psch final

Mastery Orientation

general belief that one is capable of accomplishing challenging tasks

Debilitating Anxiety

intense anxiety, interferes with

Resilient self-efficacy

knowing you can be successful at a particular task after occasional set-backs

Attribution

personally constructed causal explanation for a success or failure

Performance-Avoidance Goal -

wanting to avoid looking bad in front of others; may avoid challenges

Specific Transfer

when content of original learning task & new task overlap

Self Concept

•assessments of our strengths & weaknesses (knowing who we are)

Imaginary Audience

•belief that one is the center of attention in any social situation (good or bad)

Self-Esteem

•judgments & feelings about one's value & worth (how we feel about who we are)

Positive Transfer

previous learning helps us learn in a new situation

Affect

emotions

Need for Relatedness

need to feel socially connected to others & to secure others' love and respect

Morality

one's general standards about right and wrong

Sense of Self

perceptions, beliefs, judgments & feelings about who you are

Negative Transfer

previous learning interferes with learning in a new situation

Three of the following statements about boys' playgroups versus girls' playgroups are accurate. Which one is not accurate? -Girls are more likely to reveal their true feelings to one another. -Boys hang out in larger groups than girls do. -Boys work harder to maintain harmony within the group. -Boys are more competitive than girls.

Boys work harder to maintain harmony within the group.

Which one of the following examples illustrates how the imaginary audience can be a factor in the adolescent's developing self-concept? -Annette talks to an invisible "friend" when she is having problems and feels she has no one else to turn to. -Dora feels self-conscious when she has to get up in front of her class and give a speech from memory. -Candy feels detached, as if she has no life of her own but is only watching everyone else live their lives. -Bernita feels as if everyone must be looking at her when she walks down the hall with her friends.

Bernita feels as if everyone must be looking at her when she walks down the hall with her friends.

Interest

Cognitive arousal, intrinsic motivation

Three of the following are common disadvantages of competition in the classroom. Which one is not necessarily a disadvantage of a competitive classroom? -Competition focuses students' attention on performance goals. -Competition may encourage some students to self-handicap. -Competition fosters an incremental view of intelligence. -Competition can lead students to attribute their performance to ability rather than effort.

Competition fosters an incremental view of intelligence.

Core Goals

long-term goals that drives much of what we do

Self-Determination

need to believe we have some autonomy & control

Theory of Mind

Understanding one's own & others' thoughts, beliefs, feelings

Problem Solving & Creativity

We use existing knowledge to solve problems

Frank is a good student. He attributes his success partly to studying long hours and partly to his intelligence ("It runs in the family," he says). Given what psychologists have learned about attributions, three of the following statements are likely to be accurate descriptions of Frank. Which one is probably not an accurate description? -He has high self-efficacy regarding future school tasks. -He feels proud of his academic accomplishments. -When he is confused about class material, he is apt to give up easily. -He uses more effective learning strategies than his low-achieving classmates.

When he is confused about class material, he is apt to give up easily.

Perspective Taking

ability to look at a situation from someone else's point of view

Conventional Transgression

action that violates a culture's general expectations regarding socially appropriate behaviors

Motivation

an inner state that energizes, directs, & sustains behavior

Which one of the following statements indicates that the speaker is focused on a performance-avoidance goal? -"I'd really like to become a better math student. I hope the teacher gives me feedback about how I can improve my skills." -"I need to do well in my science classes so I can get into a good engineering school." -"This is my chance to show all my classmates how smart I am." -"Boy, I hope I don't get this problem wrong. If I do, I'll look like an idiot."

"Boy, I hope I don't get this problem wrong. If I do, I'll look like an idiot."

