P/S UWorld

What is a counterculture?

A counterculture is a group of individuals whose norms and values oppose those of the dominant culture (eg, the hippie counterculture was opposed to the Vietnam War, which was largely supported by the dominant culture at the time).

Dyad vs. Triad

A dyad (relationship between two people) has only one social tie, making dyadic relationships the most intimate (eg, romantic couples, business partners); however, dyads are also less stable than larger groups because if either person leaves, the group ceases to exist. A triad (relationship among three people) can have three potential social ties, making triadic relationships more stable but less intimate than dyads. The presence of a cultural liaison increases the number of social ties, resulting in a more stable group.

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?

A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when a belief about oneself (eg, "I'm a terrible test taker") causes behavior that makes the belief come true (eg, belief causes test anxiety, resulting in actual poor performance). In other words, the belief itself, regardless of if the belief is true or justified, directly or indirectly initiates a chain of events that prove the belief true.

What is a subculture?

A subculture is a group of individuals who are characteristically distinctive from the dominant culture in some way, but whose values and norms still align with the dominant culture. For example, the use of medical jargon, the standardized language used to communicate within a group, suggests that medical personnel can best be described as a subculture. Members of a subculture tend to identify as a group, have their own jargon and mode of dress (eg, scrubs, white coats, stethoscopes), and engage in characteristically distinctive behaviors (eg, treating patients, being on call).

procedural memory

A type of implicit memory, procedural memory involves learning motor skills, such as riding a bicycle, playing an instrument, or tying shoes.

Which psychophysiology concept determines how high the volume of the tone must be for participants to detect it roughly half the time? A.Absolute threshold B.Difference threshold C.Just noticeable difference D.Sensory adaptation

A. Absolute threshold Perceptual threshold refers to the strength of a stimulus at which one can detect its presence or a change in its intensity. The absolute threshold is the intensity value at which an individual is able to detect the stimulus 50% of the time. In this example, that threshold is the tone volume at which a participant can detect the tone about half the time. (Choices B and C) Difference threshold and just noticeable difference are equivalent concepts: The smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect 50% of the time is called the difference threshold, or just noticeable difference.

Which of the following symptoms, if present, would help a clinician diagnose bipolar disorder rather than borderline personality disorder? A.Lack of interest in activities previously enjoyed B.Impulsive or reckless behavior C.Fear of abandonment D.Suicidal ideation

A. Lack of interest in activities previously enjoyed Bipolar disorders (BD) are characterized by mania, defined as an abnormally elevated or irritable mood and increased energy. Manic episodes may also include feelings of grandiosity, reduced need for sleep, flight of ideas (rapid thoughts), and impulsive or reckless behaviors (eg, extreme spending, promiscuous sexual activity). Most people with BD also experience depressive episodes. Depressive episodes share the same symptoms as depressive disorder, such as feelings of sadness or hopelessness, lack of interest in activities, sleep disturbances, and frequent thoughts of death or suicide. Borderline personality disorder is characterized by instability in mood, sense of self, and relationships. Symptoms may include extreme mood reactivity, fear of abandonment, impulsive or reckless behavior (eg, drug use, unsafe sex), and suicidal or self-harming behavior. Lack of interest in activities previously enjoyed is a symptom that may be present in BD and depressive disorder, but is not characteristic of borderline personality disorder; therefore, if present, this symptom would help a clinician diagnose BD rather than borderline personality disorder.

A researcher recruited 20 individuals with complete spinal cord injuries at cervical vertebrae C3 or C4 (participants had no sensory or motor function below the site of injury) and 20 matched controls. Participants were presented with images designed to evoke positive, negative, or no emotion. If the results indicate no significant difference between participants with spinal cord injuries and control participants in the emotional response to the images, this finding would: A.contradict the James-Lange theory. B.support the Schachter-Singer theory. C.contradict the Cannon-Bard theory. D.support the theory of universal emotions.

A. contradict the James-Lange theory. The James-Lange theory holds that specific emotions are elicited by stimuli (eg, loud noise) that produce specific physiological reactions (eg, increased heart rate), which are transmitted as sensory information to the brain via the spinal cord. As a component of the central nervous system (CNS), the spinal cord contains gray matter (nonmyelinated neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, axons) surrounded by white matter (primarily myelinated axons). Spinal cord white matter is composed of afferent (ascending) axonal tracts that carry sensory information from the body to the brain and efferent (descending) axonal tracts that carry motor commands from the brain to the body. Individuals with cervical spinal cord injury (SCI) do not receive sensory information from the body. According to the James-Lange theory, such individuals are unable to experience emotion because sensory information (eg, increased heart rate) from the body cannot reach the brain; as such, this would predict that only control participants in the present scenario would be able to experience emotion. Therefore, a finding that there is no significant difference between the emotional responses of controls and those with complete SCI contradicts the James-Lange theory by showing that controls and affected individuals display similar emotion.

Researchers designed the two distraction conditions to require multitasking and predicted that the hands-free conversation condition would be less distracting than the texting condition because of: A.task dissimilarity. B.the cocktail party effect. C.the interference effect. D.speech shadowing.

A. task dissimilarity. Multitasking is impacted by task similarity, difficulty, and practice. It is easier to perform two dissimilar tasks than two similar tasks. Driving, which requires visual attention, is easier to do while engaging in a hands-free call (auditory attention) than while texting, because both texting and driving require visual attention. Tasks that are easier to perform are also easier to do simultaneously. When driving a familiar route in nice weather, it is easy for the driver to simultaneously hold a conversation. However, if driving an unfamiliar route in terrible weather, the driver may ask passengers to stop talking.

Bilateral ablation of the hippocampus would result in:

Ablation (the removal or destruction of tissue) is a technique used to study the brain by measuring the deficits that result from ablation of specific brain areas. Bilateral ablation of the hippocampus, a region that plays an important role in the consolidation of short-term memory into long-term memory, results in severe anterograde amnesia, which is the inability to form new memories.

Describe Ego-Defense Mechan

According to psychoanalytic theory, ego defense mechanisms are an unconscious way to deal with the anxiety caused by unacceptable urges and thoughts. Rationalization occurs when an individual unconsciously generates an acceptable excuse for an unacceptable behavior or thought. For example, skipping meals is not normal or acceptable behavior; the patient using this defense mechanism is rationalizing the behavior by telling herself that she will eat a lot later on.

