Project Implementation and Management

Monitoring: Purposes of Monitoring

It may be carried out for various purposes. Learning, documentation, control, transparency, legitimisation, and improved decision-making are some of them. Monitoring is very important in project planning and implementation. It is like watching where you are going while riding a bicycle; you can adjust as you go along and ensure that you are on the right track.

Risk Assessment and Mitigation Strategy

Managing risks on projects is a process that includes risk assessment and a mitigation strategy for those risks. Risk assessment includes both the identification of potential risk and the evaluation of the potential impact of the risk. A risk mitigation plan is designed to eliminate or minimize the impact of the risk events—occurrences that have a negative impact on the project. Identifying risk is both a creative and a disciplined process. The creative process includes brainstorming sessions where the team is asked to create a list of everything that could go wrong. All ideas are welcome at this stage with the evaluation of the ideas coming later.

Using the Logical Framework as a tool for monitoring

...

Monitoring Provides Information that will be useful in:

1. Analysing the situation in the community and its project; 2. Determining whether the inputs in the project are well utilized. 3. Identifying problems facing the community or project and finding solutions. .4. Ensuring all activities are carried out properly by the right people and in time. 5. Using lessons from one project experience on to another; and 6. Determining whether the way the project was planned is the most appropriate way of solving the problem at hand.

Advantages of PRAP

1. Community mobilisation 2. Use of visual techniques 3. Participatory community analysis 4. Promoting grass-roots development 5. Strengthening collaboration between the community and external organisations 6. Realistic proposals 7. Promoting integration 8. Speed and low cost 9. PM wakes up to new reality 10. Community has control over the project 11. First-hand information 12. It encourages a systemisation process

How to apply the STEEP analysis: In order to get the most out of the time invested in executing a STEEP analysis, it is recommended that the following five-step plan:

1. Comprehend the element of the environment being analysed: To understand the element of the environment being analysed, analysts must attempt to answer the following questions: 1.What are the current key events and trends within the element? 2.What is the evidence supporting the existence of these trends? 3.How have the trends evolved historically? 4.What is the nature and degree of change or turbulence within the trends? 5.What kind of impacts do the trends have for the company? 2. Assessing interrelationship between trends: To properly assess the interrelationship between trends within the external environment elements, analysts must ask themselves two questions: 1.What are the conflicts between the trends? 2.What are the interrelationships between the trends? 3. Derive implications: This step is the opportunity for analysts to make conclusions about the external environment and how it will impact the present and future strategic initiatives. Good conclusions will leave companies with "food for thought" and implications to be dealt with when putting in place a strategic plan. 4. Relate trends to issues: At this stage, analysts should be able to identify the trends that will significantly play a role in helping or hindering the firm reaching its goals. Creating a list of possible trends with the intention of shrinking the list down to main issues is the best approach to execute this step. 5. Forecast the future direction of issues: At this point, analysts must go beyond the information that is collected. Analysts have to determine the driving forces behind the issues. In order to seek out the driving forces, identifying the symptoms and causes of trends must be completed. This task can be very time consuming and frustrating; however, when finished it can provide a wealth of insights which can guide the decision-making process for the firm.

Principles of PRAP

1. Optimising trade-offs Optimal ignorance Appropriate imprecision 2. Offsetting biases: (neutralise bias by listening) 3. Learning from and with rural people 4. Learning rapidly and progressively 5. Triangulation 6. Planning with people.

Limitations of PRAP

1. Raising false expectations 2. Correct identification of problems 3. Superficial information 4. Lack of experience = PRAP done for group and not with group 5. Little experience exists in replicating successful intervention 6. Language and cultural differences = communication problems 7. Communities might not be interested 8. Uneven representation of groups

STEEP Analysis

A STEEP analysis is a tool commonly used to evaluate different external factors which impact an organisation. It is essential for every business to consider some external forces before they can take decisions. STEEP is basically an acronym which stands for: Social, Technological, Economical, Environmental, and Political.

WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS OF A SWOT ANALYSIS?

A SWOT analysis focuses on Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats. The purpose of performing a SWOT is to reveal positive forces that work together and potential problems that need to be recognized and possibly addressed.

PRAP (Participatory Rapid Appraisal and Planning)

A basket of related and overlapping approaches. Encompasses the following approaches: Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) Participatory Rural Appraisal and Planning (PRAP)

PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL AND PLANNING (PRAP)

A methodology which helps to identify community problems and plan solutions with the active participation of community members. It allows for rapid and systematic: Description and analysis of the community and its context. Identification of problems and potential solutions. Project design and programing of activities for implementation. This methodology facilitates the identification, design and implementation of community projects based on the reality and criteria of the inhabitants themselves. This promotes self-reliance and sustainable development. ADVANTAGE OF PRAP Its capacity to mobilize communities to solve their own problems.