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

(level 1) Physiological Needs, (level 2) Safety and Security, (level 3) Relationships, Love and Affection, (level 4) Self Esteem, (level 5) Self Actualization

Personal Fable

- in teenagers, believing feelings are unique & no one can understand

Three of the following experiences should promote higher self-efficacy about the task in question. Which one probably won't? -Andrea discovers that she does well on her weekly spelling tests only when she wears her lucky necklace. -Dick's friend tells him, "You shouldn't have any problem in American -Literature. I'm no smarter than you are, and I got an A." -On the first day of geometry, Bob's teacher tells the class, "The things in your textbook may look difficult to you now, but with a little effort and practice you'll have the basics down pat by December." -Carmella does better in her Spanish class than she expected to.

Andrea discovers that she does well on her weekly spelling tests only when she wears her lucky necklace.

Performance Goal

Desire to make a good impression

Which of the following is true of the aspect of temperament known as effortful control? -Effortful control resides primarily in the temporal lobe because it is closely tied to forming long-term memories. -Effortful control resides primarily in the occipital lobe because it is closely tied to visual processing. -Effortful control plays a key role in helping children focus attention on things that are important. -Children who show high levels of effortful control can restrain from impulsive responses, but are no better than other children at controlling inappropriate emotional reactions.

Effortful control plays a key role in helping children focus attention on things that are important.

Divergent Thinking

Generating many ideas from single starting point

Mr. Limpitlaw wants to increase his female students' self-efficacy for mastering simple car maintenance procedures. He can best do this by: -Having the students watch other girls successfully change the oil and the air filter. -Having the students read a book with clear, step-by-step instructions for changing the oil and the air filter. -Presenting a film that shows an experienced auto mechanic at work. -Describing how easily he learned these things when he was their age.

Having the students watch other girls successfully change the oil and the air filter.

Three of the following strategies illustrate the use of metacognitive processes in problem solving. Which strategy is least metacognitive in nature? -Looking up the correct answer at the back of the textbook -Continually monitoring progress toward problem solution -Identifying a logical approach to solving a problem -Breaking a complex problem into smaller, easier subproblems

Looking up the correct answer at the back of the textbook

When George attends the first day of an Advanced Placement class in biology, he thinks to himself, "This is going to be a really hard class. I don't know if I have what it takes to understand and remember all this stuff." George's misgivings can best be described as: -Low self-efficacy for learning. -Low collective self-efficacy. -An external attribution. -An illusion of knowing.

Low self-efficacy for learning.

Covert Strategies

Mental strategies we can't see

Three of the following are aspects of self-regulation as psychologists define the term. Which one is not necessarily an aspect of self-regulation? -Reading an assigned textbook chapter -Deciding whether one's own behavior is within an acceptable range -Reinforcing oneself for successful performance -Embellishing on a boring task to make it more enjoyable

Reading an assigned textbook chapter

Which one of the following statements reflects Kohlberg's preconventional moral reasoning? -"It's okay to cheat on this exam because the teacher isn't watching me." -"Cheating is against school rules, so I shouldn't do it." -"The most popular boy in school cheats all the time, so I guess I can too." -"It isn't fair to the students who studied hard if I cheat."

"It's okay to cheat on this exam because the teacher isn't watching me."

cognitive dissonance

- feeling of mental discomfort caused by new info that doesn't match current knowledge or beliefs

In which one of the following situations are we most likely to find transfer? -Alice learns how to add two-digit numbers and then studies how to add three-digit numbers. -Brianne learns how to plant corn and then learns how to prune a hedge. -Devlin learns how to play softball and then learns how to play a card game. -Cathy learns early British history and then learns early Japanese history.

-Alice learns how to add two-digit numbers and then studies how to add three-digit numbers.

Social Goals

establishing or maintaining relationships with others (need for relatedness)

Which one of the following individuals is exhibiting conventional (stage 3 or 4) reasoning as Kohlberg defined it? -Barbara obeys the teacher because doing so increases the likelihood of good grades. -Adam does what the teacher says because he knows he'll be punished if he doesn't. -Don obeys the teacher because school rules say he must obey her, and it is his duty to obey school rules. -Clara obeys the teacher because she understands rules are useful, but would disobey them if she believed that they violated her own ethical principles.