Affinal kin are related by ___________

Affinal kin are related by marriage

What is an achieved status?

An achieved status is one that is attained, such as one's occupation (eg, doctor), notable achievements (eg, Olympic athlete), or failures (eg, college dropout).

What is an aggregate?

An aggregate is a collection of individuals who share a common location but do not identify as a group (eg, all the people at a given cafe at 6:00 AM).

What is an ascribed status?

An ascribed status is one that is socially assigned, such as race

What does an electroencephalogram (EEG) measure?

An electroencephalogram (EEG) measures the patterns and fluctuations of electrical impulses in the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp. This technique records brain waves, and is most often used to diagnose epilepsy, sleep disorders, and coma.

What are case studies?

An in-depth analysis of a single individual or group of individuals that may not apply to others and does not prove anything. What is true for one person may not be true for another. It is difficult to identify patterns. May be used for a very unique case and unusual circumstances. Case studies are observational studies that assess one or more individuals in depth over a certain period.

Structural plasticity:

At the structural level, sprouting (increased connections between neurons), rerouting (new connections between neurons), and pruning (decreased connections between neurons) contribute to structural plasticity. Structural plasticity does not happen quickly, so it is not responsible for immediate changes

______________ theory suggests that individuals tend to explain behavior (their own or that of others) as resulting from internal or external causes.

Attribution theory suggests that individuals tend to explain behavior (their own or that of others) as resulting from internal or external causes.

Which research methodology involves the extended, systematic observation of a complete social environment? A. Comparative methods B. Ethnographic methods C. Experimental methods D. Survey methods

B. Ethnographic methods Ethnographic methods are accurately described in the question as involving systematic observation of a complete social environment.

In a study, each trial involves administering a drop of lemon juice to the participant's tongue and measuring the participant's level of salivation. As more trials are conducted, the researcher finds that the magnitude of salivation declines. After a certain point, the researcher switches to administering lime juice. This researcher is most likely studying which process? A. Sensory perception B. Habituation and dishabituation C. Stimulus generalization in classical conditioning D. Conditioned responses in classical conditioning

B. Habituation and dishabituation The study involves reduced responding to a repeating stimulus, which is best described as habituation.

Sound-induced vibrations depolarize hair cells of the cochlea by opening ion channels that are gated in what way? A. Chemically B. Mechanically C. Electrically D. Synaptically

B. Mechanically Hair cells of the cochlea are specialized mechanoreceptors.

The retina functions to: A. accommodate and focus incoming light rays on the lens. B. detect light rays and convert them into signals for the brain to process. C. provide oxygen and nutrients to the vitreous humor. D. control the amount of light focused on the photoreceptor cells.

B. detect light rays and convert them into signals for the brain to process. The retina contains photoreceptors such as rods and cones, which detect light and transduces light to energy. The energy eventually becomes an action potential and the signal travels through the optic nerve and travels to the primary visual cortex.

The biomedical approach to mental illness is best demonstrated by: A.the systematic underdiagnosis of BD by the medical community. B.pharmaceutical companies attempting to raise awareness about BD. C.BD patients' inability to recognize symptoms of mania as problematic. D.proactive strategies encouraging self-identification of manic symptoms.

B. pharmaceutical companies attempting to raise awareness about BD. The biomedical approach to mental illness suggests that physiological causes (abnormal brain chemistry) result in psychological symptoms, and therefore medical treatment is advised to fix the underlying problem. This approach is best demonstrated by pharmaceutical companies raising BD symptom awareness while offering new drug therapies. The biomedical approach (also known as the biomedical model) emphasizes diagnosis (ie, disease identification based on symptoms and/or diagnostic testing) and treatment (eg, drugs, surgery). Predominant in American medicine, this approach assumes that medical intervention can fix the problem and the patient will play a passive role in the process. The advantages to this approach include increased life expectancy rates, demonstrated effectiveness for many illnesses, and improved quality of life for some patients, particularly those with chronic conditions who greatly benefit from drug therapy. However, this approach is not effective for many individuals with psychological disorders. Disadvantages of this approach include its narrow focus, which ignores other (eg, social) factors, and its reliance on drugs, many of which can produce harmful side effects. (Choice A) The biomedical model has been correlated with overdiagnosis of disease, partially as the result of drug companies developing and promoting the use of new therapies among the medical community and consumers. (Choices C and D) The biomedical model emphasizes the role of the physician and medical system in diagnosing and treating disease, and assumes that the patient will play a passive role. Therefore, neither the failure of patients to recognize their symptoms nor proactive strategies encouraging symptom recognition align with this model.

A trait theorist would most likely challenge the study findings described in the passage by asserting that researchers failed to assess: A.which interventions were most effective in eliciting changes in personality. B.whether personality changes were maintained following the period of intervention. C.the influence of human interactions in enabling changes in personality. D.each participant's reason for the specific personality trait chosen.[

B. whether personality changes were maintained following the period of intervention. -Trait theorists attempt to explain personality in terms of observable personality characteristics, or traits, using objective criteria. Traits can be defined as characteristic ways one often perceives situations, feels, or acts. -However, trait theories are not very successful at predicting specific behaviors because they do not account for the impact of situational factors on behavior. For example, an introvert who generally avoids parties would be more likely to attend his wife's retirement party (specific behavior). Furthermore, trait theories fail to explain why and how traits develop. -Trait theorists would argue that personality traits are unlikely to change in a relatively short time frame. Therefore, they would most likely question whether the findings reflected transient alterations in personality during intervention or permanent changes in innate personality traits.

What is belief perseverance?

Belief perseverance occurs when one refuses to be influenced in the face of convincing evidence. In other words, the original belief is maintained despite new information to the contrary. There is no evidence that the physician is refusing to be persuaded.

Suppose one of the participants in Study 1 earned several candy bars and became very ill after consuming them. This participant would most likely: A.avoid participating in any future research studies. B.avoid playing computer games for awhile until she feels better. C.develop a long-lasting aversion to the specific candy bars she consumed. D.develop a short-term aversion to the candy bars available during the study.