Needs Assessment

A needs assessment is a systematic process for determining and addressing needs, or "gaps" between current conditions and desired conditions or "wants". The discrepancy between the current condition and wanted condition must be measured to appropriately identify the need. The need can be a desire to improve current performance or to correct a deficiency. A needs assessment is a part of planning processes, often used for improvement in individuals, education/training, organizations, or communities. It can refine and improve a product such as a training or service a client receives. It can be an effective tool to clarify problems and identify appropriate interventions or solutions. By clearly identifying the problem, finite resources can be directed towards developing and implementing a feasible and applicable solution. Gathering appropriate and sufficient data informs the process of developing an effective product that will address the groups needs and wants. Needs assessments are only effective when they are ends-focused and provide concrete evidence that can be used to determine which of the possible means-to-the-ends are most effective and efficient for achieving the desired results. Needs assessments can help improve the quality of policy or program decisions—thus leading to improvements in performance and the accomplishment of desired results. Improving results—that is, moving from current to desired performance—is typically a worthwhile and valuable effort. The results of a needs assessment will guide subsequent decisions—including the design, implementation, and evaluation of projects and programs that will lead to achieving desired results.

Programme

A programme is a group of projects managed in a coordinated way to obtain benefits not available from managing them individually.

Characteristics of a Project

A project has two key characteristics: Firstly it is temporary(beginning and end) and undertaken to create a product, service, or result that is unique and secondly projects are undertaken by various organisations to better fulfil their purposes.

Project

A project is a temporary endeavour designed to produce a unique product, service or result with a defined beginning and end (usually time-constrained, and often constrained by funding or deliverables) undertaken to meet unique goals and objectives, typically to bring about beneficial change or added value.

PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL (PRA)

A set of participatory and largely visual techniques for assessing group and community resources, identifying and prioritizing problems and appraising strategies for solving them. Some features of PRA: It encourages group participation and discussion. The information to be processed is collected by group members themselves. It is presented in highly visual form, usually out in the open and on the ground, using pictures, symbols and locally available materials. Once displayed, the information is "transparent rather than hidden" - all members can comment on it, revise it and criticize it. This assists in cross-checking and verifying collected data.

Identifying and analysing problems: Problem Definition

After perceiving the problem, define it. What is part of the problem and what is not. The problem must be described. Who ? What ? Where? When? How? Don't define the problem in terms of the alternative.

RISK ASSESSMENT AND MITIGATION STRATEGY

After the risk has been identified and evaluated, the project team develops a risk mitigation plan, which is a plan to reduce the impact of an unexpected event. The project team mitigates risks in the following ways: Risk avoidance Risk sharing Risk reduction Risk transfer

Problem Solving

Based on Doyle and Strauss: 1.Problem Perception: Get closer to the problem /Understand the problem 2. Problem Definition: Who, what, where, when and how of the problem 3. Problem Analysis: Break the problem down into components 4. Thinking of alternative: Brainstorming alternatives 5. Decision Making: Elicit choices and weigh up pros and cons 6. Planning: Take and plan action

Purpose of a Project

Business: increase profitability, employment, efficiency or turnover Social: achieve enjoyment, relaxation, raising funds for a cause Humanitarian: disaster relief

Project Environment

Careful monitoring of an organisation internal and external environment for detecting early signs of opportunity and threats that may influence its currents and future plan.

Project Selection

Cash flow Risk Resources

LISTING EXTERNAL FACTORS: OPPORTUNITIES AND THREATS (O, T)

Cast a wide net for the external part of the assessment. No organization, group, program, or neighbourhood is immune to outside events and forces. Consider your connectedness, for better and worse, as you compile this part of your SWOT list.

Monitoring at the Community Level

Community level is where implementation and utilization of the benefits of the project take place. At this level, the major purpose of monitoring is to improve the implementation and management of projects. The specific objectives for monitoring at this level therefore include, (a) ensuring that the projects are implemented on time, (b) that they are of good quality and (c) that the project inputs are well utilized.

Data Collection and Analysis

Data collection is necessary for practically any project. You can use data collection methods for stakeholders during the analysis of a project.

Project Risk Management (1)

Definition: Risk management includes processes concerned with identifying, analysing and responding to project risks. It includes both minimising the impact of adverse events and maximising the likelihood of positive outcomes. PRM includes the process of risk assessment, risk mitigation (the action of reducing the severity, or seriousness of something) and risk response. Defining a Risk: The 'effect of uncertainty on objectives'. In this definition, uncertainties include events (which may or may not happen) and uncertainties caused by doubt or a lack of information. Risk management focuses on identifying and assessing the risks to the project and managing those risks to minimize the impact on the project. Risk management is not about eliminating risk but about identifying, assessing, and managing the risk. There are no risk-free projects because there are an infinite number of events that can have a negative effect on the project. Raz, shenhar, Dvir (2002) studied risk management practices on one hundred projects in a variety of industries. The results of this study suggested the following about risk management practices: 1. Risk management is not widely used. 2. The projects that were most likely to have a risk management plan were those that were perceived to be high risk. When risk management practices were applied to projects, they appeared to be positively related to the success of the project. The risk management approach influenced project schedules and cost goals but exerted less influence on project product quality. Good risk management increases the likelihood of a successful project. Always risk in a project. Project Risk Management = ensure levels of risk and uncertainty is properly managed. Helps identify: Threats Manner to be contained Costs of counter means and measures It is initially done with SWOT analysis, however, should be done continuously through out the project's life cycle. Normally one of the most neglected components of project management.

