and social components; shared by government, business, conservation organizations, and private citizens. 2.Ensure viable populations of all species, representative examples of all biological communities and successional stages, and healthy ecosystem functions

What are ecocentrism's main points?

1. Values and rights apply to communities, not individuals 2. The intrinsic value of a species should be based on its contribution to ecological stability and integrity 3. The intrinsic value implies a "right to exist" of all organisms that contribute to this stability and integrity

A species pool of genetic diversity exists at three main levels, what are they?

1. Within a population 2. Among a population 3. Within individual variation

Applications of IBT to conservation biologists

1. anthropogenic islands: many previously widespread species now live in patches of habitat 2. parks- habitat islands in a sea of development, make them big, make them near- connect them to other parks

main reasons why small populations can rapidly approach distinction

1. environmental fluctuations 2. demographic fluctuations 3. loss of genetic variability

Extinction Vortex

1. environmental variation 2. demographic variation 3. loss of genetic variability - decline in population size caused by 1 of these factors will increase vulnerability of population to the other 2 - accelerates to drive the extinction

Vulnerability to Disease

1. high rate of contact between host and parasite encourages spread 2. indirect effects of habitat destruction increases susceptibility to disease (more space = move away from own infections and diseases) 3. conservation program species may contract diseases from related species (even humans)

Loss of genetic variation

1. inbreeding= mating among close relative- more likely in small pops 2. genetic drift= loss of alleles due to random chance- smaller pops lose alleles faster 3. demographic bottleneck 4. founder effect

Few notes about inbreeding

1. increase in the degree of inbreeding deltaF -the increase in inbreeding per generation is dependent on the Ne, deltaF=1/2Ne, in a pop with Ne=20, the increase in each generation is delta F=2.5% 2. inbreeding is not always bad- many plants self pollinate, many pops survive long periods at low numbers eg elephant seals numbers >170,000 individuals after reduction to 20, also might not always show inbreeding depression eg bison- not suffering but may be breeding with cows as well so that might be why- get genes from cows 3. loss of genetic diversity among pop- need to conserve between pops

Soil provides 6 major services

1. moderating hydrologic cycle 2. Physical support of plants 3. Retention and delivery of nutrients to plants 4. Disposal of wastes and dead organic matter 5. renewal of soil fertility 6. regulation of major element cycles

Species

1. morphological definition: morphologically, physiologically, or biochemically distinct groups 2. biological definition: potentially breed among themselves in wild and do not breed with other groups 3. evolutionary definition: DNA similarities and thus evolutionary past similarities

Three dimensions of rarity

1. narrow geographic range- may be locally abundant 2. specialized habitats- may be locally abundant 3. small pop sizes- may have broad range or general habitats

Approximately what portion of the Earth's surface do the 25 biodiversity 'hotspots' cover?

1.4%

How many species have been described?

1.5 Million

How many species have we identified?

1.7 million

How many species have been described?

1.75 million

Do mutations decrease or increase genetic diversity? Does genetic drift decrease or increase genetic diversity? Does gene flow decrease or increase genetic diversity? Does natural selection decrease or increase genetic diversity?

1.Increase 2.Decrease 3.Decrease 4.It increase genetic diversity within a population, but decreases genetic diversity among population

Area of Focus: Wetlands

1/2 of wetlands gone most difficult to restore often damaged or filled in

In North America, roughly how many fish species are currently listed as endangered?

1/3

How many of the world's species have been described by taxonomists?

10-30%

The success of introductions usually increases with more individuals up to _____, and then plateaus?

100

Precipitation in some regions of the US has already shifted by as much as ___ % or more

15

Rio de Janiero Earth Summit -

1992 Agenda 21 First publicized climate convention Introduced many international conventions Convention on biological diversity Each country must be responsible for their own biodiversity and its products US didn't sign Polluters Pay convention

Endangered

20% or greater probability of extinction within 20 years or 5 generations

On average a species consists of how many distinct populations?

200

Bureau of Land Management

264 mil acres of public land (1/8 of US) -->mostly in 12 western states Deals with grazing, mining, recreation, and Timber -->oversees National Conservation Areas, and National Trails

In the last few decades, temperature in the US have shifted as much as?

3.5

How many species are estimated to exist?

3.6 - 11.7 million

What are the three main contributors to the greenhouse effect? How much do they contribute?

50% due to atmospheric vapor 25% due to CO2 an other greenhouse gases 25% due to clouds

Hypothesis for Why Tropics have Greater Diversity

7% of Earth's Land but contain most of earth's species 1. more solar energy and rainfall - higher rate of productivity and more resources 2. Longer period of stability - more time for evolution and speciation to occur 3. Warm and humid - favorable conditions for growth and survival 4. Predictable environment - more intense species interaction, niche specialization due to intense competition (no dominance) 5. large area - greater rates of speciation

What are mutations implication of conservation biology?

Accumulation of deleterious alleles can lower fitness and increase probability of extinction, the increased fitness can decrease population, that decrease can cause a fixation, and so on until you get a mutational meltdown

When we conserve do we aim to conserve structure or function?

Aim for structure, hope for function

Replacement -

Aiming for something other than original Reclamation Revegetation Reallocation

Who rejected the resource conservation ethic because he felt that it viewed nature as simply a collection of individual goods?

Aldo Leopold (mid-1900s)

Name 3 leaders in early history of conservation in North America

Aldo Leopold, Teddy Roosevelt, Gifford Pinchot

Differentiate between alpha, beta, and gamma diversity.

Alpha diversity is just the diversity of each site (local species pool). Beta diversity represents the differences in species composition among sites. Gamma diversity is the diversity of the entire landscape (regional species pool).

What does the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937 do?

Also known as the Pitman-Rovertson act Taxes firearms and ammunition The funds distributed to states for habitat purchases and wildlife management

Fertilizer -

Alters the system to favor species that like high levels of nutrients Can inhibit restoration process

Ecotourism is also known as?

Amenity value

What is a National Wilderness Preserve? What is the state with the largest amount of wilderness areas?

An area greater than 5,000 acres within a national part, forest, or a wildlife refuge that does not allow extractive activities and is only accessible by foot 54% in Alaska

What is the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's definition of a protected areas?

An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed though legal or other effective means

Pros/cons of boundaries, fences:

Animals don't know where buffer zone is Move freely in and out Protected species may move in/out of zones Alters population dynamics Boundaries change (Climate)

Which of the following was famous for his landscape photography of the national parks and Japanese camps?

Ansel Adams

Which of the following is a widely used agricultural pesticide and amphibian endocrine disruptor causing hermaphroditism in frogs?

Atrazine

Contingent Valuation

Attempt to determine the value of non-market goods by creating a "shadow market"

Restoration sensu stricto -

Attempting to revert back to original, undisturbed past Unrealistic

What is the least described group of organisms

Bacteria

What is Thermus aquaticus?

Bacteria from hotsprings of Yellowstone with naturally occurring complex of proteins whose function is to copy a cell's DNA before it divides in two

Disease

Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists greater species diversity reduces disease (dilutes number of hosts) climate change (warmer) allows pest and disease-carrying insects to spread further north - human activity increases the incidence of disease in wild species

Zebra mussels, a major aquatic invasive from Russia, probably invaded US waters via?

Ballast tank water

Zoo research:

Behavior Breeding Soft vs hard release

Large vertebrate bias:

Better if they are umbrella species

Traditional societies:

Better stewards? Local involvement essential Have connection to nature Limits behavior/resource use

Intraspecies competition represents competition...?

Between members of same species

BII

Biodiversity Intactness Index: land-cover measure that relies on satellite imagery, species richness, and expert opinion.

World Heritage Sites -

Biological and cultural value ~981 sites in 119 countries

Primary production

Biomass produced via photosynthesis which seeved as the basis of the food chain

Using organisms to absorb, remove, or neutralize a pollutant is called?

Bioremediation

UNESCO has been pioneering a zoning approach to preserving protected areas known as?

Biosphere reserves

Lancelot Jones was a key figure in the creation of this national park, even donating his family home

Biscayne National Park

What is captive breeding?

Bringing animals into captivity (zoos) and breeding enough excess that others can be released into the wild.

This African-American military group protected western national parks outside Yellowstone

Buffalo soldiers

Swaths of natural vegetation along creeks/ditches/streams in agricultural fields, which reduce runoff into streams, as referred to as?

Buffer strips

This single agency administers about 1/8 of the land in the US although most of it is restricted to 12 western states. It is in charge of much of the remaining grasslands.

Bureau of Land Management

What are the main sources of CO2?

Burning fossil fuels for industry, cars, and heating

If businesses included the degradation of ecological resources into their cost of doing business then what would happen?

Businesses would find a way to minimize their degradation

Consumer efforts:

Buy green

Land trusts -

Buy land, then set up restrictions for it

How do you estimate consumptive use value?