C. develop a long-lasting aversion to the specific candy bars she consumed. A learned taste aversion is a specific and powerful type of classical conditioning that occurs when an organism becomes ill after consuming something (eg, food, alcohol). Whatever was consumed prior to the illness becomes associated with the illness (even if it did not cause the illness) and is avoided by the organism afterward. Unlike other forms of typical classical conditioning, which require two stimuli to be paired together repeatedly before the organism learns to associate the two, a taste aversion develops after just one pairing. In other words, an organism needs to become ill only once to associate the food consumed with the illness. Similarly, whereas typical classical conditioning requires the two stimuli to be presented within a very short time frame for the organism to learn to associate them, taste aversions occur despite hours passing between the consumption of a food and subsequent illness. Finally, whereas typical classical conditioning rapidly extinguishes when the two stimuli are no longer paired, taste aversions have long durations. In other words, once becoming ill, the organism will likely never consume the associated food again.

A person is struggling to achieve generativity, rather than stagnation. In terms of Erikson's theory, this person is a(n): A. adolescent. B. young adult. C. middle-aged adult. D. elderly adult.

C. middle-aged adult. According to Erikson's theory, a middle-aged person struggles with generativity versus stagnation.

Aging is associated with significant memory decline for all of the following types of memory EXCEPT: A.episodic. B.flashbulb. C.semantic. D.source.

C. semantic. Aging affects different types of memory in various ways. Aging has been associated with declines in certain types of memory, including episodic, flashbulb, and source memory Semantic and procedural types of memory appear to remain relatively stable with age. Semantic memory is the memory for words, facts, and concepts that have been acquired over the lifetime (eg, color names). Procedural memory involves motor skills that one has acquired (eg, riding a bike, driving a car).

Psychoanalytic theory would most likely suggest that experimental group participants who are able to alter their personality traits have: A. superegos that overcome defense mechanisms. B. ids that contain an intact reality principle. C. stronger egos than participants who are not able. D. more rational ids than participants who are not able.

C. stronger egos than participants who are not able. According to psychoanalytic theory personality results from the interaction between the id, ego, and superego. -The id is selfish, compelling us to seek pleasure and avoid pain. -The ego is realistic, compelling us to behave in ways that are socially acceptable, and acts as a mediator between the id and superego. -The superego is moralistic and idealistic, compelling us toward perfection. According to psychoanalytic theory, personality change is possible when a person has a strong ego that can successfully mediate between one's impulsive, pleasure-seeking id and the goals of the idealistic superego.

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) uses principles from classical and operant conditioning, observational learning, and cognitive therapy to treat various concerns including phobias, anxiety, and maladaptive personality traits. The primary objective of CBT is to replace negative thought patterns and destructive behaviors with healthy, positive thoughts and behaviors. A cognitive-behavioral therapist treating a participant with extreme introversion and social anxiety would focus on replacing negative thoughts (eg, "I'm no good in social situations") and avoidant behaviors (eg, not attending a party) with more positive thoughts (eg, "I'm interesting and a great listener") and sociable behaviors (eg, eating with others).

Describe conflict theory:

Conflict theory is a macro-sociological perspective that focuses on the behavior of social groups rather than the behavior of individuals. According to conflict theory, conflict arises when resources, such as wealth and power, are unequally distributed throughout a society. Conflict theory predicts that class conflict results from members of the highest social classes possessing most of the resources compared to members of the lower classes.

Consanguineal kin are related by ____________

Consanguineal kin are related by blood

What is context-dependent memory?

Context-dependent memory refers to the fact that individuals are better able to remember information when they are in the same context in which that information was learned. Context refers to the physical environment in which the original learning took place or the original memory was encoded. Context-dependent memory helps to explain why, when you meet people in one context (eg, in class) and then run into them in another context (eg, at Starbucks), you may have trouble remembering their names or how you know them.

What are cross-sectional studies?

Cross-sectional studies are observational studies that assess data from a large section of the population at a given point and can determine the prevalence of a disease. For example, if a statistic states that "as many as half of all individuals diagnosed with BD actually do not have the disorder" the data was most likely from a cross-sectional study.

What is cultural evolution?

Cultural evolution describes changes in human values, practices, and/or beliefs that are not due to genes. For example, Increasing food portions, a behavioral change not associated with genetics, is also an example of cultural evolution, one that is contributing to the current obesity epidemic.

What is cultural relativism?

Cultural relativism, in which there are no "right" or "wrong" cultural practices, is most inclusive of cultural differences.

Which statement best applies Rogers's concept of incongruence to SDT's suggestion for how healthcare professionals can promote autonomous motivation? A. By encouraging their patients' initiative, healthcare professionals motivate their patients to reduce the gap in their need for self-actualization. B. By giving their patients options, healthcare professionals make it possible for their patients to reduce the gap between their actual behavior and their expected behavior. C. By encouraging the patients' initiative, healthcare professionals motivate their patients to reduce the gap between their behaviors and their attitudes. D. By giving their patients options, healthcare professionals offer their patients ways to reduce the gap between their ideal selves and their actual selves.

D. By giving their patients options, healthcare professionals offer their patients ways to reduce the gap between their ideal selves and their actual selves. Incongruence refers to the gap between a person's actual self and ideal self.

Describe the difference threshold and the just noticeable difference

Difference threshold and just noticeable difference are equivalent concepts: The smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect 50% of the time is called the difference threshold, or just noticeable difference.

Describe the drive-reduction theory of motivation

Drive-reduction theory proposes that motivation is a result of a disruption of homeostasis, which generates a biological need. The biological need generates a drive to fulfill that need, which prompts action. For example, when blood glucose levels drop, an organism feels hungry and engages in food-seeking behaviors. Therefore, eating slowly and mindfully and stopping when full is a strategy that addresses a physiological need and is most consistent with drive-reduction theory.

What is education stratification?

Educational stratification refers to the mechanisms that produce inequality in educational access (eg, schools available to students) and outcomes (eg, graduation rates, college matriculation) in society. Students are stratified in the education system as a result of social characteristics, such as parent's income or influence. Educational stratification occurs on multiple levels. For instance, students with high social standing (eg, wealth) have many options (eg, well-funded local public schools, private schools), whereas students with low social standing have fewer options (ie, limited access to quality schools and teachers).