What is cost estimating?

Developing an approximation of the costs of the resources needed to complete project activities.

PRAP techniques

Direct observation Secondary data review Transect and group walks Do-it-yourself Key informants Semi-structured interviews Group interviews and discussions Chains (sequence) of interviews Key indicators Workshops and brainstorming Sketch mapping Aerial photographs Diagramming Wealth Ranking Other ranking and scoring Measurement and quantification Ethno-histories and trend analysis Time lines Stories, portraits and case studies Team management and interactions Key probes Calendaring Short, simple questionnaires Rapid report writing in the field

Identifying Community Needs

Do's: Do just move among the people and their needs will be identified and discussed naturally. Do help the people to believe that they can do something about their needs. Do show the people that you believe in their ability to do something about their needs. Don'ts: Don't call public meeting when you enter an area to do a needs identification exercise. Don't ask the people what their needs are. Don't tell the people what their needs are. Don't take the lead in the identification of the needs. Don't regard your perception of needs as more important that theirs.

STEEP Analysis- Ecological

E - Ecological The ecological element considers the present-day situation of the physical and biological environments that companies can face. Companies which make use of natural resources in producing goods should devote a great amount of time examining the ecological environment of each country in which they are offering their goods and services. Without the correct information, companies can be fined and refused the right to operate in certain regions around the globe.

STEEP Analysis- Economic

E - Economic The economic environment contains aspects dealing with individuals' capacity to obtain products or services given the set of economic conditions. Analysts must properly assess how consumers will react when there are changes within the environment and how their firm should adjust their strategy to remain competitive given the circumstances.

Practical Project Management Methodology (PPMM)

Flexible Result orientated More participation Greater accountability Minimal hierarchy Less documentation Results are more important than tools and techniques Appropriate measures Divergent thinking (holistic) Continuous improvement Integrated teams More awareness of irrational process (things that cannot be predicted)

Monitoring: Important

For a community project, to avoid big deviating from the work plan, monitoring visits should be carried out at least once a week. During the project visits, the team should look at what is happening (observe) and talk to every body who is involved in the project. For each activity, the monitoring team should identify the objectives. For example the objective of brick making as an activity during the school construction project could be; to make ten thousand bricks by the end of February. The monitoring and implementation teams should store the information well and use it for future actions and to inform other stake holders. At each site there should be a file in which copies of monitoring reports and other documents related to the project are kept.

CONTINGENCY PLANNING

Formal risk evaluation includes the use of checklists, brainstorming, and expert input. A risk breakdown structure (RBS) can follow the work breakdown structure (WBS) to identify risk by activity. Risk evaluation prioritizes the identified risks by the likelihood and the potential impact if the event happens. Risk mitigation is the development and deployment of a plan to avoid, transfer, share, and reduce project risk. Contingency planning is the development of alternative plans to respond to the occurrence of a risk event.

Identifying and analysing problems: Problem Solving

Getting closer to the problem. The sniffing, groping and grasping phase. Questions to consider: Is there a problem? Whose problem is it? Where is the problem? What does the problem look like? What does it feel like? How big is the problem?

Good Monitoring Involves

Good monitoring focuses on results and follow-up. Good monitoring depends to a large measure on good design. Good monitoring requires regular visits. Regular analysis of reports. Monitoring also benefits from the use of participatory monitoring mechanisms to ensure commitment, ownership, follow-up and feedback on performance. Good monitoring finds ways to objectively assess progress and performance based on clear criteria and indicators.

Risk Concepts

Hazard: rare and extreme event, or the probability of an occurrence in the natural and human made environment that adversely effect the success of the project to the extent that it may cause economic, time and infrastructure or resource loss. Vulnerability: degree of loss to given element that is possible risk from the impact of a hazard of a given severity. Risk: is the expected losses that a particular phenomenon might cause. It is a function of probability of particular occurrences and the losses each would cause. Probability: degree to which the risk event is likely to occur. Frequency: number of times a particular risk can impact a project. Severity: the impact of the risk on the project.