By determining how much people would have to pay to buy equivalent products

How is Genetic Diversity in a population estimated?

By the number of polymorphic genes and number of alleles in each polymorphic gene

The capture of nontarget species in commercial fishing is called?

Bycatch

Which of the following is the only greenhouse gas that is declining in atmospheric concentration?

CFC

What are the categories that the Convention on International in Endangered Species uses?

CITES Appendix 1 -species globally endangered by trade CITES Appendix 2 -Species which will become globally engendered if trade is unregulated -Species that are look alikes to Appendix 1 CITES Appendix 3 -Species regulated within one nation, but international cooperation is necessary to control trade (Walrus)

This is one of the most important pieces of international conservation legislation, signed by 179 countries. It restricts trade and halts destructive overexploitation of endangered specied

CITIES

What are the 4 anthropogenic greenhouse gasses?

CO2 Methane(CH4) Nitrous oxide Halocarbons

What is fostering?

Captive offspring are placed with wild parent

"Sevin dust," common household garden pesticide, is which type of pesticide?

Carbamate

What 6 pollutants does the Clean Air Act over?

Carbon Monoxide, Sulfur Oxides, Nitrogen Oxides, Particulates, Ozone, and Hydrocarbons

The use of plants to uptake CO2 and store the carbon in long-lasting materials is called?

Carbon sequestration

This man was famous for his paintings of the National Parks

Chiura Obata

The perpetuation of antibodies and other drugs on aquatic organisms is an example of which exposure?

Chronic

Who was the first female National Park ranger?

Clare Hodges

This feature of tropical evergreen forest biomes makes it particularly difficult to recover them after slash-and-burn agriculture.

Clay soils

The ranges of suitable climatic conditions for a species are called?

Climate envelopes

Regulating services

Climate regulation Water and air purification Disturbance regulation

Which of the following is the most common form of dispersion?

Clumped

dominant species

Common species which have large impacts on the community

Which of the following represents the kingdom of ecology which focuses on interspecific interactions?

Community ecology

Concept of substitutability of goods

Compensation for loss of one good with another of equal or lesser value

What are global climate models?

Complex computer programs that model atmospheric processes coupled with models of ocean circulation, land surface, and sea ice

what is biodiversity survey

Conducted to measure species or populations. over time it is called monitoring

Leopold proposed that environmental ethics constitutes "A limitation on freedom and action"

Constraining self-serving behavior in deference to some other good

Matrix Communities

Continuous, spatially extensive community types within which are embedded natural communities that occur as patches

CITES -

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ~180 countries have signed

Why keep lending to LDCs:

Corrupt politicians taking $ Bank gets credit for making loans Local governments gets economic, social relief

Restoration concerns:

Cost Time Species Additives Fertilizer Environment Dynamics

Translocation

Creating a new population in the wild. Two types: Reintroduction and Introduction

What is a cryptic species?

Cryptic speciation: A biological process that results in a group of species (which, by definition, cannot interbreed) that contain individuals that are morpholigically identical to each other but belong to different species.

Which of the following is responsible for the algal blooms which kill fish?

Cyanobacteria

Recovery unlikely:

Damaging agent still present Too many species lost Weedy species become more likely Damage too severe

What are some examples of how human technology can replace an ecosystem service but create new problems?

Dams: flood control but affects fisheries Farming: increased food production but pollution

TFCA is an example of a ________, which the US has used to conserve tropical forests in other countries.

Debt-for-nature swap

Landscape Permeability

Degree to which landscape allows movement of organisms and natural flow of ecological processes such as wildfire

Which federal department houses the US Forest Service?

Department of Agriculture

What are the departments of the US government that hold lands for conservation? What are the branches of those departments?

Department of Interior -Bureau of land management -US fish and wildlife surface -National park service Department of Agriculture -US forest service

Which department owns 1/5 of all US land?

Dept of Interior

Under which department is the National Park Service located?

Dept. of the Interior

James Fenimore Cooper (early 1800s)

Described the moral, spiritual and aesthetic value of wilderness and deplored its thoughtless destruction, setting the stage for the American conservation movement

What is phylogenography?

Description of genetic/evolutionary structuring in geographic context

Conventional electric generation for solar power is mostly used in these environments

Desert

Three Gorges Dam Cons:

Destabilized soil Altered aquatic environment - shifts fish dynamics Displaced ~1M people China lost ~40% of crop production Lost 2/3 of fisheries

Self-congratulatory thinking -

Destroys areas outside preserved area once goals are reached

Kinship Coefficient

Determine this to avoid inbreeding during captive breeding. The probability that two genes, sampled at random from each individual, are identical

What is an evolutionary significant unit?

Distinct Evolutionary Segments (ESU) - Reproductively isolated 'long enough' to have evolved significant genetic or ecological divergence

What is outbreeding depression due to?

Due to genetic swamping of locally adapted genes Due to breakdown of physiological or biochemical compatibles between genes that have evolved within a particular population (co- adapted gene complexes)

Dominant species

Ecological dominance is the degree to which a taxon is more numerous than its competitors in an ecological community, or makes up more of the biomass. Most ecological communities are defined by their dominant species. Example:

Humans have historically used both ______ and _______ values in their decision-making process.

Economic and ethical

valuing nature

Ecosystem services implicit value marginal value

Roles of zoos:

Educational value Research Entertainment Conservation biology Ethical introduction Funding for conservation biology Promotions

The amount of a toxin that causes effects other than death with exposure is the?

Effective concentration

Biosphere reserves -

Effort to link conservation and sustainable development Similar to WHS - both are international recognitions ~620 reserves in 117 countries Tries to link with cultural values too

Artificial incubation -

Eggs incubated by an individual of another species or an incubator Keeps eggs safer Results in higher numbers of hatchlings

What is light pollution caused by? What are the bio and eco effects?

Electric lights(esp pervasive in urban areas) Causes wildlife to alter daily activity patterns

ESA categories:

Endangered Threatened Candidate Non-candidate Species of concern

Snail darter -

Endangered species Prevented TN dam from being built

Species which are found in one location and nowhere else are called?

Endemic

Agenda 21 -

Environmental and social problems were linked internationally

What is not often included in neoclassical economics?

Environmental costs

What is the source of sediment pollution?

Erosion associated with agriculture, infrastructure, development, and mining

Ecosystem Service

Essential goods and services that natural ecosystems deliver to people

What does the Clean Air Act of 1963 do?

Established regulatory standards to reduce air pollution such as -Emission standards for automobiles -Emission standards for new industry -Ambient air quality standards for urban areas

This fuel is mixed with gasoline to form gasohol

Ethanol

Cryopreservation concerns:

Ethical issue De-extinction Practicality? Distraction from saving existing species?

Define Eutrophication

Eutrophication is when increased nitrogen leads to increase biomass of photosynthetic producers

Genetic links

Example: pollination nectarivores and see dispersing frugivores, carry genetic material from individual plant to another

The Department of the Interior and Department of Agriculture are part of which branch of government?

Executive

What is the worst aspect of all environmental degradation?

Extinction

Extirpations

Extirpate implies extinction of a race, family, species, or sometimes an idea

Double-clutching -

First clutch of eggs is given to another bird to raise so a second clutch of eggs is laid Bald Eagle

Heterozygosity is often strongly correlated with _______.

Fitness

In the absence of mutation or gene flow, genetic drift in a small population will lead to?

Fixation of one allele and elimination of other alleles

Large, well-known species which can be used for promoting conservation of large habitats are called?

Flagship species

Solutions may lie in compromises:

Florida panthers New forestry Monitoring/adaptive management/ecosystem and bioregional manamgent Ecosystem approach Wildlife parks in Africa Sun vs. Shade coffee and other agricultural settings Reserves as catalysts for landscape change Rights-of-ways railroads, powerlines, etc. Urban settings Parks, road edges, pipelines, etc. Military lands

Resource conservation ethic

Focused on efficient use of resources and multiple-use of land

Conservation Strategy: Single-species management

Focuses on species that may not persist without assistance from humans

What are the bio and eco effects of noise pollution?

Forces birds at higher frequency, and louder. This takes more energy Interrupts low-frequency communication of whales, etc.

Which is not generally a focus of restoration ecology?

Forests

Reasons to sign CITES:

Form of peer pressure Easier to see results when participation is voluntary vs. obligated Most successful agreements are non-binding

Reserves as catalysts for landscape change -

Fortress conservation Top-down approach w/hard edges New reserves lack sharp edges More "blurry" transition Trigger entire landscape renovation

Individual-level techniques:

Fostering/cross fostering Artificial incubation Artificial insemination Embryo transfer Cryopreservation Induced hibernation

James Hutton

Found earth was much older than what was thought by looking at how fast rock layers formed

When a few individuals leave one population and establish another?

Founder effect

This interior secretary under President Wilson was involved with Hetch Hetchy and also tried at one point to allow sheep grazing in Yosemite valley

Franklin Lane

For which of the following crops may organic be the most feasible as it produces roughly the same amount of food per acre?