Don obeys the teacher because school rules say he must obey her, and it is his duty to obey school rules.

Marietta is a high school student. Considering what psychologists have learned about the effects of gender schemas, and without knowing anything else about Marietta, in which area would you expect her to have the strongest motivation to do well? -Becoming a world-renowned body builder -Mastering auto mechanics -Pursuing a career in electrical engineering -Dressing fashionably

Dressing fashionably

Hot Cognition

Emotionally charged learning

The four children below are all learning how to play the piano. Which one of them best illustrates the role of value in motivation? -Dena is afraid of how embarrassed she'll be if she makes a mistake. -Mia thinks that it's important to develop her musical ability to be a "well-rounded" person. -Beth thinks her teacher has asked her to play a piece of music that is too difficult for her. -Angie takes piano lessons mainly because her parents insist that she does.

Mia thinks that it's important to develop her musical ability to be a "well-rounded" person.

Which one of the following teachers is most likely to stimulate interest in his or her students? -Ms. Benedetti describes events in history so vividly that her students are captivated during the entire lesson. -Mr. Davidow sends "good news" letters home to parents whenever students have a B average or better. -Mr. Albert promises his students that if they all finish their short stories by Friday morning, he will give them a half an hour of free time on Friday afternoon. -Ms. Carlsen tells students in her algebra class that she is extremely disappointed in their performance on the last test.

Ms. Benedetti describes events in history so vividly that her students are captivated during the entire lesson.

"All students have a need to control the course of their lives." This statement is most consistent with which one of the following theoretical perspectives of motivation? -Self-worth theory -Expectancy-value theory -Behaviorism -Self-determination theory

Self-determination theory

Transfer

When previously learned knowledge & skills affect how we learn or perform in a new situation

Situated Cognition

associating certain knowledge, skills with a particular situation

A large social group in which the members show strong loyalty to each other, have strict rules, and have specific initiation rites is known as: -A subculture. -A clique. -A norm group. -A gang.

A gang.

Rachel dresses entirely in black every day. She has also dyed her hair black, paints her fingernails black, and wears a lot of black makeup around her eyes. She tends to hang out with peers who are equally "dark" in their appearance, although not all of these students are close friends with one another. Other students at school typically refer to these black-dressing classmates as "the goths." The goths can best be categorized as: -A subculture. -A gang. -A clique. -An in-group.

A subculture.

Many adolescents take foolish risks that can put their physical welfare in danger. Three of the following alternatives are possible reasons for this risk taking. Which alternative is the least plausible explanation of adolescent risk taking? -Especially when they're with friends, adolescents tend to focus on what might be fun rather than what might be wise. -Adolescents have not yet acquired a very sophisticated theory of mind. -Thanks to the personal fable, some adolescents believe themselves to be impervious to normal human dangers. -As a result of incomplete brain maturation, some adolescents have trouble controlling their impulses.

Adolescents have not yet acquired a very sophisticated theory of mind.

Internalized Motivation

Adoption of other people's priorities & values as our own

Only one of the following definitely illustrates high self-efficacy. Which one do we know for sure has a high self-efficacy? -Amy believes that she is a good singer. -Danielle recently got a score of 120 on an intelligence test. -Bertha swims the fastest butterfly on the swim team. -Carmen enjoys being with her friends.

Amy believes that she is a good singer.

Which one of the following students is displaying intrinsic motivation? -Annette loves to play the viola and so practices for at least an hour every day. -Bob works hard in his classes because his parents have promised to buy him a car if he gets at least a 3.5 grade point average this year. -Dennis takes physics because he wants to become an engineer and make a lot of money. -Cassie does her math homework faithfully every night because she likes her teacher and wants to please him.

Annette loves to play the viola and so practices for at least an hour every day.