Monitoring at the community level involves:

Identifying a community project: 1. This should be identified in a participatory manner to reflect the community needs and stimulate people's interest in its implementation and monitoring. 2. If the process of project identification is not well done and does not reflect community interests, it is likely that the communities will not participate in the monitoring of the implementation activities. Identifying the team(s) to spearhead the monitoring of the project in the community: 1. The roles of each team, 2. How they should carry out the monitoring process, the use and sharing of information generated with other groups within and without the community, should be specified and explained. Design a work plan that guides project monitoring: 1. The work plan should specify the activities in the order that they will be executed and the individuals to execute them. 2. This helps the people monitoring to know the activities that should be carried out by particular individuals in a given period of time. 3. If the activities are not carried out, the people monitoring get guidance in coming up with solution(s). Determine the major activities from the work plan: 1. Whereas all activities in the work plan are necessary and should be monitored, it is useful to identify the major activities on the basis of which objectives and indicators would be set. 2. For example if the preparatory activities in a school construction project include, community mobilization, borrowing of tools from the neighbouring village, digging of the soil and fetching of water for brick making, the major activity summarizing all the sub activities could be brick making. Determine the indicators for each activity objective: 1. The indicators help the that team monitoring to tell how far they have gone in achieving the objectives of each activity. In our example, one indicator could be the number of bricks made. Compare what is happening with what was planned: 1. This should be done in the process to tell whether the project is on schedule and as planned. 2. The monitors should check at the indicators to measure how far they have reached in achieving the objectives. 3. This should involve looking at the quality of work to ensure that it is good. 4. The monitoring team may need to involve a technical person like a local artisan or a technician from the district to determine the quality of the project (if it is of a construction).

Using Implementation Research in Programme Design

Implementation refers to the actual delivery of the selected practices. 3 Categories: 1. What is happening? 2. Is it what is expected or desired? 3. Why is it happening the way it is? It identifies and describes what happens as a programme evolves. This information is often used to support evaluations of social programmes. It does not provide rigorous evaluation or determine cause and effect.

Traditional Project Management Methodologies (TPMM)

Inflexible Unresponsive Customer dissatisfaction Task orientated Lack of innovation Extensive documentation High overheads Over-control Over Structuring Over-specialisation and lack of accountability Over-measurement Emphasis on tool/technique and not result Narrow thinking

LISTING YOUR INTERNAL FACTORS: STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES (S, W)

Internal factors include your resources and experiences. General areas to consider: Human resources - staff, volunteers, board members, target population Physical resources - your location, building, equipment Financial - grants, funding agencies, other sources of income Activities and processes - programs you run, systems you employ Past experiences - building blocks for learning and success, your reputation in the community

Monitoring: Defining Monitoring

Monitoring should be understood as a management tool. Monitoring is the regular observation and recording of activities taking place in a project or programme. It is a process of routinely gathering information on all aspects of the project (Bartle, 2007). To monitor is to check on how project activities are progressing. It is observation; ─ systematic and purposeful observation. Monitoring also involves giving feedback about the progress of the project to the donors, implementers and beneficiaries of the project. Reporting enables the gathered information to be used in making decisions for improving project performance.

Project Budgets

Objectives Costs Income Income vs. expenditure The final budget

Ethical principals

Obtain voluntary and informed consent. Ensure anonymity and confidentiality of the participant information shared. Ensure research will not harm participants.

Data Collection Methods

One-on-One Interviews Focus Group Discussion Collaborative Workshop Mode Surveys Observation

Data Collection Method 1: One-on-One Interviews

One-on-one interviews are also known as face-to-face interviews. In this data collection method, you interview stakeholders to extract information relevant to your analysis. The key term here is relevant! The responses you get from stakeholders must be useful for the analysis. Therefore, start the discussion by informing the stakeholder about the activity and the objective. This helps bring in focus to the interview. Before you take the interview, make sure you have created a list of questions to ask. In addition, have a general strategy in mind to guide the interview in a manner that extracts relevant data from the stakeholders. A benefit of this data collection methods for stakeholders is that the stakeholder is not under any pressure. Many times in group discussions some stakeholders may not express their views honestly for fear of comments from other participants. In one-to-one interviews, this fear doesn't exist.

SWOT Analysis: Opportunities

Opportunities: 1.Where are the good opportunities facing you? 2.What are the interesting trends you are aware of? Useful opportunities can come from such things as: Changes in technology and markets on both a broad and narrow scale. Changes in government policy related to your field. Changes in social patterns, population profiles, lifestyle changes, etc. Local Events. Demographic shifts.

STEEP Analysis- Political

P - Political / Legal This element of the analysis consists of understanding the political and legal environments of a specific country or region where companies select to operate. Failure to understand and adapt to the political and legal environments will result in overcoming barriers which may be too costly to deal with, given the expected return on investment.

The Participatory Approach (RRA/PRAP)

PRAP = Participatory Rural Appraisal Planning Is a qualitative method because it is based on perceptions, opinions and insight of people. Not based on formulas and working with figures. NB = we are working with people.