Fruits

How do we make predications about climate?

GCM (global climate models)

What is Gaia Theory?

Gaia Theory is a compelling way of thinking about life on our planet. The theory asserts that living organisms and their inorganic surroundings have evolved together as a single living system that greatly effects the chemistry and conditions of the earths surface.

Variables that affect success:

Game species > threatened > endangered species Good habitat > bad habitat Core > peripheral habitat Has buffer zone available Herbivores > carnivores Wild caught > captive bred

Rapid assessment program, what is it and why might you do it

Gathers relevant scientific information quickly enough to aid in protecting places from irreversible damage that can occur in a short time. Politicians dont like to wait. published within a year

The Florida panther is a good example of this phenomenon of population dips, which has led to several detrimental traits being common within the population

Genetic bottleneck

Which two major factors can decrease genetic variation?

Genetic drift and natural selection

What are the 4 major factors influencing genetic variation

Genetic drift, mutations, natural selection, and gene flow

Population diversity

Genetic variation within a species

What is the gene pool?

Genetic variation within populations is the sum of all alleles in all individual

The Audubon Society was founded by this editor of Forest and Stream magazine. This man also served as a mentor to Theodore Roosevelt

George Grinell

this Park Service Director killed the Yosemite firefall and stopped the bear-feeding at Yellowstone, while also instigating new policies for using scientific research as the basis for management decisions

George Hartzog

As of 2014, only four countries protected <1% of their land. Which of the following is not one of them?

Germany

Bare root -

Gets ride of any soil, fertilizer, etc. Controls environment

It was a long battle to get the National Park Service created as an agency, including lobbying by this man to have the power given to another agency?

Gifford Pinchot

Which of the following figures is often seen as the foil to John Muir?

Gifford Pinchot

Who devised the resource conservation ethic?

Gifford Pinchot

Who was the first head of the US Forest Service?

Gifford Pinchot

Why has global warming effected species compositions of communities? Give an example.

Global warming favors warm adapted species over cold adapted species ------ex: warming ocean temp off coast of California associated with replacement of northern fish by southern fish in kelp forests

What are the climate change effects on geographic distribution? and what do these effects cause?

Global warming has lead to northward shifts of ranges of may species in the past 50 yrs or less They disrupt ecosystems, reduce habit for wildlife, and alter water supply and other ecosystem services for humans ----example: skipper butterfly in Cali and 15 cases of biome shifts since 18th century

What are Ramsar Wetlands? Who recognizes these wetlands?

Globally important wetland ecosystems Recognized under convention of Wetlands of International Importance

What are World Heritage Sites? Who recognizes the World Heritage Sites?

Globally significant natural or cultural sites/features Recognized under Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and natural Heritage

Business efforts:

Going green Interactions w/laws Investing green

What are the two species that went extinct directly due to climate change? And what caused them?

Golden Toad and Harlequin Frog Due to drier conditions in cloud forests ----Side note: even though these are the only two extinctions directly from climate change, there have been many population declines attributed to climate change

Private Goods

Goods bought and sold (maple syrup)

Market Goods

Goods exchanged in an economic market using currency

Consumptive Use Value

Goods that are consumed locally; do not appear in GDP because they are neither bought nor sold

"Leave it as it is. The ages have been at work on it and man can only mar it" was Roosevelt's public request for which location?

Grand Canyon

Rockafeller fought to donate Jackson Hole to this National Park despite local protests

Grand Tetons National Park

How are we going to stop over exploitation of resources?

Greatly increase the intrinsic and ethical values placed on the natural environment by humans

Unfortunately, of the 30 million km of land protected in world, a large portion is just in one contiguous chunk here

Greenland

Shade coffee -

Grown in the shade of trees Increases biodiversity

Low-intensity fires -

Grows grass Maintains grazing

Heterozygosity Porpotion

H = 1-1/[2Ne] after t generations (Ht) = H^t - significant loses of genetic variability can occur in isolated small population - lower effective population size = more rapid loss of alleles

Heterozygosity (H)

H= % heterozygous genotypes for a particular locus or the probability that a given individual randomly selected from the pop will be heterozygous at a given locus H estimated= % heterozygous loci/ total loci examined more heterozygosity higher fitness

Proportion of original heterozygosity retained

H=1-(1/2Ne) Ht=H^t -over t generations, H decreases

How much inbreeding is tolerable?

H=1-(1/2Ne) -research on domestic farm animals indicate natural selection for performance can balance inbreeding if the loss of H is no more than 0.99 per generation H=0.99 is a tolerable level of genetic loss

ESA compromises:

HCPs Usefulness Problems Improvements

Species richness is positively correlated with ______.

Habitat complexity

What is the number one immediate threat to biodiversity?

Habitat loss/destruction

National Park Service

Handles all US national parks (59) and most national monuments, seashores, lakeshores, reserves, preserves -responsible for 84.4 million acres -->no commercial altering

What are the three possible approaches to ecosystem management and what do they in-tell? And what approach did we use in the past? the present? the future?

Hands off approach (Past) -No management, allow ecosystem to change as they will in response to habitat loss and climate change Traditional conservation (Current) -Management to maintain ecosystem in historically/contemporary state in spite of habitat loss and climate change Artificial ecology (Future) -To create novel, artificial ecosystems that are better adapted -This assumes that we have good understanding of community/ecosystem assembly rules

Who was the self-described "old curmudgeon", an important Dept of Interior secretary who was ruthless but very effective?

Harold Ickes

Cross fostering -

Having a different species birth and/or care for individual of another species

What is cross-fostering?

Having a mother of a common species raise young of a rare one

Why is heterozygosity often strongly correlated with fitness?

Having two different forms of an enzyme may provide greater flexibility because the effects of deleterious alleles are masked by the other allele

Which of the following was destroyed by the government despite being in a National Park, and became a rallying cry for preventing such actions?

Hetch Hetchy Valley

If F(st) is close to zero what does that mean?

High level of gene flow and relatively high genetic diversity

At a given gene locus, diploid individuals can be __________ or ________.

Homologous: 2 copies of same allele Hetrozygous: 2 copy of 2 different alleles

In diploid organisms - 1 allele at each locus from each parent If those alleles are the same then this locus said to be...........?

Homozygous

Species evenness

How evenly distributed species are, in terms of abundance, productivity, or size

Existence value

How much is knowing that something exists worth to you?

Divergence among populations may be expressed as:

Ht=Hp+Dpt Ht=total genetic variation Hp=average divergence within populations Dpt= average divergence among populations

Taoism

Human activities can either flow with tao, or against it. All natural processes occur in an orderly and harmonious fashion.

What are the two main factors responsible for the decline in the Earth's biodiversity?

Human population growth and human consumption rates

Neighborhood Ethic

Humans must be careful not to damage the natural environment, because it harms other humans as well

Hope for outside areas:

Humans not everywhere Humans and conservation can coexist

Ecosystem productivity

Humans rely on products that depend on surrounding ecosystems

Local conservation efforts:

Hunting Zoning Border controls Building permits Restrictions on access Extractive reserves Reservoirs NIMBY Taxes Collections

This international organization serves the same basic functions as the Endangered Species Act, creating a "Red List" of critically endangered species.

IUCN

Criteria for success for all -

Ideally get self maintaining system Allowed to develop through successional processes

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 mandates the Fish & Wildlife Service and National Marine Fisheries Service to....?

Identify threatened and endangered species and develop species recovery plans for them These recovery plans include: -natural history of species -cause for decline -steps to recovery

Where does nitrogen accumulate?

In aquatic and marine ecosystems via runoff from terrestrial ecosystems

Where are hypoxic zones especially prevalent?

In coastal marine ecosystems in sub tropic & tropic zones, including the Gulf of Mexico

What was the reserve system design of the past? and why was it bad?

In the past, protected areas within a reserve system have often been selected based on suitability of land for other uses, availability of land, scenic beauty of lands, and recreational value of land. This lead to low BV in many protected areas and reserve systems that weren't representative of the regional BV.

A condition where an individual receives an identical, defective copy of an allele from each parent?

Inbreeding depression

What is hybrid vigor?

Increased fitness of out-breed

What is captive raising?

Individuals are placed with captive parents of another species (surrogates)

Darwin's criteria for evolution

Individuals must vary in a population Some trait differences are heritable Survival/reproductive success is highly variable Survivors are not a random sample of a population

What is the Tragedy of the Commons

Individuals obtain benefits from resources, while the cost is spread throughout society

Debt grows:

Interest too high Poverty increases Resource abuse rises

Hybrids?

Intermediate forms that result from matings between related but distinct species.

What does IUCN stand for

International Union for Conservation of Nature

What does IUCN stand for?

International Union for Conservation of Nature

Why are conservation efforts often prioritized in biodiversity hot-spots?