What is an encoding strategy?

Elaboration is an example of an encoding strategy that can enhance memory. With elaboration, new information is meaningfully associated with previously known information. This effortful, deep processing tends to result in more connections to the new material, improving learning. A scenario in which a student meaningfully associates the name and function of the amygdala (ie, new information) to her "emotional" friend named Amy (ie, previously known information) illustrates elaboration, an encoding strategy.

Dependent variable vs Independent variable

Every experiment has at least two types of variables: independent and dependent. -Independent variables are manipulated/controlled by the experimenter to determine if these changes impact dependent variables. -Dependent variables are measured or observed by the researcher. Changes in the dependent variable determine whether the research hypothesis was confirmed and may inform future research.

Describe explicit/declarative memory:

Explicit/declarative memory is memory for facts and events that can be consciously or intentionally recalled, including: -Semantic memory, which includes knowledge about facts (eg, humans are mammals) -Episodic memory, which includes personal experiences (eg, what you ate for dinner last night)

What is an explicit/declarative memory?

Explicit/declarative memory is memory for facts and events that can be consciously or intentionally recalled. Explicit memory consists of episodic memory, which is memory for personal experiences (eg, what you ate for dinner last night), and semantic memory, which includes knowledge about facts (eg, apples are a type of fruit).

_______________ attributions ascribe behavior to environmental factors, such as task difficulty, presence of others, or luck.

External (situational) attributions ascribe behavior to environmental factors, such as task difficulty, presence of others, or luck.

Fictive kin are related by ___________

Fictive kin are related by other means (adoption, religion).

Fixed interval:

Fixed interval: Behavior rewarded after a consistent amount of time, regardless of how many behaviors have occurred. For example, employees who are paid a weekly salary receive the same amount of money each Friday regardless of how hard they have worked during the week. Fixed interval schedules (eg, providing a weekly weight-loss incentive) tend to produce increased behavioral responses just before the reward and a decreased pattern of responding just after the reward is received. For example, people tend to work harder and faster at the end of the week, just before receiving their weekly paychecks, and tend to be slower and more sluggish at the beginning of the week, after receiving their weekly paychecks.

Fixed ratio:

Fixed ratio: Behavior rewarded after a consistent number of responses. For example, a customer loyalty program awards a free coffee after ten coffee purchases.

What does functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measure?

Functional magnetic resonance imaging is a neuroimaging tool that measures the difference in blood oxygenation between a resting condition and an active condition. It provides an indirect measure of brain activity associated with the experimental conditions. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), is a neuroimaging procedure that relies on the principle that active neurons require increased blood flow for oxygen delivery. Neurons lack internal energy stores (ie, no glucose or oxygen), so as an active brain region depletes the local oxygen supply in the blood, freshly oxygenated blood (oxyhemoglobin) rushes to this area to replace the deoxygenated blood (deoxyhemoglobin). The resulting change in blood flow is analyzed by detecting the differential properties of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin using an fMRI scanner. Researchers use this method to compare blood flow during a resting condition and an active condition. For example, the study researchers would have first assessed subjects at baseline (resting condition) and then while watching videos meant to induce emotion (active condition) and compared the regions of brain activation.

What is the evolutionary game theory?

Game theory mathematically evaluates the relative success of particular strategies (behavioral phenotypes) over time. When the evolutionary benefit of a social behavior outweighs the cost of that behavior (eg, a warning call puts an individual at risk but increases the likelihood that genes will be passed on), game theory predicts that the behavioral phenotype will persist.

What is Group Polarization?

Group polarization occurs when group members adopt a more extreme attitude or course of action after group discussion. Group polarization is more likely to occur if group members have similar opinions before group discussion. Group discussion strengthens and reconfirms individuals' opinions, resulting in an average viewpoint that is more extreme. Group polarization can occur in either direction (ie, extremely positive or extremely negative).

What is group polarization?

Group polarization occurs when group members adopt a more extreme attitude or course of action after group discussion. For group polarization to occur, group members must share similar opinions prior to group discussion

What is groupthink?

Groupthink, irrational decision making by groups that value reaching a consensus over critical evaluation of the information is more likely to occur when all group members are similar.

Define habituation

Habituation, a type of nonassociative learning, occurs when repeated exposure to a stimulus results in a decreased response. For example, an individual who has had an intravenous line (stimulus) inserted into the arm might initially notice the feeling of it but will notice it less over time (diminished response). Appetite and satiety are influenced by internal and external cues. The research finding that when individuals consume the same food stimulus (ie, repeated exposure to a stimulus) they reach satiety (ie, diminished physiological and behavioral response) faster than when they consume varied food stimuli suggests that satiety may be partly due to habituation.

Describe humanistic psychology

Humanistic psychology emphasizes the higher aspects of human nature, including the drive toward self-actualization (ie, achieving one's full potential) and personal growth. Humanistic psychologists take an optimistic view of human nature, believing that people have an innate drive toward self-improvement. Humanistic psychotherapy utilizes a person- or client-centered approach (the word "patient" is not used), so the intervention is unique to the individual.

implicit memory is

Implicit memory is memory stored without effort or awareness. The main type of implicit memory is procedural memory, or memory of how to do things (eg, ride a bicycle, tie a shoe).

What is a implicit/nondeclarative memory?

Implicit/nondeclarative memory is memory for things that cannot be consciously recalled, such as skills, tasks, emotions, and reflexes. Examples of implicit memory include: -Procedural memory, which is memory for motor skills (eg, riding a bicycle) -Emotional/reflexive memory, which is memory for associations between stimuli (eg, salty ocean air triggers pleasant emotions from childhood beach vacations).

In most human studies, it is difficult to control for ________________ factors

In most human studies, it is difficult to control for environmental factors, such as stress, drug and alcohol use, chemical exposure, social factors, and medical care, because such factors vary widely across individuals. Age, gender, and IQ are all factors that significantly impact cognition, but they can be controlled in an experiment. Subjects' individual experiences with the environment vary widely and are much more difficult, if not impossible, to control.