PARTICIPATORY LEARNING AND ACTION (PLA)

Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) is an approach for learning about and engaging with communities. Whilst a powerful consultation tool, it offers the opportunity to go beyond mere consultation and promote the active participation of communities in the issues and interventions that shape their lives.

The Planning Process

Planning = bringing together the need, the resources, the objective + ACTION Planning is not a technological process done by planners. It is human oriented and involves people. People orientated planning takes place through trial and error. Forcing rational planning on people will estrange people from the process. FLAWS The assumption that: An institutional structure exist that will fit any current situation. A fully operational institution exists that will be able to monitor all eventualities and address all needs. Planning is about testing prepositions about the most effective means of coping with complex situations. It must therefore be incremental, short-term and objectives must be attainable. Planning and implementation go hand in hand. Implementation can be regarded as the greatest test of planning.

The Planning Cycle Method

Planning is incremental. Impossible to have one meeting planning everything. Planning should be kept short-term and in increments. Objectives must be kept in a short time period. Quick results provide minimize risk and create momentum and a 'buzz'. It is kept simple and understandable. Planning must involve everyone. Creates meaningful relationships between monitoring and planning. Principles: Monthly planning meetings Phase 1: Evaluate Evaluate actions of previous month Phase 2: Plan Actions for coming month planned using previous month as reference Actions for next month is determined by what has taken place in previous month Work out action time table Dates are viewed as goals instead of deadlines Phase 3: Who? Determine who is responsible Phase 4: How?

Identifying and analysing problems: Decision Making

Possible alternatives would have been screened. It is the making of a choice or choices. Think of plan A and B. Negotiation may be necessary.

Project Management

Project Management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet the project requirements. Producing project outcomes to meet the following parameters, the three objectives of cost, schedule, and specifications and the expectations of the client.

Project Risk Management: Resource and Cost Scheduling

Project cost management = resource planning, cost estimating, cost budgeting, and cost auditing or control. Resource planning = entails utilising resources optimally and cost-effectively in order to obtain a required project outcome.

Four critical elements in project management

Project management has four critical elements: Time Cost Scope Quality/performance These elements interact constantly and a balance must be established and maintained between them. However, we cannot tie down all four elements at the same time. If three are specified, the fourth must be allowed to vary.

Project Management as a Discipline

Project management typically takes place in a business, technical and community-based environment. These three application areas are by no means the only areas, but they are the principal areas. Project management is the discipline of carefully projecting or planning, organising, motivating and controlling resources to achieve specific goals and meet specific success criteria.

TOOLS FOR MONITORING

Pulse meetings : These are short team status meetings where the project management team is able to gather project performance information about the activities that are underway. Variance reports: Compare what has actually happened on a project against what was expected to have happened on the project. Program Reviews: These are meetings with the project team members and sub-project leaders that review the current status of the program as compared to the original program plan. Technical Reviews: These are formal meetings conducted with subject matter experts who are not members of the project team.

RAPID RURAL APPRAISAL (RRA)

RRA is a social science approach that emerged in the late 1970s. The basic idea of RRA is to rather quickly collect, analyse and evaluate information on rural conditions and local knowledge. This information is generated in close co-operation with the local population in rural areas. The research methods are adjusted to local conditions. One of the key principles of RRA is the visualisation of questions and results by using locally comprehensible symbols. The role of the local population in RRA is to provide relevant local knowledge for research purposes and development planning. The RRA team manages the process and maintains the power to decide on how to utilise this.

Approaches related to PRAP

RRA: Rapid Rural Appraisal PRA: Participatory Rural Appraisal PLA: Participatory Learning and Action

Identifying and selecting evidence based interventions: Rational Planning Method

Rational Planning Method: Aims to improve how projects are prepared, planned, implemented, evaluated and managed. Consists of rectangular matrix that provides full picture of the project.

Risk Assessment

Risk Assessment: the identification, quantification, and evaluation of the probability of the occurrence of risk events and the impact of the risk events on a project. It asks: What can go wrong? How likely is this to happen? If it does happen, what are the consequences?

Risk Avoidance

Risk avoidance usually involves developing an alternative strategy that has a higher probability of success but usually at a higher cost associated with accomplishing a project task.

RISK EVALUATION

Risk evaluation is about developing an understanding of which potential risks have the greatest possibility of occurring and can have the greatest negative impact on the project. These become the critical few. After the potential risks have been identified, the project team then evaluates the risk based on the probability that the risk event will occur and the potential loss associated with the event. Evaluating the risk for probability of occurrence and the severity or the potential loss to the project is the next step in the risk management process.

Key points

Risk management is a creative process that involves identifying, evaluating, and mitigating the impact of the risk event. Risk management can be very formal, with defined work processes, or informal, with no defined processes or methods.