International conservation organizations attempt to maximize their efforts to preserve biodiversity by prioritizing conservation actions in different regions based on regional biodiversity and degree of anthropogentic threat Side notes: Most of the hot-spots are in the tropical forest biomes Conservation International recognized 34 BV hot-spots

The emerald ash borer, the Asian long-horned beetle, and the zebra mussel are examples of invasive species which could have been prevented by regulating what?

International trade practices

What is the difference between intrinsic and instrumental value?

Intrinsic value: In the strictest sense, every species has value even independent of its value to other species or within an ecosystem Instrumental value: Can be the value of an organism in an ecosystem and to surrounding organisms

What are the three categories of translocation? What are each of these?

Introduction -release at site with no record of previous occupation Reintroduction -release and reestablish at a previously occupied site Restocking -Increasing numbers of an existing population

Which group originally had the "Seven Generations" concept?

Iroquois

What are evolutionary significant units? (ESU's) Give an example.

Is a population that is characterized by substantial reproductive isolation from another population or substantial evolutionary isolation from other populations ----ex: an ESU is a more or less isolated population on its own evolutionary trajectory

Media efforts:

Is it effective for conservation?

Extinction rates are particularly high in which habitat?

Island

Svalbard -

Island near Norway Stores seeds under ice

Which of the following habitats is particularly vulnerable to invasive species because species often evolve in absence of predators and diseases?

Islands

What areas have a high percentage of endemic species?

Isolated areas

What does the 1982 amendment to the Endangered Species Act do?

It authorized Habitat Conservation Plans

What did the 1990's amendment to the Clean Air Act do?

It established a cap and trade program for sulfur oxides and mandated phase-out of ozone depleting chemicals

Why are permeable areas more resilient?

It facilitates local movements and range shifts. Function of connectedness and human land use.

Why is sediment a pollutant?

It increases turbidity in aquatic ecosystems

What happens when GDP doesn't account for environmental costs?

It inflates actual economic growth

What is adaptive management?

It is a management approach that changes with the environmental variability.

Species are considered rare if all but which of the following are true?

It is dependent on long-distance dispersal methods

What do hybrids make conservation efforts challenging?

It is difficult to write laws and manage species that are not known clearly

How does conservation biology differ from traditional applied disciplines?

It's primary consideration is the long-term preservation of the entire biological community, with economic factors secondary

Species which disproportionately affect ecosystems given their numbers?

Keystone

What determines community composition

Keystone species Soils Climate Plant-animal interaction Disturbance Time

Taxonomic Classifications

Kingdom > Phylum > Class > Order > Family > Genus > Species

This US act helps regulate the import of invasive species

Lacey

This act was created to protect rare waterbirds from poaching, which was rampant due to the fashion craze of feathered hats.

Lacey Act

This act was restricted poaching and trafficking of animal parts. It was originally made in response to the fashion of feathers in women's hats.

Lacey Act

Sunscald -

Lack proper shade from original habitat

Restoration examples:

Lake Erie Mid-West Prairies Tropical dry forest in Costa Rica Grand Canyon Floods

What are the characteristics of a National Park?

Large Ecosystem in natural state No direct resource exportation allowed For protection of BV & ecosystem functioning

What are the characteristics of a protected landscape/seascapes?

Large Ecosystem modified by humans Some resource exploitation allowed Protect biological interactions between humans and nature

Problems with only conserving protected areas:

Large animals need more room to roam outside boundaries Outside pressures along sharp boundaries Attitudes: save one area, can utilize the rest Self-congratulatory thinking Destruction of areas surrounding protected area threatens reserves Susbsequent loss of corridors, stepping stones

What are the characteristics of a strict nature reserve and wilderness area?

Large area Ecosystems in natural state No human use allowed For protections of BV & ecosystem functioning

The sixth mass extinction probably started with humans removing 80% of this species group from Australia, N. America, and S. America.

Large mammals

Military lands -

Large patches of protected land Intensive use on only one portion of land

Ecoregion

Large unit of land or water containing a geographically distinct assemblage of species, natural communities, and environmental conditions.

This heavy metal has been banned for duck hunting shot since 1991 because it poisons birds which use it as crop grit

Lead

__________ looked at nature from a broader perspective of interrelated processes (ecology).

Leopold

ESA improvements:

Lessen political involvement Lower cost, time spent Increase funding Lower interagency conflicts List before rarity increases Incentivise private land owners Get business support Payments for ecosystem services

Religious institutions efforts:

Liberation theology Investments

Conservation Biology (Goals)

Long-term preservation of entire ecosystems, combine basic and applied research 1. to document full range of biodiversity on earth 2. to investigate human impact on species, genetic variation, and ecosystems 3. to develop practical approaches to prevent the extinction of species, maintain genetic diversity within species, and protect and restore biological communities and their associated ecosystem functions

Population level techniques:

Long-term propagation Short-term propagation Relocation, transplantation Habitat modification, restoration Seed banks, germ plasm banks Zoos, arboreta, gardens, aquaria, aquaculture

What is the currency of conservation biology?

Long-term viability of ecosystems and preservation of biodiversity in perpetuity

polymorphic species

Look different but are the same species

cryptic species

Look the same but are different species

Retrogression -

Loss of ecosystem function over time

Which of the following is not one of the three main reasons small populations can take rapid walks toward extinction?

Loss of ecosystem variability

What are general causes of extinction?

Loss of genetic diversity Demographic variability Environmental variability Catastrophes

Islands tend to have _______ than comparable mainland communities. Why?

Lower species richness 1. low colonization rates 2. high extinction rates 3. lack of critical resources

Minimum dynamic Area (MDA)

MDA= amount of habitat necessary to maintain MVP -based on home range or individuals and colonies

Debt-for-nature swaps Pros:

MDB collects some money Land protected LDC gets employment, ecotourism NGO gets brownie points

Problems w/agreements:

MDCs have more money Cost to implement Corruption Funding in poor countries

The vast majority of oil production comes from?

Machine and vehicle seepage

Supplement wild populations:

Maintains genetic diversity Maintains numbers

US Fish and Wildlife Service

Management of fish, wildlife, plants and natural habitats -Oversees Endangered Species Program and National Wildlife Refuge System -Enforces wildlife laws, conserves and restores habitat, manages migratory birds and fishes

The divine assignment Americans felt they had to expand and conquer the country from east to west was called?

Manifest destiny

Restoration -

Manipulation of area to desired end point Goals are to set successional steps w/little to no intervention

What are two sources of plastic pollutants?

Most washed to sea from mainland, some dumped from ships -est. 5trillion pièces of plastic (270,000 tons Jan. 2015) -most from fishing nets and buoys.

MDBs -

Multilateral development banks World Bank Send money to LDCs to support conservation issues Has supported environmentally damaging projects

Removal of initial pressures -

Must get rid of problems to be successful Getting rid of rats in New Zealand to conserve flightless bird populations

How to reintroduce:

Must remove problems before introductions/augmenting Reintroduce Augment Introduce

What are the factors that affect genetic variation within populations? What are these factors effected by?

Mutation Genetic drift Gene flow Natural selection the effects of all four factors are influenced by effective population size

Debt-for-nature swaps

NGOs buy up a nation's debt in exchange for that nation performing a conservation activity; nation forgives another's debt in exchange for conservation efforts

Which species are most vulnerable?

Narrow geographic range Narrow niche Small population size One or few populations Declining population Low population density Large home range Large body size Long-lived species Species depending on keystones Ineffective dispersion Seasonal migrants Low genetic variability Found in stable/pristine environment Live in groups Evolved in isolation from humans Harvested by humans

What is the resource conservation ethic?

Natural resources should be used to benefit humans, in such a way that the greatest good of the greatest number of people could be maintained for the longest period of time.

4 key evolutionary processes

Natural selection Genetic drift Gene flow Mutation

What are some educational and scientific values of nature?

Nature has educational value through schools, television, books, etc. Scientific knowledge gained from biodiversity has value Anticancer chemicals

Romantic transcendental conservation ethic

Nature is believed to be a place of healing and spirituality

Gifford Pinchot

Nature= natural resources should provide greatest good for greatest number of people for the longest time - resource conservation ethic

Unequal sex ratio

Ne = [4 (Nf x Nm)] / (Nf + Nm) - as breeding ratio becomes unequal, Ne becomes further away from N - Nf = breeding females - Nm = breeding males

Ne affected by demographic factors

Ne is affected by 3 demographic factors: 1. unequal sex ratio- not all indivs equally represented in next generation 2. variation in #offspring produced- among indivs, results in unequal contributions to next generation 3. pop bottlenecks over time- not all indivs equally represented in the genetic composition of the next generation

Unequal Sex ratio

Ne= 4(Nm)(Nf)/(Nm+Nf) -the more unequal the sex ratio, the lower the Ne -causes= chance, social behaviors, harvest of only one gender -Ne declines when sex ratio skewed -if ratio of Nm is same as Nf then Ne = Nc -if different than Ne will be less than Nc -the more unequal the sex ratio, the lower the Ne

Variation #offspring produced

Ne= 4Nc(sigma^2 +2) -where sigma^2 is equal to the variance in family size among females

Effective population size

Ne= effective pop size number of individuals actually reproducing -not the children under maturity etc -larger Ne less chance of losing genetic variation Nc= census population, the actualy number of individuals, usually more than Ne

Population fluctuations

Ne= t/(1/N1+ 1/N2 + 1/N3+..+1/N4) -small numbers influence Ne more than big numbers (most genes lost at low numbers) -one single pop crash can produce a large reduction in Ne

Habitat modification, restoration -

Need proper habitat for successful relocation/transplantation

What are the positive and negative effects of behavioral interactions?