Which one of the following examples best illustrates involvement of a central executive in the human memory system? -David is frightened the first time he hears the loud noises at a fireworks display. -Brigette plans how she might best prepare for a history test. -Adam absentmindedly cracks his knuckles every minute or two. -Claudia quickly recites the letters of the alphabet in order because she has them memorized.

Brigette plans how she might best prepare for a history test.

Three of the following statements are accurate with regard to metacognition and study strategies. Which one is not accurate? -Students who take more notes on classroom material remember the material better. -By high school, most students have developed an effective way to study. -Students in the early elementary grades have little understanding of how they can best learn. -Students with greater awareness about how best to learn achieve at higher levels in the classroom.

By high school, most students have developed an effective way to study

Which one of the following pairs of children best illustrates a difference in temperament? -Bob likes to spend his time reading; Bill would rather watch a good movie. -Dan likes to think about abstract ideas; David learns more effectively when he can manipulate concrete objects. -Carol is very sociable and outgoing; Chris is more quiet and reserved around peers. -Ann enjoys dancing; Alice prefers basketball

Carol is very sociable and outgoing; Chris is more quiet and reserved around peers.

Three of the following alternatives describe typical thoughts and actions of children who are predisposed to aggressive behavior. Which one is not a typical description? -Derek wants to join the soccer game in progress on the playground, so he runs into the middle of the field and trips Nathan in order to get the ball. -Other children always give in to Bobby's demands because they're afraid he'll push them down if they don't, but Bobby thinks the other students respect him for his actions. -Carrie throws her pencil at Jack because she thinks he is laughing at her, but then she is immediately sorry and tells him so. -Jordan pushes Lisa because he is sure that Lisa bumped into him on purpose.

Carrie throws her pencil at Jack because she thinks he is laughing at her, but then she is immediately sorry and tells him so.

Which one of the following individuals is exhibiting postconventional (stage 5 or 6) reasoning as Kohlberg defined it? -Adam does what the teacher says because he knows he'll be punished if he doesn't. -Don obeys the teacher because school rules say he must obey her, and it is his duty to obey school rules. -Barbara obeys the teacher because doing so increases the likelihood of good grades. -Clara obeys the teacher because she understands rules are useful, but would disobey them if she believed that they violated her own ethical principles.

Clara obeys the teacher because she understands rules are useful, but would disobey them if she believed that they violated her own ethical principles.

Which one of the following students is most likely to have facilitating anxiety? -Curt is nervous about doing well in the 100-meter dash. -Bert has heard that his statistics professor is an easy grader, so he isn't the least bit worried about getting at least a B in his statistics course. -Art doesn't begin his 20-page research report for his psychology class until the night before it is due. -Dave can't find the note cards he made for his book report, and in five minutes it will be his turn to give his report.

Curt is nervous about doing well in the 100-meter dash.

Ms. Villanueva has her students engage in a variety of activities in her middle school geography class. Three of the activities described below are authentic activities. Which one is not an authentic activity as educational psychologists define the term? -Constructing a map of the neighborhood around the school -Describing the difference between latitude and longitude clearly and concretely -Finding the most direct route to Chicago on a road map -Using library resources to identify a good place to take a vacation

Describing the difference between latitude and longitude clearly and concretely

Three of the following strategies are likely to help students at risk stay in school. Which one is not likely to do so? -Communicate your expectation that they can do well and that you'll help them achieve instructional objectives. -Have students participate in school decision making. -Discourage them from participating in extracurricular activities so they can focus on getting their grades up. -Identify them as early as possible and provide long-term academic support.

Discourage them from participating in extracurricular activities so they can focus on getting their grades up.

Which one of the following students is displaying extrinsic motivation? -Elbert wants to become a professional football player so others will admire him. -Roxanne wants to be an accountant because she likes working with numbers. -Brad wants to be a veterinarian because he loves animals and wants to help them. -Donnetta wants to become an actress because she thinks acting is fun.