Risk Mitigation

Risk mitigation involves defining the necessary steps to counter threats and enhance opportunities. It is active steps taken to lessen the effects that a particular identified risk might have on a project outcome. It is also continuous measures taken during the life cycle of a project in order to ensure proactive actions to unforeseen circumstances.

Risk Reduction

Risk reduction is an investment of funds to reduce the risk on a project.

Risk Response

Risk response includes the development of proactive measures to counteract risks and changes in risk over the course of a project. It can involve mitigation strategies and various types of contingency plans.

Risk Sharing

Risk sharing involves partnering with others to share responsibility for the risk activities.

Risk Transfer

Risk transfer is a risk reduction method that shifts the risk from the project to another party.

STEEP Analysis-Social

S - Social The social element of the external environment takes into account the aspects that describe society as a whole. Some of the key elements that organizations must deal with in each market are: Demographics Lifestyles Religion Education Age distribution of the population

SWOT Analysis

SWOT analysis (alternatively SWOT matrix) is an acronym for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats—and is a structured planning method that evaluates those four elements of a project or business venture. A SWOT analysis can be carried out for a company, product, place, industry, or person. It involves specifying the objective of the business venture or project and identifying the internal and external factors that are favourable and unfavourable to achieve that objective.

Identifying and analysing problems: Thinking of Alternatives

Should only take place once the previous three steps have been dealt with. Creative ideas are needed in this phase. Setting criteria for alternatives takes place. Draw from past experiences. Members must learn to work with other peoples ideas.

Theory of Change Approach

Steps to Create a Theory of Change: 1. Identify a long-term goal. 2. Conduct "backwards mapping" to identify the preconditions necessary to achieve that goal. 3. Identify the interventions that your initiative will perform to create these preconditions. 4. Develop indicators for each precondition that will be used to assess the performance of the interventions. 5. Write a narrative that can be used to summarize the various moving parts in your theory.

SWOT Analysis: Strengths

Strengths: 1.What are your advantages? 2.What do you do well? 3.What do other people see as your strengths? Consider this from your own point of view and from the point of view of the people you deal with. Don't be modest - be realistic. If you are having any difficulty with this, try writing down a list of your characteristics.

Sub-projects

Sub-projects are parts of a project divided into manageable components. They can be outsourced.

Rational/Synoptic Approach

Synoptic planning or the rational comprehensive approach is the dominant tradition and the point of departure for most other planning approaches. As a tool this approach assumes: 1. Decision makers are authoritative. 2. All problems can be analysed and described in detail. 3. Everything can be placed into models. 4. Direct correlation between government action and solution to social problem. 5. Hierarchy ensures decision making is effective. 6. All planning is rational and there is not political influence. Synoptic planning typically looks at problems from a systems viewpoints, using conceptual or mathematical models relating ends (objective) to means (resources and constraints), with heavy reliance on numbers and quantitative analysis. Synoptic planning has typically four classical elements: 1. Goal setting. 2. Identification of policy alternatives. 3. Evaluation of means against ends. 4. Implementation of decisions. The process is not always undertaken in this sequence, and each stage permits multiple iterations, feedback loops and elaboration of sub-processes. The Synoptic approach assumes that: 1. Planners and policy makers determine the correct action for others. 2. Preconceived plans can be detrimental to achieving objectives. 3. Detailed analysis will define problems. 4. Authoritative decision makers. Criticisms of Synoptic approach assumes that: 1. It requires a concise definition of goals and objectives. 2.These become very difficult to attain. 3. It ignores and discounts complex processes of social interaction. 4. This approach is time consuming. 5. It is difficult to operationalize. 6. Its insensitivity to existing institutional performances capabilities. 7. Its failure to appreciate the cognitive limits of decision-makers. The real power of the synoptic approach is its basic simplicity. The fundamental issues addressed-ends, means, trade-offs, action-taking-enter into virtually any planning endeavour. Interesting observations: 1. Part of our culture is to strive for excellence. 2. To get people are considered subjective and irrational, thus kept away from the planning. 3. Planning is considered as a machine with clear inputs and outputs and controllable variables. 4. However, this is not the reality.

STEEP Analysis-Technological

T - Technological Industries that rely on technological advances to generate new products and services are prone to be affected by rapid changes in the environment. It is the job of analysts to monitor and measure the effects the changes within the technological environment will have on their respective product-development strategies. This task may take years to conduct depending on how the industry is driven by innovation.