Power vs. Authority

In sociology, power refers to the ability to control and influence others. Authority refers to whether others believe that the power is legitimate. There are three types of authority: -Traditional authority comes from longstanding patterns in society (eg, a queen is seen as having legitimate power in a monarchy). -Charismatic authority stems from the personal appeal and/or extraordinary claims of an individual (eg, Gandhi was seen as having legitimate power due to his ability to inspire people). -Rational-legal authority arises from the professional position a person holds (eg, a physician is seen as having legitimate power due to extensive training).

Describe the Sick Role Theory:

In sociology, sick role theory conceptualizes illness as a socially acceptable form of deviance. When ill, an individual enters into the "sick role," a socially defined status with rights and obligations: Rights: The sick person has the right to be exempt from playing other social roles while sick (eg, employee) and is excused from fulfilling normal responsibilities (eg, going to work). The sick person also has the right to not be held responsible for the illness. Obligations: The sick person has the responsibility to make every reasonable effort to get well as soon as possible. The sick person also has the responsibility to seek medical help and to cooperate with medical professionals (eg, follow their treatment plan). The passage states that the underdiagnosis of BD might be partially attributed to individuals with BD who may not realize that their manic episodes are problematic and/or seek treatment for them (Paragraph 3). Therefore, a potential explanation for the underdiagnosis of BD, based on the information in the passage and sick role theory, is that individuals with BD fail to meet the obligations of illness (ie, seeking medical help).

What is incentive theory?

Incentive theory of motivation suggests that organisms are motivated to act in order to obtain external rewards. For example, a student might spend many hours studying for an exam not because she is interested in the material (an internal factor), but because she wants to get a good grade (an external reward).

____________ electrical conductivity of the skin is a physiological indication of increased sympathetic arousal

Increased electrical conductivity of the skin is a physiological indication of increased sympathetic arousal

What is a Master Status?

Individuals may hold many ascribed and achieved statuses, but their master status is the one that dominates in social situations. A master status can be either ascribed or achieved, may be context-dependent, and tends to influence most aspects of one's social life.

_____________ attributions ascribe behavior to personal factors, such as personality, ability, or attitude.

Internal (dispositional) attributions ascribe behavior to personal factors, such as personality, ability, or attitude. Dispositional attributions assume that behavior is caused by personal traits such as temperament or intelligence.

What is labeling theory?

Labeling theory suggests that when someone is labeled as deviant, the act of being labeled produces further deviance. The initial act is called primary deviance and, if labeled, results in social stigma such as disapproval by others. Internalization of the deviant label leads to further acts of deviance, called secondary deviance. If an individual is convicted of a crime and labeled a criminal, employment and housing become more difficult, and police are more likely to monitor the individual's activities. These obstacles facilitate the individual's internalization of the label "criminal," making it more likely that person will commit another crime and be caught again. So the response to actions (labeling and social stigma), not the initial actions themselves, creates deviance.

Long-term potentiation (LTP) describes:

Long-term potentiation (LTP) describes an enduring increase in synaptic transmission of neurons, which is the neural foundation for learning and memory consolidation. When neurons are repeatedly stimulated, they demonstrate an increased firing rate, known as LTP. LTP can also occur when two (or more) neurons repeatedly fire simultaneously. For example, if a neuron repeatedly receives simultaneous input from two sources, neuron A (visual input of flower) and neuron B (smell of flower), the combined inputs may become associated. If this occurs, either input A or input B will activate the postsynaptic neuron, but others, like input C (smell of an onion), will not. This is the neural foundation for how we learn associations. LTP can occur by two mechanisms: An increase in the release of neurotransmitter by the presynaptic neuron and an increase in the number of receptors in the postsynaptic neuron.

What are longitudinal studies?

Longitudinal studies are observational studies that gather data over time. For example, a statistic that states "almost 70% of patients [receive] an initial misdiagnosis and almost 35% [remain] misdiagnosed for 10 years or more" most likely came from a longitudinal study.

Describe motion parallax:

Motion parallax (or relative motion) is a monocular cue whereby objects in the foreground are perceived as moving faster than objects in the background.

Neuroticism is:

Neuroticism, or emotional instability, is one of the "big five" personality traits. Neuroticism is characterized by a tendency to experience or express negative emotions (anxiety, anger, fear, sadness). Individuals who score high on this personality factor tend to find common challenges (eg, getting a flat tire) hopelessly difficult and are more easily agitated by stressors. Neuroticism has been linked to many different psychological disorders, including mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders.

Describe the trend of memory decay:

Normal memory decay (or forgetting) follows a characteristic pattern: the initial rate of decay is highest right after the material is first learned, then plateaus over time unless the material is reviewed. Numerous studies have produced the same basic forgetting curve shape for different types of memory, including short-term and several types of long-term memory (eg, episodic, semantic, and procedural).

Observational studies vs Experimental studies

Observational design studies are conducted when it is unethical or unfeasible to manipulate a variable of interest. For example, it would not be feasible (or ethical) to manipulate the degree to which religion is internalized. In an experimental design study, the researcher manipulates independent variables to measure their effect on dependent variables. In a study, if no variables were manipulated, this makes it an observational, not experimental, design. For example, a survey of religious believers

What is an out-group?

Out-groups are groups to which individuals do not feel they belong. In-groups and out-groups can be defined according to race, gender, religion, age, socioeconomic background, or other criteria.

Describe the correlation coefficient (r) What value corresponds to a strong positive correlation? What value corresponds to a strong negative correlation?

Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) indicates the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables. The closer r is to −1 or 1 (ie, an absolute value of 1), the stronger the correlation. Positive r -values reflect a positive correlation between variables (as one variable increases, so does the other) Negative r -values indicate a negative correlation between variables (as one variable increases, the other decreases).

What is popular culture?

Popular culture is defined as the ideas, attitudes, and perspectives that are mainstream (ie, relevant to most people in society). Popular culture includes anything the majority of individuals in a society believe in (eg, freedom), do (eg, watch television), wear (eg, blue jeans), or buy/consume (eg, cell phones, McDonald's meals).

Describe the biopsychosocial model

Proponents of the biopsychosocial model of mental illness assert that mental illness results from the interaction between biological factors, psychological factors, and social factors.