Elbert wants to become a professional football player so others will admire him.

Critical Thinking

Evaluating the accuracy & worth of information

Three of the following strategies should help students acquire effective study strategies. Which one is least likely to do so? -Express confidence that with time and effective strategies, students can learn everything there is to know about a topic. -Have students experiment with different methods of trying to remember information and then reflect on each method's effectiveness. -Give students a general structure to guide their early note-taking efforts. -Have students work in pairs to ask one another thought-provoking questions about a topic

Express confidence that with time and effective strategies, students can learn everything there is to know about a topic.

Anxiety -

Feelings of uneasiness & apprehension concerning a situation with an uncertain outcome

In which one of the following examples is metacognition most clearly illustrated? -Alex has a photographic memory that enables him to remember almost everything he sees. -Fran can reasonably guess how much of a book she is likely to remember a month later. -Mary knows all the letters of the alphabet before she begins kindergarten. -Billy can read fourth-grade-level books at the age of 6.

Fran can reasonably guess how much of a book she is likely to remember a month later.

When we see signs that a child feels ashamed or guilty about something that he or she has done, we can reasonably conclude that the child: -Has generally low self-esteem. -Will become socially withdrawn unless we intervene. -Will show a temporary increase in aggressive behavior. -Has acquired some sense of right and wrong.

Has acquired some sense of right and wrong.

Teachers can probably best help students overcome debilitating anxiety in the classroom by: -Reminding them how important it is that they demonstrate mastery of the school district's instructional objectives for the year. -Allowing them to work at whatever subjects they like best until they feel ready to tackle other, potentially more difficult subjects. -Helping them discover that they can succeed with effort and that mistakes can be corrected. -Downplaying the importance of education; putting less emphasis on working hard and more emphasis on relaxing and having fun.

Helping them discover that they can succeed with effort and that mistakes can be corrected.

Mr. Richardson does not expect much of his students from a low-income, inner-city neighborhood. Given what we know about the effects of teacher expectations, which outcome is most likely? -His students are more likely to develop a realistic understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses than they would otherwise. -His students are likely to learn information in a rote rather than meaningful fashion. -His students are likely to develop higher self-efficacy than they would otherwise. -His students are likely to achieve at a lower level than they would otherwise.

His students are likely to achieve at a lower level than they would otherwise

As a 17-year-old high school senior, Julian has no sense of direction. Over the past year he has dabbled in auto mechanics, photography, and Buddhism, but nothing has held his interest for more than a month or so. Julian can best be described as showing: -Identity diffusion. -Identity achievement. -Foreclosure. -Moratorium.

Identity diffusion.

Fourteen-year-old David rarely turns in his homework and often skips school, and so he is earning Ds and Fs in most of his classes. Yet he expresses his sincere desire to go to college and "make something of myself." This apparent inconsistency between his poor academic performance, on the one hand, and his strong interest in going to college, on the other, can probably best be explained by: -An inability to think abstractly about his goals. -A lack of vicarious punishment in his life. -Insufficiently developed self-regulation skills. -A general tendency for adolescent boys to punish rather than reinforce themselves for academic success.

Insufficiently developed self-regulation skills.

Jane has a high sense of self-efficacy regarding her ability to work effectively and creatively with wood. Based on this information, we would predict three of the following. Which one of the following would we not necessarily predict? -Compared to Joan, who has low self-efficacy, Jane will do a better job at woodworking tasks. -Jane will frequently choose activities that involve working with wood. -If Jane has difficulty at a task requiring her woodworking skills, she will tend to "try, try again" until she gets it right. -Jane will be a bit careless when she works with wood, so she will frequently make silly little mistakes.

Jane will be a bit careless when she works with wood, so she will frequently make silly little mistakes.