Identifying and selecting evidence based interventions: The Logical Framework Matrix

The Logical Framework Matrix: The logical framework approach (LFA) has come to play a central role in the planning and management of development interventions over the last twenty years. It has been the subject of much criticism over the years, concerning both the theoretical basis of the approach, and the way it is applied in practice. The matrix summarises the main elements of the programme of work and connects them to each other. And the logical framework approach - the overall process by which the elements which go into the matrix are formulated. The logical framework as a matrix has a reasonably standard form. There are variations in terminology (for example, some use objectives instead of outcomes, or aim instead of goal) and structure (for example, some organisations, etc.) The matrix serves as a summary of the key information on the project. It provides an easy overview that allows a quick assessment of the consistency and coherence of the project logic. Vertical logic Identifies what the project intends to do and achieve. Clarifies the causal relationships (means to end). Specifies important assumptions and risks. ***Activities deliver outputs, which contribute to outcomes, which help bring about the overall goal. Horizontal logic Shows how progress against each objective can be assessed (indicators and means of verification) and the external factors (assumptions and risks) which might affect whether the reaching of the objectives will contribute to the next level. The LFA is a formal procedure for planning projects, and in some cases also providing the base for the monitoring and evaluation system. The LFA sets out a number of standard steps to be completed, which may include some form of participatory problem assessment and identification of aims and objectives, some form of risk assessment and so forth. Criticisms of the log-frame Approach: Can be a particularly serious problem in cultures that consider it inappropriate to openly discuss problems or criticise. Is not suited to situations where there is a great deal of uncertainty or where agreement cannot be reached on the main problem. The log-frame is often developed and used rigidly. This can stifle innovative thinking and adaptive management. Log-frames are often developed after the project has been designed rather than used as the basis for design. Advantages: 1. Rational with clean lines of casual moments. 2. Helps define/project tasks and responsibilities clearly lists indicators, monitoring and evaluation. 3. Lessons misunderstanding. 4. Provides quick overview. Shortcomings: 1. Not always fit into situations with adaptive measures. 2. Power and control still lies with PM. 3. Western worldview and culture specific. 4. Identifies the what but not the how. 5. Progress is seen as linear, not all external factors can be foreseen.

Project Planning Philosophies

The decision in which a group of people decide on what to do in the future: What? When? How? Whom? Project Planning has two approaches: 1. Rational/Synoptic Approach 2. Adaptive/Incrementalist Approach

Project Formulation

The first step in formulating a project is to define the broad outcomes that are expected to be completed by the time the project ends. These outcomes should be aspirational but also realistic. Once identified, the specific outputs and activities to achieve the outcomes must be defined. The outputs and activities are the details of how the outcomes will be achieved.

Identifying and analysing problems: Problem Analysis

The objective is to break the problem down into component parts. Problems consist of sub-problems.

CONTINGENCY PLANNING

The project team often develops an alternative method for accomplishing a project goal when a risk event has been identified that may frustrate the accomplishment of that goal. These plans are called contingency plans. Contingency funds are funds set aside by the project team to address unforeseen events that cause the project costs to increase.

What constitutes evidence?

The quality and sustainability of planning, implementation and evaluation in a program. To continually collect and use evaluation data to improve and sustain evidence based programmes (EBP) once they're in place. Make sure you are provided with the necessary capacity and resources to plan, implement and evaluate EBP's in a setting. Evidence is constituted when effective organisational structure and functioning are promoted which identifies needs and engages in practices. Evidence is constituted when an EBP focuses on needs assessment, goal-setting and monitoring outcomes by also reporting it. Successful EBP's are impacted by roles, resources,responsibilities and collaboration, as well as leadership and capacity building. Evidence can also be constituted when a program considers basic factors in participators and stakeholders such as their needs and their cultural beliefs.

Asset Based Community Development

These aspects either support and strengthen development The development environment consists of the political, social, cultural, economic and psychological. Asset-based community development (ABCD) differs from needs-based community development in that it focuses primarily on honing and leveraging existing strengths within a community rather than bolstering community deficiencies. Related to tenets of empowerment, it postulates that solutions to community problems already exist within a community's assets. Principles that guide ABCD include: 1. Everyone has gifts: each person in a community has something to contribute 2. Relationships build a community: people must be connected in order for sustainable community development to take place. 3. Citizens at the center: citizens should be viewed as actors—not recipients—in development. 4. Leaders involve others: community development is strongest when it involves a broad base of community action. 5. People care: challenge notions of "apathy" by listening to people's interests. 6. Listen: decisions should come from conversations where people are heard. 7. Ask: asking for ideas is more sustainable than giving solutions.

Data Collection Method 2 - Focus Group Discussion

These data collection methods for stakeholders involve inviting stakeholders to express their opinion on the objective. The number of people in a focus-group typically varies from 4 to 12 participants. The key to holding a successful focus group session is to ensure no participant dictates the discussion. Therefore, careful moderation is critical to the success of a focus group. Another critical success factor is that the discussions should not be based on preconceived notions. Rather, they should be used to understand them better. Participants should not only concur or disagree, but rather build on the opinion expressed.