Negative effects: territoriality Positive effects: coloniality

The competitive exclusion principle states that two species cannot coexist forever with identical?

Niches

One of the benefits of nuclear power is it produces a lot of electricity with virtually no greenhouse gases. Which of the following is an issue with nuclear energy?

Nuclear waste storage, radiation, and decommissioning of old plants

What is phenology? What are its biological effects?

Phenology is the study of the relationships between climate and periodic biological phenomena Global warming disrupts ecological interactions among species if their life cycles are no longer synchronized

What are the two ways to define a species?

Phylogenetic species and Biological species

When should conservation strategies consider phylogenetics? And what are some possible strategies?

Phylogenetics should be considered when prioritizing taxa for conservation Possible strategies include: -conserving basal taxa -conserving unique taxa -conserving specious taxa -conserving taxa to maximize phylogenetic diversity

What is the meta-population dynamics and how does it differ from source-sink dynamics?

Population in different patches appear and disappear, but entire metapopulation persists due to rescue effects It differs from source-sink dynamics because all patches are equal quality and no patches exist permanently. Side note: CB seek to identify critical linking patches/populations

Zoos, aquaria -

Provides educational aspect ~600 M visitors yearly

What are the four types of ecosystem services?

Provisioning, cultural, regulating, and supporting

What are some general goals of ex situ conservation?

Public ed. Raising funds for in situ conservation Research on basic biology of species

Invasive species are often difficult to fully eradicate due to their high reproductive capability and public resistance to reducing pretty or charismatic species. A good example of this is wetlands is?

Purple loosestrife

Short-term propagation -

Purpose of reintroducing species as soon as possible Perigrine falcon, wolves in Yellowstone, cheetahs, pupfish, etc. Nene - Hawaiian goose

This author of Silent Spring was also an avid aquatic ecologist?

Rachel Carson

This industry was vital for promoting national parks to both congress and the public in the early 1900s

Railroad

This habitat has >50% of the world's species, but is being lost at 0.4-1.2% per year

Rainforest

This man, who would later become a senator for Arizona, fought making the Grand Canyon a national park even arguing it was illegal to make a national monument.

Ralph Cameron

Mather considered the flooding of Hetch Hetchy a great tragedy...this put him in direct conflict often with this man, who first butting heads with them over Grand Canyon National Park

Ralph Henry Cameron

Conventions:

Ramsay Convnetion Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit Kyoto Summit The Hague Johannesburg, S. Africa Montreal Bali, Indonesia Copenhagen Mexico City Rio Paris

What is demographic variability?

Random changes in birth rate, mortality rate, sex rate, and age structure that cause random fluctuation in population size

What is genetic drift?

Random fluctuation of gene frequencies over time due to chance alone

Populations within species may exhibit genetic diversity due to? Tell wither the factors are random or non-random.

Random: -Genetic drift -Population bottlenecks -Founder effects Non-Random: -Natural selection

Small populations

Rapid decline and numbers and local extinctions: 1. Loss of genetic variability and related problems of inbreeding depression and genetic drift 2. demographic fluctuation due to random variation in birth and death rates 3. environmental fluctuations due to variation in predation, competition, disease, and food supply due to natural catastrophes that occur at irregular intervals (fire, storms, flood, droughts).

Beta richness?

Rate of change in species across habitats

What is the long-term goal of exsitu conservation?

Re-establish wild populations when sufficient captive-bred individuals and sufficient habitat is available

Reintroductions -

Re-establishing new populations or augmenting old ones Building up established populations To establish healthy populations

Ecological-evolutionary land ethic

Recognizes the complexity of ecosystems and the interactions of species within. recognizes evolution is an on going process affected by the environment

What does the Clean Water Act of 1972 do? Is it effective?

Regulated surface water quality It established water quality standards such as -required reduction of pollution from industries and cities Effective at reducing pollution from point sources but not non point sources

What does the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of 1975 do? Who administers it? Give an example of notable success.

Regulates trade of endangered species that are endangered in part or entirely because of trade Administered by IUCN Ratified by 172 nations Notable Success: -Ivory is banned to protect elephants

What does the International Convention for Regulation of Whaling of 1946 do?

Regulates whaling for commercial, scientific, and traditional purposes to maintain suitable levels 59 signatory nations All commercial whaling has been banned since the 1980's

Tamarin wolves -

Reintroduced into Yellowstone Successful reintroduction Cascading effects Key top predator (deer pop, etc.) Prey upon livestock Mixed opinions about releases

Anthropocene

Relating to/denoting the current geological age viewed as the period diringg which human activitiy has been the dominant influence on climate and the environment

Translocation: Reintroduction

Releasing captive-bred or wild-collected individuals into an ecologically suitable site within the species' historic range but where the species no longer occurs

Seed banks, germ plasm banks:

Rely on small fraction of available sources in seed banks Adaptation of food sources to changing climates Svalbard

Debt-for-nature swaps Cons:

Small fraction of debt actually paid off LDC locks up resources that may have had monetary value Still have resource abuse Doesn't address corruption, salary, maintaining infrastructure and saved land

The Florida Everglades NP was particularly important because it was the first National Park to be?

Solely for wildlife preservation

Ecosystem stability can be disrupted by what?

Species additions and subtractions

Biological Species Concept (BSC)

Species are natural populations that are reproductively isolated from one another

Why are two reasons why most conservation regulations and activities aimed at species level?

Species are the fundamental unit of evolution Species arouse public recognition and interest

What are the three levels of biodiversity?

Species diversity, genetic diversity, and community/ecosystem diversity

Complementary

Species occupy a similar position along one niche dimension but differ along along another

What happens as human populations increase?

Species richness declines

What is the order of importance for ecological organizations?

Species<<<ecosystems<<<evolution

Zoning:

Specific Can be conservation oriented

Cultural services

Spiritual/religious inspiration Aesthetic Education Heritage Recreation

Who was the first director of the National Park service?

Stephen Mather

Limitations/problems with ex-situ cons:

Stop-gap Counterproductive? Idea that 1 stable pop is enough Continuous effort needed Often involves political issues Reintroductions not in foreseeable future Cost and space needs Genetic diversity issues Which species are chosen for zoos, etc. Behavior changes Species vs. ecosystem Localization makes for vulnerability Large vertebrate bias Cost and technology

Arrested/reversed trajectories -

Stops succession

Problems w/reintroduction for plants:

Sunscald Herbivory Fire Competition Drought Microsite placement Transplating

Opportunities/importance/possibilities of ex-situ cons:

Supplement wild populations Research opportunities Reduce pressure to collect from wild Education about rarity Permit future possibilities of future reintroduction

What is F(st)?

The inbreeding coefficient and fixation index.

What is Ecological Restoration?

The process of intentionally altering a site to establish a defined, indigenous, and historic ecosystem.

What is the potential flaw in standard economic methods that value products?

The products are sold more than once

Conservation biology

The scientific study of the nature and status of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions.

What is the main difference between the population viability analysis and spatially explicit population models?

The spatially explicit population model explicitly incorporates spacial configuration of landscape

Define demography.

The study of factors that contribute to changes in population size

Define ecology.

The study of the pattern of distribution and abundance of organisms

Packing

The tendency for coexisting species to fill available "space" along important niche dimension

Appendix 2 -

Trade is regulated ~32,000 species Mostly plants

What are some examples of consumptive use?

Traditional medicines, protein from wild game, fuelwood, and animal dung for energy

What does the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 do? Who is it between?

Treaty between US, Canada, and Mexico Protects essentially all native birds and helped to end commercial hunting/trade of birds, feathers, and eggs

Threatened Habitats

Tropical Rainforest ** Tropical Deciduous forest (farmland and cattle) grasslands (framland and cattle) wetlands and aquatic habitats (channels, dams, pollution) mangroves (wetland communities) coral reefs (overfishing and over harvesting species, pollution, algae)

This biome has some of the best soils for agriculture in the tropics

Tropical deciduous forest

Which biome exhibits the highest terrestrial biodiversity?

Tropical evergreen forests

Where is most biodiversity?