Which one of the following is the best example of relational aggression? -Rich accidentally drops his books on Marcie's foot. -When the school bully pushes Nolan to the ground, his friend Jay—normally a well-behaved student—hits the bully in the face. -Emilia punches her boyfriend when he cancels their date in order to go drinking with his buddies. -Judy and Martha stop speaking to their friend Claudia when she starts dating a boy they don't like.

Judy and Martha stop speaking to their friend Claudia when she starts dating a boy they don't like.

Creativity often involves divergent thinking. Which one of the following is the best example of divergent thinking? -After reading in a library book about what hamsters like to eat, Jennifer gives the class hamster a diet of vegetables, fruit, and hamster pellets to help him grow faster. -Frank solves several multiplication problems using a general trick he has learned for solving "9's" problems. -Lacking any wooden blocks to build an arch for his toy soldiers to march under, Thomas builds an arch using upside-down paper cups. -Marsha builds a bookcase by following directions she has found in a hobby magazine.

Lacking any wooden blocks to build an arch for his toy soldiers to march under, Thomas builds an arch using upside-down paper cups.

Which one of the following teachers is obviously keeping the notion of situated cognition in mind as he or she helps students transfer what they are learning in school? -Ms. Sporer asks her students to speculate about what might have happened if the Europeans had not "discovered" the New World until the 1800s. -Mr. Mendoza makes sure that each one of the students in his instrumental music class knows the difference between the treble and bass clefs. -Ms. Sabih gives each of her elementary art students a hunk of clay and then says, "I'd like you to mold your clay into a mythical creature of some kind—into an animal that doesn't actually exist." -Mr. Gerberg takes his middle school math students to the grocery store so that they can use their math skills to do some comparison shopping.

Mr. Gerberg takes his middle school math students to the grocery store so that they can use their math skills to do some comparison shopping.

Adolescents who learn a second language often apply patterns of speech production used in their native tongue, and therefore, they speak the second language with an accent. This phenomenon is an example of: -Positive transfer. -Negative transfer. -General transfer. -Situated cognition.

Negative transfer

Nathan has been playing golf with his parents for many years. When he goes out for the school baseball team, he has trouble hitting the ball because he keeps confusing the swing of the bat with how he swings a golf club. Nathan's difficulty reflects: -Positive transfer. -Negative transfer. -Procedural transfer. -General transfer.

Negative transfer

Which one of the following is the best example of negative transfer? -Fred knows he can get Bs in his classes without having to study at all. -José is trying to remember when World War II began, so he recalls all he can about European history and correctly concludes that the war began in the late 1930s. -Eleanor wants to tie a string securely to her pencil so that she can hang it from her notebook, but she has forgotten how to tie a square knot. -Nellie sees five squared (52) in her math book and reads it as "fifty-two."

Nellie sees five squared (52) in her math book and reads it as "fifty-two."

As a teacher, you've just learned that a child with a mild form of an autism spectrum disorder has been assigned to your classroom for the coming year. Which one of the following characteristics is most likely to be true for this student? -Poor social skills -Virtually no interest in academic subject matter -Low self-esteem -General disregard for classroom rules

Poor social skills

self-regulation

Process of taking control of one's own learning & behavior.

Convergent Thinking

Pulling together pieces of info to solve a problem

Three of the following are examples of social goals. Which one would not necessarily be considered a social goal? -Harry is worried that the homeless in his community may freeze during a bitter cold spell. -Robert is eager to learn everything he can about terrorists and their personalities. -Jasmine works hard to keep a promise she made to her parents. -Mikaela has her hair done so she'll look nice at the school dance.

Robert is eager to learn everything he can about terrorists and their personalities.

Weston is working on a science project and wants to make his papier-mâché volcano "erupt." He remembers that when his mother combined vinegar and baking soda while following a recipe, the batter foamed up as she added the vinegar. So he tries mixing vinegar and baking soda in his volcano, and the mixture bubbles. Weston is showing: -General transfer. -Intuitive transfer. -Specific transfer. -Negative transfer.