Adaptive Incrementalist Approach

This approach assumes: 1. Uncertainty is a fact. 2. More detailed planning should proceed incrementally. 3. Complex social experiments can be guided but never be controlled. 4. Models and analysis should be flexible and incremental (Trial and error). 5. Analysis and implementation should be collaborative and facilitate continuous learning and interaction. 6. Planning and implementation are mutually dependent activities. 7. Info is always partial and faulty. 8. Choices are highly constrained by prior commitments. 9. Consequences of an action in a complex system are unpredictable. When to use the Incremental methods: 1. This model can be used when the requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood. 2. Major requirements must be defined; however, some details can evolve with time. 3. There is a need to get a product to the market early. This approach assumes: Uncertainty is a fact. More detailed planning should proceed incrementally. Complex social experiments can be guided but never be controlled. Models and analysis should be flexible and incremental (Trial and error). Analysis and implementation should be collaborative and facilitate continuous learning and interaction. Planning and implementation are mutually dependent activities. Info is always partial and faulty. Choices are highly constrained by prior commitments. Consequences of an action in a complex system are unpredictable.

Resource Management

This entails the way in which resources are optimally and cost effectively utilised in order to obtain the required project outcome. It is divided into these components: Resource planning Resource definition Resource allocation Resource aggregation Resource levelling Resource smoothing Resource hierarchies Resource calendar

Identifying and analysing problems: Planning

This involves how the desired result will be obtained. It is task oriented. Planning decides: What is to be done? When it is to be done? How it will be done? Who is to do it?

Project Cost Management

This process entails: Resource planning Cost estimating Cost budgeting and Cost auditing or control https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nM02lDQXQ08

SWOT Analysis: Threats

Threats: What obstacles do you face? What is your competition doing? Are the required specifications for your job, products or services changing? Is changing technology threatening your position? Do you have bad debt or cash-flow problems?

Eight main fields of study in project management

Time management: The purposeful management of time to keep within the period in which a project or product must be completed. Cost management: The effective supervision of costs to produce the highest profit. Scope management: The total control and management of a project or institution, always bearing in mind the target and goal. Quality management: The guarantees. Human resource management: The management and control of the labour force to achieve the best possible impart, cost, time and quality management. Communication management: To ensure that information flows continuously, and that it is interpreted and processed correctly to achieve the goal, complete the project and produce the product that will meet the client's needs. Procurement management : The process in which resources such as people, equipment and raw materials are obtained in the most cost-effective way for completing the product or project. Risk management: How the institution's exposure to negative influences on its resources is limited. Integration management: The processes followed to co-ordinate the various aspects of a project plan.

When should STEEP analysis be used?

Times of uncertainty: As the strategic plan is being finalized, some members of a management team may feel unsure about how the market is going to react to a change in one or more elements in the environment (i.e., a change in price or a feature of a product).It is the job of the analysts to provide enough information via a STEEP analysis to assess the impact of the change before the strategy is implemented. Providing accurate information on certain trends in the environment can reduce the level of uncertainty that strategists may have for their plans. Times of information overload: When there is a constant flow of information regarding the external environment for a firm, information overload can arise. To combat information overload, analysts can begin the STEEP analysis process as the information arrives. The process will allow analysts to keep the data which is needed to make key decisions, and discard information that is outdated and irrelevant. Times of disorganization: In times when firms seem to be confused about the external environment, a STEEP analysis assessment can go a long way to paint a clear picture of the environment. The tool can place things into perspective regarding their strategic options. If conducted correctly, the results of the analysis can help firms focus on what should be done to reach strategic objectives.

Project Risk Management: Methods of Cost Estimation

Top-down estimating Parametric modelling Activity-based costing Bottom-up estimating

The Local Development Environment

Understanding the global and local context. Awareness and understanding of the wider context of development. Understanding and correctly interpreting the local environment can help one design strategies that will be successful in the local environment. The existing situation is of vital importance. E.g. socio-economic, physical environment, the prevailing system of education, culture, religion, etc. These aspects either support and strengthen development The development environment consists of the political, social, cultural, economic and psychological.

Evidence Based Programme Theory and Design:

Use of best evidence and research, as well as a combination of knowledge, social and life skills in order to reach a significant. It is a systemic approach which relies on a broader system (i.e. academic, social, health and mental health, emotional and behavioural) however it is incorrectly used as a normative approach. Collaboration eco-systemically allows for the development of the intended goals. It is complex and relies on ongoing assessment and evaluation, beyond the manuals and training. The results are based on the programme itself, and not on contextual factors. Effective programmes employ interactive teaching, engage the target population in problem solving and critical thinking.

SWOT Analysis: Weaknesses

Weaknesses: 1.What could you improve? 2.What do you do badly? 3.What should you avoid? Again, consider this from an internal and external basis - do other people seem to perceive weaknesses that you do not see? Are your competitors doing any better than you? It is best to be realistic now, and face any unpleasant truths as soon as possible.

Conducting a Start-up Workshop

http://www.participatorymethods.org/method/facilitating-workshops-co-generation-knowledge-21-tips