Tropical rain forest Coral reefs Deep sea Large tropical lakes

At what general geographic location on the globe is biodiversity the greatest?

Tropics

USDOI

U.S. Department of Interior -507 million acres of surface land (1/5 of U.S.) -->biggest single US natural habitat owner -->national parks, monuments, wildlife refugees, grazing lands, etc.

All species are:

Unique solutions to evolutionary problems Living representations of history Have their own distinct beauty

Cross Fostering

Use a closely-related species to raise a rare species offspring -Golden retriever with African wild dog pups

What are spatially explicit population models? What components does it include? Why is it better than population viability analysis?

Use to model different future scenarios Landscape map and population dynamics model Recognizes that source-sink and metapopulation dynamics can influence population regulation

Jon Muir

Used Emerson and Thoreau's writings to preserve natural areas (late 1800s-early 1900s) Initiated the preservationist ethic.

Ex-situ research opportunities -

Used to determine benefits of each focus More knowledge about an organism betters changes of success

cost benefit analysis (CBA)

Used to determine weight cost vs. benefits and changes in utility

What are population viability analysis used for? How does it model population regulation? Does it include landscape configuration?

Used to predict risk of extinction or outcome of reintroduction effort Models population regulation as a hierarchical process Doesn't explicitly include spatial configuration of landscape

What is gap analysis? What is its use for conservation?

Uses GIS databases to compare species distributions to land use Goal is the identify gaps in protection of BV and to prioritize designation of future protected areas

Environmental Impact Assessment

Uses cost-benefit analysis to estimate the present and future effects of projects on the environment

Restoration sensu lato -

Using various methods to maintain sites

What is instrumental value?

Utilitarian - value that something has a means to another's ends (Anthropocentric)

Name the key elements of Biophilia

Utilitarian, Naturalistic, Ecological-Scientific, Aesthetic, Symbolic, Humanistic, Moralistic, Negativistic, Doministic

Global climate models and climate predictions, how are they validated? What do we use global climate models for?

Validate global climate models by using them to predict current climate Use global climate models to predict future climate change assuming different concentrations of greenhouse gases in future and different scenarios of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions

Use value

Value obtained from ued

Option value

Value of expected future use

Hedonic approach

Value of good is based on structural and environmental characteristics. how much would you pay

Existence value

Value of knowing something is preserved

Existence Value

Value people are willing to pay to keep a special community/ecosystem from going extinct

What are the characteristics of Habitat/species management areas?

Variable size Ecosystem in natural state No direct resource exploitation Protection of BV, often requiring active management

Experimental-essential -

Very controlled reintroductins

Who actually published first on evolution by natural selection?

Wallace

Criteria for success for restoration -

Want to get original functions and species

Future Generations Ethic

We have a responsibility to preserve living things for future generations (instrumental value)

What are the three examples of translocation of wild animals given in the notes?

Wild Turkey, Bald Eagle, and Black-footed ferret

When is ex situ conservation necessary?

Wild population not large enough to be viable Wild population declining despite in-situ conservation efforts Wild population is outside of protected areas

This is generally an aspect of American conservation, but not European conservation.

Wilderness

The UK equivalent of the Endangered Species Act is a

Wildlife and Countryside Act

Avoiding disease carriers -

Will affect the health of remaining population

Youthful system -

Will recover quicker than older systems

Green energy:

Wind turbines Kill birds, bats Solar panels Use up land Cost of construction Hydro power Nuclear power Economic, environmental cost

What are the three levels of genetic variation?

Within individuals -gene level Among individuals in a population Among populations within species

What was the first national park?

Yelowstone 1872

Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY)

Ymax = rK/4 - the greatest amount of resources that can be harvested each year and replaced through population growth without detriment to the population

What was the first protected area? (protected in 1864)

Yosemite It was added to the National Park System in 1916

In regard to genetic structuring within a species, conservation biologist should seek to preserve.....?

a genetically diverse subset of populations

Land Sharing

a strategy where low-intensity human activities coexist with some elements of biodiversity

Special botanical gardens focused on tree preservation are called?

aboretums

Central Eutrophication

accumulation of excess nutrients in the water caused by human activity

Reference Sites

act as comparison sites, providing explicit restoration goals and allowing for quantitive measures of success

fecundity

actual reproductive rate of a population (ignore males, focus on females)

keystone species

affect the organization of the community to a far greater degree, reduction by low numbers affects the population in a large way, result in trophic cascade or extinction cascade determine ability of other species to persist in an ecosystem

Density-Dependent Factors

affected by current density of a population -disease

density dependent factors

affected by current density of population (ex: food)

life tables

age-specific summaries of the survival pattern of a population; often follow fate of a cohort (generation)

Conservation Easements

agreements not to develop land

Desertification is the conversion of _______ land to desert due to improper use.

arid land

More focus on animals used ____

as food sources than in zoos. ~1 B cows, 1 B sheep

What is the result of phenological shifts in response to climate change?

because some species experience phenological shifts in response to climate change, while others don't. Climate change may disrupt ecological interaction among species if their life cycles are no longer synchronous. (predator, prey, or plant and pollinator. )

Resilience

being able to return to original state quickly after disturbance has occured

Humans produce this fuel by chemically-modifying animal or plant oils, such as waste deep fryer grease?

biodiesel

Ecosystem

biological community together with its associated physical and chemical environment

arboretum

botanical garden focused on trees and other woody plants

Natural rate of extinction

can be calculated using the fossil record

How do we supplement animal populations? (sources of captive animals in translocations)

captive breeding, captive raising, fostering

Greenhouse Gases

carbon dioxide, methane, etc. higher planet surface temperature result of burning of fossil fuels

invertebrate survery

careful data management in field -huge diversity of trapping method -ID in lab time consuming

The maximum density a habitat can sustain is the?

carrying capacity

Habitat Degradation and Pollution

caused by pesticides, herbicides, sewage, fertilizers from agriculture fields, industrial chemicals and wastes, emissions from factories and cars, and sediment deposits for eroded hillsides

Edge Effects

change in light, humidity, temperature, and wind = result in less favorable habitat for many species - high-energy and nutrient disturbed environment, pest species of plants and animals can increase in number and disperse into the fragment - use habitat edges as invasion points

bio impacts of climate change

changes in phenology, geographical distribution, species composition and communities, ecosystem function, current patterns of Ag. productivity, increase vulnerability of forest fires, extirpation and extinction.

biodiesel

chemically modified animal or plant oils

market price

choose money or something else.

Cost-benefit analysis

compares the values gained versus the cost of any product

Biodiversity

complete range of species and biological communities, genetic variation within species and ecosystem processes

What is connectivity? How is it maintained?

connected enough to allow dispersal of wide-ranging species and metapopulations, to avoid inbreeding, and to allow shifts in distributions in response to climate change -maintained by providing corridors between protected areas

Protected areas with sustainable use of natural resources

conserved ecosystems and habitats together with associated cultural values and traditional natural resource management systems; generally large with most areas in natural condition but some harvest

The St. Helena ebony is an example of a species that is?

considered the "living dead"

Lacey Act

controls illegal importation, prevent spread and establishment of invasives and overabundants

limitations of ex situ conservation

cost, population size, adaptation, learning skills, genetic variability, continuity, concentration, surplus animals

Wilderness of 1964

created legal definition of wilderness and protected land that fits it -created Wilderness Preservation System --->wildernesses in NPS, BLM, USFS, USFWS

experimented, essential populations

critical to the species surviving and are rigidly protected as if naturally occurring

Area of Focus: Lakes

cultural eutrophication-excess nutrients in water -->leads to algal bloom, which leads to low O2

zoos

current goal: establish long-term, captive breeding populations of rare and endangered animals; now incorporating ecological themes and information

Air Pollution

damages and weakens many tree species, make them more susceptible to attack by insects, fungi, and disease

Area of Focus: Rivers

damming has had severe impact -experimental flooding and dam removal

Which if the following is not one of the ten indicators of a warming world?

decreasing water vapor

If-then logic is representative of what type of thinking?

deductive

Rehabilitation

degraded ecosystem is replaced with a different but productive ecosystem

What is a population defined by?

density and dispersion

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, which oversees air and water research, is in which department?

department of commerce

reconciliation ecology

develop urban places where people and biodiversity can coexist

Removal of Invasive Species

difficult prevention, detection and early intervention, long-term management

50x more expensive to ____

do ex-situ than in-situ conservation.

captive breeding

done in zoos; prefer natural reproduction if possible

Traditional ecological knowledge

e

Which indirect use is the most commonly used and recognized when defending conservation efforts?

ecotourism

The number of breeding individuals, which is always smaller than the total population is the _________

effective population size

Even in the 1700s...

environmental laws were beginning to be enforced and preserves were created in many European colonies

egalitarian

equal value to all living things

eutrophication

excess nutrients in water caused by human activity; leads to algal blooms which leads to fish declines and oxygen depletion

What is the U.S. Department of Interior

executive department responsible for managing most federal land and natural resources -includes NPS, USFWS, BLM, etc. Also oversees Native American Land (Bureau of Indian Affairs)

Herp surveys

experince and local knowledge important to survey pitfalls calls

Iteroparity

few each over time (only few but they will be strong)

founder effect

few individuals create a new population but are limited in genetic diversity because there are only a few (less diverse than original population)

What is flexibility?

flexible enough to allow protection of any valuable land that becomes available.