Specific Transfer

When educators use the expression "Less is more" in their discussions of promoting complex cognitive processes, they mean that: -Students can only store so much in working memory at any one time. -Students will more successfully transfer what they've learned to new problems and situations when those problems are simple rather than complex. -Students are more likely to engage in complex processes when they focus on learning a few topics very well. -Students are more likely to engage in complex processes if they spend very little time per day listening to lectures.

Students are more likely to engage in complex processes when they focus on learning a few topics very well.

Three of the following are accurate statements about factors that affect transfer. Which statement is not necessarily accurate? -Students are more likely to transfer what they have learned if they have studied it in a meaningful, rather than rote, fashion. -Students are more likely to transfer things they learn in school than things they learn outside of school. -Students are more likely to transfer what they have learned if they have studied it for a lengthy period of time. -Students are more likely to transfer general attitudes toward a subject area than specific facts in that subject area.

Students are more likely to transfer things they learn in school than things they learn outside of school.

Which one of the following alternatives best reflects how the textbook defines students at risk? -Students who show a pattern of criminal-like behavior by the age of 14 -Students likely to have poor long-term developmental outcomes -Students who have had numerous encounters with the criminal justice system -Students with a strong probability of becoming long-term substance abusers

Students likely to have poor long-term developmental outcomes

Which one of the following statements best reflects the concept of collective self-efficacy? -Over time, students develop a general sense of self-efficacy that influences their performance in a wide variety of content domains. -As students get older, their self-confidence about performing certain tasks becomes fairly stable and so is less influenced by any single success or failure experience. -Students may have greater confidence about accomplishing a task when they work with others rather than alone. -Some students have greater self-confidence when they have technological resources (spreadsheet software, Internet access, etc.) to help them in their efforts.

Students may have greater confidence about accomplishing a task when they work with others rather than alone

Three of the following are true statements about intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Which one is false? -High levels of intrinsic motivation during an activity can lead to flow. -Students who have high intrinsic motivation must also have low extrinsic motivation. -Extrinsic motivation can be effective when students won't otherwise engage in an activity. -Students' intrinsic motivation to learn school subject matter tends to decrease as they get older.

Students who have high intrinsic motivation must also have low extrinsic motivation.

From the perspective of psychology, why should teachers not expect students to solve complex problems in their heads? -Students' working memories can hold only a few pieces of information at a time. -Asking students to solve complex problems promotes rote memorization rather than meaningful learning. -The capacity for complex problem solving does not emerge until late adolescence. -By trying to solve complex problems in their heads, students are likely to "unlearn" some of the information stored in their long-term memories.

Students' working memories can hold only a few pieces of information at a time.

All of the following strategies are certainly beneficial, but only one is likely to foster resilience in students who live in difficult and challenging circumstances (e.g., extreme poverty, abusive family members). Which strategy is known to foster resilience? -Give students both positive and negative feedback when it's appropriate to do so. -Take a personal interest in students' welfare and show them that they can turn to you in times of need. -Show students how academic tasks are relevant to their personal lives. -Have fewer classroom requirements and be lenient in grading criteria.

Take a personal interest in students' welfare and show them that they can turn to you in times of need.

Three of the following characterize students with a mastery goal. Which one characterizes students with a performance goal? -Being bored by easy tasks -Thinking that you're doing well as long as you're making progress, even though you're not totally successful -Seeking out your teacher's guidance when you're having trouble doing something -Thinking that if you have to try hard, you must not be very capable

Thinking that if you have to try hard, you must not be very capable

Three of the following strategies should encourage positive interactions among students with diverse backgrounds or special educational needs. Which strategy is not likely to do so? -If parents give permission, teach students about the nature of the specific disabilities that some of their classmates may have. -Ask students from different backgrounds to work together in lab activities. -Treat students as if they all share the same cultural values and beliefs. -Encourage all students to participate in extracurricular activities.