Describe both positive and negative punishment:

Punishment discourages behavior. Positive punishment occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is applied to discourage a behavior. For example, a toddler gets spanked for running into the street. Negative punishment occurs when a desirable stimulus is withdrawn to discourage a behavior. For example, a teenager loses freedom by being grounded for a week after getting bad grades.

Describe both positive and negative reinforcement:

Reinforcement encourages behavior. Positive reinforcement occurs when a desirable stimulus is presented to encourage a behavior. For example, a toddler receives a treat after successfully using the toilet. Negative reinforcement occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is withdrawn to encourage a behavior. For example, a teenager is given a week off from chores after getting good grades.

What is negative reinforcement?

Reinforcement increases (or maintains) behavior; negative reinforcement occurs when an undesirable stimulus is removed, which encourages a behavior to happen again. Ex) If Sarah has developed OCD cleaning behaviors due to a built up extreme anxiety of her family becoming ill, Sarah's cleaning rituals act as negative reinforcement because she experienced a reduction in anxiety (ie, removal of an undesirable stimulus) after performing cleaning rituals, leading her to perform the cleaning rituals more often (ie, behavior increases).

Describe retinal disparity and convergence:

Retinal disparity and convergence are both binocular cues for depth/distance. Retinal disparity occurs because each eye transmits a slightly different image to the brain, which infers distance from the disparity. Convergence is the extent to which the eyes turn inward (converge) to focus on an object; closer objects require more convergence, which helps the brain infer distance.

Retroactive interference vs proactive interference

Retroactive interference occurs when more recent information interferes with one's ability to recall older information. For example, a man is introduced to Lisa (first event) and then to Lucy (second event). Later, he cannot remember the name "Lisa" because "Lucy," the second name he heard, keeps interfering with his ability to remember the older information. Proactive interference occurs when previously learned information interferes with one's ability to recall new information. For example, if one of the participants memorized a grocery list before the study (first event), and then had trouble recalling the items they were asked to memorize (second event) because they kept remembering items from their grocery list, this would be proactive interference

What is retroactive interference?

Retroactive interference occurs when more recently learned information interferes with the learning of older information.

What is role conflict?

Role conflict, which occurs when expectations of different roles compete in ways that cause stress. For example, if the doctor is also a husband and father, expectations for his role as doctor (eg, working on weekends) may conflict with expectations for his role as parent (eg, attending child's game) and husband (eg, helping around the house).

What is role strain?

Role strain occurs when competing expectations for a single role cause discomfort or stress. In the physician's role as a doctor, he is expected to help his patient with her symptoms, and he must also consider the potential negative consequences of any drug he prescribes. The stress caused by these competing expectations for one role best illustrates role strain.

What is a secondary group?

Secondary groups contain members united for a common purpose. These groups tend to be larger than primary groups, less intimate, and formed for utilitarian reasons. Examples of secondary groups include classmates, coworkers, and union members.

What is self-concept?

Self-concept refers to beliefs about oneself, including beliefs about race/ethnicity, gender, ability, talent, and so on.

Self-reporting surveys in experiments

Self-reports are commonly used in research studies because they are relatively inexpensive and easy to implement. Studies based on self-reporting have low vulnerability to experimenter bias but have high vulnerability to subjective interpretation, as each participant may interpret the questions differently and bring personal bias to self-evaluations. This bias can influence the reliability or validity of self-reported studies.

What is self-serving bias?

Self-serving bias is a common type of attributional bias in which an individual attributes success to internal factors but blames failure on external factors. For example, failure on a school exam is attributed to the test being unfair (external), whereas success on a school exam is attributed one's own intelligence (internal). This bias serves to preserve or protect one's self-esteem, which is one's overall opinion of self-worth.

Slow-wave sleep (stages 3 and 4) is characterized by _______ waves,

Slow-wave sleep (stages 3 and 4) is characterized by delta waves, which demonstrate the lowest frequency and highest amplitude observed during the sleep cycle.

What is social capital?

Social capital refers to a person's networks of people that can be converted into economic gain. For example, men's networks are larger and provide information about work-related topics, such as where there are job openings or promotion possibilities. Therefore, men's network connections confer more social capital because these connections can be more easily converted into economic gain.

What is social constructionism?

Social constructionism is a sociological theory suggesting that "reality" is created through social interactions, resulting in agreed-upon, shared meanings. Objects (eg, money), behaviors (eg, handshaking), and categories (eg, race) have meaning only because individuals in society have agreed on that meaning, making them social constructs.

What is a social desirability bias?

Social desirability bias describes the tendency of research participants to provide the most favorable or acceptable responses to research questions. In other words, participants may overemphasize positive behaviors (eg, studying) while downplaying or underreporting undesirable behaviors (eg, consuming alcohol).

What is social loafing?

Social loafing occurs when an individual expends less effort when working as part of a group than when working alone (eg, people tend to clap less loudly as part of a group than when no one else is clapping).

What is social mobility?

Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals, groups, or families between or within status categories in society (eg, from middle class to upper class). Social mobility can be horizontal or vertical and is related to a multitude of other factors, such as education, job loss, marriage, and institutionalized discrimination. By providing more social capital (potential economic gain), men's networks also provide more social mobility.

What is social reproduction?

Social reproduction refers to the fact that successive generations tend to occupy the same social class. In other words, children born into lower-class families tend to remain lower class as adults.

Social stratification is the hierarchical organization of individuals in society based on ___________, __________, and ___________:

Social stratification is the hierarchical organization of individuals in society based on social class, social status, and power:

What is somatic symptom disorder (SDD)?

Somatic symptom disorder (SSD) is a type of somatic symptom and related disorder (SSRD) characterized by extreme distress and concern regarding one or more actual bodily/physical symptoms (eg, fatigue, pain). The SSRDs are a group of disorders in which bodily (somatic) symptoms or illnesses are associated with psychological factors.

Describe source monitoring:

Source monitoring refers to errors that occur when an individual incorrectly attributes a memory to the wrong source. For example, an individual who reads on the AAMC website (source) that the MCAT is adding a new behavioral sciences section, but when recalling this information remembers hearing it from a friend (incorrect source), has committed a source monitoring error.

What is Stereotype boost?