Environmental Stochasticity

fluctuation in abundance of food plants, predators, physical environment, weather conditions - random variation in biological and physical environment - affects ALL individuals of a population - can dramatic affect a stable population - more important in increasing probability of extinction - result = lower growth rates, population sizes, and higher probability of extinction - MVP to about 380 from 50

Type 1 survivorship curve

focus more energy on producing young, live long lives

Resource Needs

food availability, water availability, temperature, space

Wetlands Reserve Program (USDA)

helps farmers who wish to protect wetlands

Wetlands Reserve Program in US

helps support farmers who wish to protect/restore farm wetlands

What are externalities?

hidden costs and benefits within economic systems which affect those outside of the system

Artificial Incubation

human care of eggs when mother unable or under pressure

Traditional people often do not degrade the environment as long as...

human population density remains low and there are abundant land and resources

What is the Biophilia Hypothesis?

humans possess an innate tendency to seek connections with nature and other forms of life

Which subset of ecotourism, which is also a major funding source for government conservation efforts, is a $100 billion per year industry?

hunting and fishing

Genetic Swamping

hybridization of invasion species with native species that are similar (close relatives)

Fuel cells use this gas, which reacts with a platinum catalyst to release free electrons. The waste product is water vapor

hydrogen

International Union for Conservation of Nature

identifies species most vulnerable to extinction and categorizes according to vulnerability -habitat conditions and trends

The Red List

identifies species that are "critically endangered"

What is irreplaceability?

identify and protect areas essential for comprehensiveness and representativeness, while recognizing that other areas are sustainable

Rivers

impacted by dams, experimental floods and or dam removals

Allee effect

interaction among population size, density growth rate, and behavior - social systems and breeding systems of many animals can be disrupted if the population size or density fall below a certain level * reproductive behavior - dispersed population = trouble finding mates - positive feedback - birthrate will decline, population density will become even lower, unequal sex ratio will worsen, birthrates drop more

Reintroduction Program

involves releasing captive-bred or wild-collected individuals into an ecologically suitable site within the historical range from which they have been extirpated from --create a new population in original environment

Low-intensity agriculture co-existing with biodiversity is a conservation strategy referred to as?

land-sharing

Habitat Fragmentation

large continuous area is reduced in area and divided into fragments - edge effects* 1. fragments have greater amount of edge per area 2. center of each habitat is closer to an edge 3. large population divided into small population - limits dispersal and colonization (barriers to normal movement) - restricted access to food and mates (loss of reproductive potential) - smaller populations more vulnerable to inbreeding depression, genetic drift, etc. - fires more likely - interspecies interaction (invasion by exotic and native species) - potential for disease (wild species closer to domestic)

National Parks

large natural or near-natural areas set aside to protect large-scale ecological processes, along with the complement of species of the area; also provide a foundation for environmental and cultural recreation and education

Eutrophication

large release of nitrates and phosphates into aquatic system results in thick algae changes biological community harmful to coral species specifically (need crystal-clear water)

wilderness areas

large unmodified or slightly modified areas retaining their natural character and influence (protected to preserve this natural condition)

charismatic megafauna

larger animals, used to help attract public (lions, tigers, bears)

To sum up.. larger populations

larger populations: -less of an effect of genetic drift -inbreeding depression unlikely -gene pool for mutation opportunities -genetic variation remains for adaptation to fluctuations in demography and environment

Characteristics of countries that have more than 1 protected areas

larger, healthy economies, many ecosystems, rich biotas

habitat corridors

link isolated patches using strips of protected land

How was the Wild Turkey translocated?

live in forested habitats esp. in U.S., extirpated from much of the East due to loss of habitat and hunting. Eastern populations re-established by translocation of individuals from further west (Kansas and Tennessee)

How was the Black-footed Ferret translocted?

live in prairie dog Colonies on Great Plains of U.S. Nearly extinct in the wild due to loss of habitat, decline of parries dogs, and disease. Remaining individuals (18) brought into captivity in 1980s, (prairie dogs declined also because they feed on them), Reintroduced at several sites throughout the west, wild population currently about 600. Good success in breeding in captivity.

Outbreeding Depression

loss of alleles or reproduction due to mating with different species --red wolf and coyote problem

outbreeding depression

loss of alleles or reproduction due to mating with different species (diluted species gene pool)

what is the problem with small pops?

loss of genetic variation -many species are found in small pops- eg all rhino species occur in small pops -habitat degradation generates many small pops -leads to loss of genetic variation -how can be lost? genetic drift, inbreeding, demographic bottleneck, founder effect

Type II Curve

lots of young but nature takes them out (squirrels)

land-sharing

low-intensity agriculture co-existing with biodiversity

Land Sharing

low-intensity agriculture coexisting with biodiversity -->orchards

An experiment where the experimenter facilitates the treatment is called?

manipulative

Synonymy

many names, one species (rotifers)

spiritual ecological knowledge

many shrines are home to rare species, not officially protected tibetan buddhists protect snow leopards

Extinction rates are particularly low in which habitat?

marine

What is efficiency?

maximize comprehensiveness, and representativeness while minimizing total area under protection by focusing on biodiversity hot spots.

carrying capacity

maximum density a habit can naturally sustain

Carrying Capacity

maximum density a habitat can sustain

biogas

methane/oxygen mix created by anaerobic decomposition of we/green biomass, animal waste or landfill waste

What can be important habitats for species?

military bases, private estates, and powerline strips

Single Large

minimize edge effects, lower extinction rates, can maintain large range of species DOWNSIDE: expensive, difficult to acquire, may not cover full scope of biodiversity,

Solar-Generated Electricity

mirror focuses light and steams water to spin turbine

PVA of mexian palm: modeling 3 options (I)

model I= demographic variation only, how would you represent demographic variation in pop model? birth and death rates, male and female ratio, immigration etc -MVP=48 individuals

PVA of Mexican Palm (III)

model III= moderate environmental variation -MVP=380 -a seven times larger pop needs to be protected

Most conservation efforts focus on species why?

more characteristic policy focus on animals easier to set goals for a single species than entire ecosystem

Several Small

more likely to target multiple species in ecosystem, socially acceptable, financially feasible, easier to manage, 'eggs in one basket' -habitat fragmentation

How long does carbon dioxide remain stable in the atmosphere?

more than 100 years

EPA Superfund

most contaminated sites targeted for cleanup based on pollution/toxins

land ethic

most important goal of conservation is to maintain the health of natural ecosystems and ecological processes

introduction program

move captive-bred/wild-caught individuals to areas suitable for the species but outside their historic range

World Bank

multilateral development bank promoting international trade and economic activity

Transactions are based on

mutual benefit

Extinct

no member of the species if found alive anywhere

Existence value is considered a?

non-use value

polyploids

nondisjunction in reproduction, result = offspring with extra chromosomes

Pollinators such as honey bees are often killed by pesticides. This is an example of a ______ species

nontarget

Metapopulations

not all populations are equal: -identify source pops= reproducing, increasing, where immigrants come from, usually stable -identify sinks= exist because of immigration,pop that recieve migrants -protect source pops, minimize sinks How? -identify boundaries of pops -quantify abundance in each pop -identify pop trends (increasing decreasing stable) -quantify amount and frequency of dispersal between pops (mark-recapture, pop genetics)

US Federal Organic Foods Production Act of 1990

organic farms and handlers must be certified by a 3rd party, increase fertility though sustainable techniques, can't use synthetic pesticide and fertilizer

Bioremediation

organisms absorb, remove, or neutralize the pollutant

Pittman-Roberts Act of 1937

places excise tax on firearms, ammunition, and equipment (11%) --which DOI uses to fund conservation efforts, research, and education efforts

carbon sequestration

plant uptake of carbon dioxide in long-lasting biomaterials

Which of the following groups do we probably have the majority of species defined?

plants

keystone

plays crucial role in ecosystem

Large Reserve Cons

point of diminishing returns with species diversity, expensive to manage, difficult to acquire, may not cover full scope of habitats/diversity of country

ecosystem services

pollination nitrogent fixation erosion control carbon sequestration climate regulation pollution buffering moderate weather extremes protect us from uv rays

This phenomenon is classically represented by lynx and snowshoe hares in intro ecology courses

population cycles

genetic bottleneck

population is greatly reduced in size and loses its rare alleles if no individuals possessing them survive

Experimental, Essential

populations critical to species survival

Ecocolonialism

practice of disregarding traditional rights and practices of local people in order to establish new conservation areas

Ecological restoration

practice of restoring the species and ecosystems that inhabited damaged, degraded, or destroyed site

Ecological Restoration

practice of restoring the species and ecosystems that occupied a site at some point in the past but were damaged or destroyed

ecological restoration

practice of restoring the species and ecosystems that occupied a site at some point in the past that were degraded, damaged, or destroyed

Which is a density-dependent factor?

predation

ex situ conservation

preservation of an existing species outside nature (ex: zoos)

in situ conservation

preservation of communities and populations in the wild

Conservation

preservation, protection, or restoration of the natural environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife.