Treat students as if they all share the same cultural values and beliefs.

Which one of the following is the best example of a covert (rather than overt) strategy that a student might use while studying a textbook chapter? -Working hard to keep one's mind from wandering while reading the chapter -Using chapter headings and subheadings to make a rough outline of the chapter -Writing a summary of the key ideas in the chapter -Using self-stick notes to mark sections that are hard to understand

Working hard to keep one's mind from wandering while reading the chapter

Which one of the following is the best example of positive transfer? -Vince notices that rules of grammar are not always the same in English and Japanese. -David is trying to learn to program a computer. He reads his programming manual but is confused by some of its instructions. -When trying to write the word "shepherd," Robert remembers how he learned to spell "lighthouse" by putting two words together and so he writes "sheepherd." - uses the formula she learned in class for calculating the area of a circle when she wants to figure out how much bigger a 10-inch pizza is than a 7-inch pizza.

Zelda uses the formula she learned in class for calculating the area of a circle when she wants to figure out how much bigger a 10-inch pizza is than a 7-inch pizza.

Metacognition

becomes more realistic with age

Prosocial Behavior

behavior directed at benefited others (sharing, helping,

Self-handicapping

behavior that undermines one's success as a way of protecting self-worth during

value

belief that an activity has direct or indirect benefits; usually value activities that we find:

Self-Efficacy

beliefs about strengths in particular domains (math, soccer, etc.)

Personality

characteristic ways in which an individual behaves, thinks, and feels

Mastery Goal

desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new skills

Intrinsic Motivation

driven by internal factors -Enjoyment; often means meeting one of basic psychological needs (intellectually stimulation, competence, self-worth, self-determination, relatedness)

Extrinsic Motivation

driven by outside factors -Grades, approval, recognition, money -Motivated to perform a task as "a means to an end

Conscientiousness (Big 5)

extent to which one is careful, organized, self-disciplined, and likely to follow through on plans & commitments

Openness(Big 5)

extent to which one is imaginative, curious about world, and receptive to new experiences

Agreeableness (Big 5)

extent to which one is pleasant, kind, and cooperative in social situations

Neuroticism (Big 5)

extent to which one is prone to negative emotions (anxiety, anger, depression)

Extraversion(Big 5)

extent to which one is socially outgoing & seeks excitement

Positive affect

feelings of happiness & excitement leads to more active attention to subject matter, to think more creatively about it, & use learning strategies to stay on task

Negative affect

feelings of sadness, frustration, or boredom leads to rehearsal of info, superficial learning

Affect

feelings, emotions, and general moods that learners bring to bear on a task

Learned Helplessness

general belief that one is incapable of succeeding & has little control of one's environment

Disposition

general inclination to approach & think about learning and problem solving

General Transfer

general strategy that works regardless of the content of learning tasks

Co-regulated Learning

process through which an adult and child share responsibility for directing various aspects of the child's learning

Moral Dilemmas

situation where there's no easy right answer, where two or more people's needs/rights may be at odds

Facilitating Anxiety

small amount, improves performance

Personal Interest

stable, consistent interest, sustains motivation over the long-run

Situational Interest

temporary interest evoked by something in the environment; new, different, unexpected

Illusion of Knowing

§thinking you know something that you really don't

Moral Transgression

•Action that causes harm or violate human rights

Rejected Students

•least preferred by peers; may have few social skills, or a minority, or low SES

Popular Students

•not the 'cool' kids; liked by all; kind & trustworthy; good social skills

Neglected Students

•peers don't notice them; quiet & keep to themselves

Gender Schema

•self-constructed, beliefs about traits & behaviors of males & females

Controversial Students

•some like them, others don't; good or bad social skills

Temperaments

•thought to be biologically based (genetics), emerge early & are largely enduring. Ex: •General activity level •Adaptability, Persistence, Adventuresomeness, Shyness, Irritability, Distractibility