Stereotype boost (also known as stereotype lift) occurs when positive stereotypes about social groups cause improved performance. For example, Asians reminded of the stereotype "Asians are good at math" before completing a math test tend to outperform Asians who are not first reminded of this stereotype.

Define stereotype threat:

Stereotype threat refers to the anxiety experienced by an individual who feels judged based on a negative stereotype about a group to which he or she belongs. For stereotype threat to occur, the individual must be made aware of his or her membership in a group that is negatively stereotyped. This awareness arouses vigilance, which often results in anxiety that negatively impacts performance. Stereotype threat can result from an interaction between a patient and physician if, for example, the patient is made aware of belonging to a group that is stereotypically associated with alcoholism. The patient might underreport consumption of alcohol for fear of validating the stereotype about the group.

What is stimulus generalization?

Stimulus generalization occurs when the conditioned response is elicited by stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus. For example, a dog that has been conditioned to salivate in response to a bell may also salivate to a phone alert.

What are mirror neurons?

Studies suggest that mirror neurons are specialized neurons in the frontal cortex of the brain that fire both while observing and while performing a behavior. Mirror neurons have been observed in various brain regions (eg, frontal and parietal lobes) of humans, other primates, and some birds, and are hypothesized to play a central role in observational learning. Observational learning (also called modeling) describes when an individual learns how to perform a behavior by watching someone else perform that behavior. Watching and replicating movements, such as during the Corsi block-tapping task, is a form of observational learning, which is thought to utilize the mirror neuron system.

What is symbolic interactionism?

Symbolic interactionism is a micro-sociological perspective concerned with the interpersonal interactions through which the subjective meanings that shape social reality are developed. Subjective meanings differ by context and culture (eg, avoiding eye contact is a sign of respect in Japan but is considered rude in the US) and can change over time.

Synaptic plasticity:

Synaptic plasticity results from changes in the firing rate of the presynaptic neuron, which alters the amount of neurotransmitter released into the synaptic cleft and the number of receptors on the postsynaptic target. Synaptic changes are associated with both immediate and more delayed potentiation or depression

Folkways vs. Mores vs. Taboos

Taboos are deviant behaviors considered morally reprehensible by society. Committing a taboo often results in a formal sanction, the application of an institutional response, such as arrest or incarceration. Example) Since the "war on drugs" beginning in the 1980s, the use and distribution of drugs has become increasingly treated as not only deviant, but reprehensible and criminal in the U.S., and was increasingly met with formal sanctions (eg, jail time). Mores are more informal social norms that will often times lead to some type of formal sanction. For example, not wearing clothes at all will likely cause a police response. Folkways are less formal social norms that, when violated (eg, wearing clothes backward), typically result in informal sanctions (eg, raised eyebrows). Example) The "war on drugs" did result in drug-related behaviors being viewed as less of a folkway (more taboo), but it also increased formal (not informal) sanctions.

What is the Hawthorne effect?

The Hawthorne effect describes research subjects acting differently from how they would normally behave as a result of knowing that they are being observed.

Describe the Schacter-Singer (two factor) theory of emotion.

The Schachter-Singer theory (ie, two-factor theory) is similar to the James-Lange theory except for an additional component: cognitive interpretation of the physiological response. The Schachter-Singer theory addresses the major limitation of the James-Lange theory, which is the fact that most emotions correspond with nearly identical physiological responses. In other words, anger, fear, and excitement might all produce similar elevations in heart rate, but the experience of each emotion is quite different because emotion is the result of two factors, physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of the situation.

Describe the availability heuristic

The availability heuristic is the tendency to make decisions or base judgments on how easily something is recalled from memory. In other words, things that are readily available in memory are thought to be more common. The physician's quote in the passage describing heightened exposure to the symptoms of BD leading to a propensity to overdiagnose is an example of the availability heuristic influencing a decision-making process.

The ___________ contain a high concentration of dopamine-producing neurons, the function of which is to produce smooth, purposeful movements and inhibit excessive movement.

The basal ganglia contain a high concentration of dopamine-producing neurons, the function of which is to produce smooth, purposeful movements and inhibit excessive movement. Loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra of the basal ganglia results in the characteristic resting tremor seen in Parkinson disease.

The right hemisphere of the brain is responsible for controlling:

The brain is divided into right and left hemispheres, each of which is specialized for certain processes; this specialization is known as hemispheric lateralization. Each hemisphere is responsible for contralateral control of the body: the left hemisphere controls touch and movement on the right side of the body, and vice versa. The right hemisphere is crucial for processing visuospatial patterns, such as those required for the Corsi block-tapping task; deficits in visuospatial processing are often indicative of damage to the right hemisphere. In addition to visuospatial processing, the right hemisphere is important for artistic and musical abilities, visualization, and emotion.

What is the role of the cerebellum?

The cerebellum is critical for motor learning, which occurs whenever an organism repeatedly practices a motor task, such as swimming, driving, or speaking. Motor learning is the foundation for procedural memory, the acquisition of which relies heavily on the cerebellum. Because the mice were tested in the Morris Water Maze each day for one week, the cerebellum would be involved in motor learning of this skill. The cerebellum is also responsible for integrating information from the visual, vestibular, and somatosensory systems to maintain balance and posture, coordinate complex movements requiring multiple muscles, and control precision of fine motor movements. The cerebellum also receives feedback from the body regarding the position of body parts in space and relative to each other (proprioception).

What is the demographic transition model?

The demographic transition model refers to the transition of a society from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates. This transition typically occurs in predictable stages: Stage 1: In pre-industrial societies, birth and death rates are both high and population growth is slow. Stage 2: As society industrializes, death rates drop as food/medicine availability and sanitation increase. Stage 3: As society urbanizes, birth rates decline as access to contraception increases. Stage 4: In developed societies, birth and death rates are both low and population growth is slow. Stage 5: Hypothetically, for developed societies with very low birth rates, population may decline.

Describe the sociological concept of illness experience:

The illness experience is a symbolic interactionist perspective that examines how individuals understand and cope with serious or chronic illnesses that impact daily life and self-identity. The illness experience includes strategies employed by individuals who are chronically ill: Illness work involves gathering information about one's illness, seeking treatment, taking medications, and other illness-related activities. Everyday work involves other daily activities that do not directly involve managing one's illness but are nevertheless impacted by one's illness, such as maintaining a household, working, and caring for loved ones. Biographical work involves making sense of the illness for oneself and for others, such as explaining the illness to coworkers, friends, and family.