Protection of forests was necessary to...

prevent erosion, maintain wood supplies, prevent famine, and ensure adequate rainfall

prezygotic isolation

prevent mating or fertilization between species

Mission 66 in particular did what for the national parks?

rebuild roads and create new infrastructure

Rewilding

reintroduction of top carnivores to regulate the system from the top down

Anthropocene

relating to or denoting the current geological age, viewed as the period during which human activity has been been the dominant influence on climate and the environment.

reintroduction program

release captive-bred or wild-collected individuals into an ecologically suitable site within the historical range where they have been extirpated

Introduction Program

releasing captive-bred or wild-caught individuals outside of their historic range -acceptable if original site is destroyed

What is the con for BII?

relies on expert opinion; assumes protected areas are truly protected; does not allow for migration of species from one are to the next

K-selection

reproduce and colonize slowly but they are dominant -->climax species, trees

k-selected species

reproduce and colonize slowly but will become dominant if the habitat is undisturbed (characteristic of climax species)

r-selected species

reproduce fast and a lot of individuals but are week competitors (pioneer species)

r-selection

reproduce fast and prolific, but are weak competitors -->pioneer species, weeds

iteroparity

reproduces few each over time

Sink

reproduction does not replace dealths

Source

reproduction exceeds deaths

US Department of Agriculture

responsible for developing and executing federal policy on agriculture, farming, forestry and food -originated to regulate the economic driver of early agrarian US

Diversity indices take _____ and _____ into account.

richness and evenness

Paradox of enrichment

richness increases with increasing primary productivity at low productivity levels, reaches a plateau at moderate productivity levels, and then declines at high levels.

Legal Title

right of ownership of traditional land

Osmotic stress on organisms is particularly cause by this type of pollution

salt pollution

Guild

same trophic level species who use the same environmental resourcews

Ecosystem Approach

saving the ecosystems saves the species; push to preserve last "wilderness"

restoration ecology

science of restoration, the research and scientific study of restored population, communities, and ecosystems

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

scientific agency focused on conditions, use, and preservation of oceans and atmosphere -->monitors ocean and weather condition

Zoning

separate conflicting demands - set aside areas within parks for certain things (ex: bird nesting and ATVs); requires extensive advertisement and public education

Strict nature reserves

set aside to protect biodiversity, human use strictly limited and controlled

metapopulation

several populations linked by individual sharing

Synapomorphy

shared derived trait unique to a monophyletic group

Induced hibernation is_____

short term.

The Antarctic Treaty of 1959

signed by 12 nations, that designates Antarctica as a natural reserve

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

signed by 179 countries members restrict trade and halt destructive exploitation of endangered species

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

signees protect at least one land on international significance

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

signees protect at least one wetland of international significance

Name a service provided by biodiversity to agriculture?

soil microbes and pollinators

Photovoltaics

solar panels - semiconductors turn light directly to energy

Land-sparing

some lands used for high intensity agriculture, while others are completely spared for natural habitat -->buffalo strips and WRP

land-sparing

some lands used for high-intensity agriculture, while others are completely spared as natural habitat

.How do you measure genetic diversity?

some measurement of genetic diversity within population: heterozygosity at a given locus, total allelic diversity number or of alleles at a given locus

artificial insemination

sometimes species lose interest in mating when in captivity; may be necessary to have humans transfer gametes artificially; sometimes used to promote genetic diversity

source-sink populations

source: population which produces excess individuals sink: population which has a debt of individuals (excessive predation, disease, humans, etc.)

ecologically extinct

species persists at such reduced numbers that its effect on the other species in its community are negligable

When measuring biodiversity there are two key components

species richness and species evenness

flagship species

species that are good for tourism and capture public attention

Indicator Species

species that are unique to an ecosystem or endangered

indicator species

species that by their presence demonstrate a distinctive aspect of environmental quality

ecosystem engineers

species that dramatically alter their environment and whose presence was r absence change communities

Endemic

species that live in a single geographical area and no other place

Morphospecies

species that look vary similar but may be a variation or sibling of each other

Biological Community

species that occupy a particular locality and the interaction among those species

Exotic Species

species that occur outside their natural ranges because of human activity

flagship species

species which capture public attention and have ecotourism value, driving conservation; often one of the large charistmatic megafauna

What are genes?

specific region of DNA that codes for protein, codes for RNA, or regulates expression of other genes

What is the preservationist ethic?

suggested that certain natural areas had great emotional and spiritual value, and that these values were greater than those obtained by exploiting such areas Nature has intrinsic value

The worst of the worst polluted sites under EPA jurisdiction are the?

superfund sites

Rate of Extinction

surpasses the known rate of evolution - natural extinction rate of 0.0001 - 0.00001 % per year - current rate = 0.01% per year - 99% extinction caused by human activity - islands are particularly more vulnerable (not predisposed to disease, predators, endemic species (1 location only)) - population loss is proportionate to habitat loss - tropical rainforest (lost @ 1% per year) - population losses result in species extinction

novel ecosystems

systems with mixtures of native and nonnative species

The intrinsic value of each species suggests...

that we have a moral responsibility to actively protect species from going extinct because of human activities

Passive Restoration

the ecosystem recovers on its own. Typical for old agricultural fields in eastern North America

Species Richness

the number of different species in a place

Minimum Viable Population (MVP)

the number of individuals necessary to ensure long-term survival smallest population size with a high chance of persisting small populations are most likely to decline and go extinct

Dispersion

the patterns of spacing of individuals within the boundaries of a population

Ex-Situ Conservation

the preservation of an existing species outside of nature—around but no longer in natural habitat -include zoos, aquaria, sanctuaries, game farms, private breeders, botanical gardens, arboretums, and seed banks

Effective Population Size (Ne)

the size of a population as estimated by the number of its breeding individuals - will be much smaller than actual population size (N) because of many individuals are not reproducing, sex ratios, variation in reproductive output and large annual changes in population size - important part of keeping a large population (if this is low even if population is big will not help population survive)

resource conservation ethic

the world consists of essentially of two components, humans and natural resources. proper use of natural resources is what will help greatest number of people for greatest amount of time

Why do conservation biologist use populations models?

to predict the fate of populations under different future scenarios such as different management regimes and different patterns of climate change

Which of the following is one of the greatest threats to agriculture and ecosystems, and is in part what has created the Mississippi Delta dead zone?

topsoil loss

Embryo Transfer

transferring fertilized embryos of endangered species to common species

embryo transfer

transferring of fertilized embryos of endangered species to common species

Reconciliation Ecology

urban places where great biodiversity and people can exist

cross-fostering

use a closely-related species to raise a rare species offspring

Hydroelectric Power

use flow of water to turn turbines with no atmospheric pollutants BUT can change landscape

Biocontrol

use invasive plant's natural enemies to reduce its population

Bioremediation

use of an organism to clean up pollutants

Net present value

value of land in a given use, taken into account discount rate.

Demographic Stochasticity

variation in birth and death rates among individuals and across years within a given population - below 50 individuals = cause huge fluctuations - higher probability of going extinct - variation among individuals

Subspecies

variations of a species that live in different geographic areas and rarely interbreed

Integrated Pest Management

variety of methods: disrupting reproduction, promote/introduce beneficial insects, select naturally resistant crops, remove nesting/feeding sites for overwintering pests

bird survey

vocal mist net

outbreeding depression

when a species is rare or its habitat is damages, mating between individuals of different population occurs result = weakness, sterility, or lack of adaptability to the environment - loss of identity

Adaptive Restoration

when further intervention is required. Native species may have to be reintroduced if they have not survived and invasive species may have to be removed.

Ecologically Functional

when population of a species is sufficiently large to have an impact on the other species in an ecosystem

Conservation has no...

widely-accepted measure of progress

seeds collected from wild

wild and domestic species effort made to include genetic variation within species

Species extinction was first recognized via

wild cattle (1627) and the dodo (1680s)

In medieval Europe...

wilderness was perceived as useless land inhabited by monsters

One of the main environmental concerns of this form of renewable energy is loss of bird life

wind

psycho spiritual

worship of nature and ancstors

burden of proof goes to developers

yea

How Much of the World is Protected?

~13%