What does the implicit association test (IAT) test for?

The implicit association test (IAT) is a psychometric technique designed to measure unconscious attitudes. The test requires participants to match words or images to one of two opposite categories as quickly as possible. Faster response times imply a stronger association between the word and image because the participant does not have to deliberate about a decision for very long. For example, the IAT would most directly test the role of cognition in prejudice because it provides a measure of unconscious cognitive associations, which may reflect negative feelings and beliefs about certain social groups (prejudice).

What is the interactionist theory of language development?

The interactionist theory proposes that language acquisition is the result of both biological (eg, normal brain development) and environmental/social factors, particularly the interaction that occurs between children and their caregivers.

What is intersectionality?

The intersectionality approach describes how all individuals hold multiple, interconnected identities that simultaneously impact their lives and perspectives. For example, being female is not the only identity that affects how a woman sees, experiences, or is treated in the world. Her experiences and perspectives are also a product of her other identities (eg, race/ethnicity, class, sexual orientation).

What is the "just-world phenomenon"?

The just world phenomenon is an attributional bias that occurs when one believes that the world is fair and good things happen to people who are hard-working and good and that bad things happen to people who are bad or lazy.

Describe the learning theory of language development:

The learning theory of language development (also known as the behaviorist theory) is based on the idea that language is an entirely learned behavior. This theory suggests that humans are born as "blank slates" and develop language skills through operant conditioning, imitation, and practice.

What is the Life Course Approach?

The life course approach to aging is holistic, taking into account psychological, social, biological, and cultural factors across a lifetime

The limbic system is a network of brain regions that are involved in ________, ________, and ________. This system is composed of many structures, including the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cingulate gyrus.

The limbic system is a network of brain regions that are involved in emotion, learning, and memory. This system is composed of many structures, including the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cingulate gyrus.

What is the looking glass self concept?

The looking-glass self is a symbolic interactionist concept that suggests that our interpretation of how we are perceived by others impacts our self-concept (beliefs about ourselves). In addition, our interpretation of what others think about us is more important than what they actually think. For example, a coach may provide feedback to the most talented player, but that player may interpret (and then internalize) this as an indication that the coach doesn't think she is very good.

If someone participating in a study is 65+ years old, what stage of psychosocial development would they be in?

The older adult study participants, with a mean age of 65+, should be dealing with the integrity vs. despair conflict associated with the final psychosocial stage of this theory.

What is the Total Fertility Rate (TFR)?

Total fertility rate (TFR) is the average number of children born per woman during her lifetime. For example, in 1955 (the middle of the "baby boom") the TFR in the U.S. was 3.6 children per woman, whereas in 2012 the TFR was 1.8. For a population to remain constant without immigration, the TFR must be 2 (referred to as the replacement rate), which is the number required to replace the two individuals required to create the two children. A TFR above 2 means the population is growing and below 2, that it is shrinking.

What are the universal emotions? *Hint* Use the second row of keys on your keyboard

Universal emotions are defined as those that are expressed and detected by everyone, regardless of culture or nationality. According to this theory, the universal emotions are happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, and surprise. Universal emotions are rapid responses that do not require high-level cognition or long-term decision making. For example, a rotting animal carcass naturally elicits disgust. Facial expressions are unique to each emotion (eg, nose wrinkled and upper lip raised in disgust), and many studies have demonstrated that people across cultures can correctly identify the facial expressions associated with the universal emotions.

Variable interval:

Variable interval: Behavior rewarded after an inconsistent amount of time, regardless of how many behaviors have occurred. For example, when awaiting an email, the frequency with which users refresh their in-boxes does not affect when a new email arrives.

Variable ratio:

Variable ratio: Behavior rewarded after an inconsistent number of responses, usually after some average number of responses, as in Study 1. The AVG3 schedule might provide a reward after four correct responses, then after two, then after three, and so on.

central executive system

Working memory is conceptualized as consisting of a central executive, which regulates attention and task switching, and three subsystems, which are controlled by the central executive. 1) The visuospatial sketchpad is employed when manipulating visual and/or spatial information (eg, reading a map). 2) The phonological loop is employed when manipulating spoken and written information (eg, reading a book). 3) The episodic buffer is responsible for temporal processing (understanding the timeline of events) and integrating information from long-term memory into working memory (eg, remembering how to multiply when figuring out a tip at a restaurant).

Is race considered a social construct?

Yes. Racial categories are considered social constructs because they have no clear biological basis and are largely defined by certain physical traits (eg, skin color). Racial categories also vary by society: an individual with one black parent may be considered black in the United States but not in another country.

What is structural functionalism?

a paradigm based on the assumption that society is a unified whole that functions because of the contributions of its separate structures Structural functionalism is a macro-level (large-scale) sociological perspective that compares modern society to a biological organism. This theory proposes that as the various organ systems cooperate to maintain an organism's homeostasis, social institutions work together in the interest of societal balance, known as dynamic equilibrium. From the structural functionalist perspective, social institutions have manifest functions, which are expected, and latent functions, which are unintended. For example, the higher education system is meant to teach students the skills necessary to become functioning citizens in society (eg, manifest function), but many students also end up meeting potential romantic partners in college (eg, latent function).

Glucocorticoids are secreted by the:

adrenal cortex

An unconditioned stimulus

automatically produces a physiological reflex (an innate response). Ex) Behind lightly shocked by electricity causes one to jump

What is indirect fitness?

cooperative behavior that aids kin

front stage self vs back stage self

he front-stage self involves impression management, which is the process of attempting to influence how one is perceived by others. -For example, wearing a white coat and speaking with a soothing tone are ways a doctor uses front-stage behavior to manage the impression her patients have of her. The back-stage self involves behaviors that occur in private or informal settings, when an individual is completely comfortable and has no fear of criticism. -For example, that same doctor might curse about one of her patients when she is out of earshot or is at home with her partner. Study 1 assessed front-stage behavior (competing in a bicycle race), whereas Study 2 assessed back-stage behavior (getting dressed and undressed).