PSY 1003 Exam 1
Only if he could see the questioner's face
"Clever Hans" could answer math questions only under which conditions?
cerebellum
(Latin for "little brain") part of the hindbrain
Dendrites
(from a Greek word meaning "tree") are widely branching structures that receive input from other neurons.
monozygotic twins
(literally, "one-egg" twins) those who develop from the same fertilized egg
Sampling Seriousness of those Being Interviewed Wording of Question Survey Bias
4 Components of a Survey
Thinking
A cognitive psychologist mainly studies which aspect of behavior?
Demand characteristics
A double-blind study helps alleviate the problems caused by which of the following? Falsifiability Independent variables Failure to replicate a study Demand characteristics
a before-and-after study
A professor invites students who did poorly on the first test to attend a special review session before the second test. Most do better on the second test. What kind of research is this?
The study should have a blind observer
A tennis coach believes orange juice improves performance. She gives her players orange juice on randomly chosen days, and rates their performance? What if anything is wrong with this study?
terminal bouton
A typical axon has branches, each ending with a little bulge called a presynaptic ending, or
right ... left
After damage to the corpus callosum, a person can describe what he or she feels only after feeling it with the ---- hand, which sends information to the -----hemisphere. left ... left left ... right right ... left right ... right
GABA
Alcohol and anxiolytic drugs (tranquilizers) facilitate synapses that release which transmitter? Dopamine Serotonin GABA Glutamate
exercise versus movie watching ... scores on tests
An elementary school tests whether physical exercise influences children's performance. Children in each class are randomly assigned to physical exercise or movie watching for 30 minutes each afternoon. All children take the same tests, and the instructors compare their performances. The independent variable is , and the dependent variable is . exercise versus movie watching ... scores on tests scores on tests ... the number of students in each class the number of students in each class ... exercise versus movie watching scores on tests ... exercise versus movie-watching
The independent variable is the frequency of tests during the semester. The dependent variable is the students' performance on the final exam.
An instructor wants to find out whether the frequency of testing in an introductory psychology class influences students' final exam performance. The instructor gives weekly tests in one class, just three tests in a second class, and only a single midterm exam in the third class. All three classes take the same final exam, and the instructor then compares their performances. Identify the independent variable and the dependent variable in this experiment.
It tells us how improbable the results would be by chance alone
An investigator analyzes the results and determines that P<0.05. Why is p important?
endorphins
Chemicals Produced BY the Brain That Bind to Opiate Receptors
alcohol
Class of Molecules That Includes Methanol Ethanol, Propyl Alcohol (Rubbing Alcohol), and Others; Ethanol is the Type That People Drink
Shape
Compared to other cells of the body, neurons vary more widely in which of these aspects? Acid-to-base ratio Color Chromosomes Shape
8 ... 6 ... 4
Consider the following distribution of scores: 6, 4, 17, 1, 10, 4, 14, 4, 12.The mean is , the median is , and the mode is . 8 ... 6 ... 4 8 ... 10 ... 4 6 ... 8 ... 4 4 ... 6 ... 8
Sensation
Early psychologists eager to develop a scientific psychology concentrated mainly on what?
Hypothesis --> Method --> (Support or Oppose Hypothesis) --> Confidence Enhanced/Dismayed and Restart or Eliminate
Experiment Steps
Behaviorism
From around 1920 to 1970 which of these approaches dominated psychological research?
Ability to metabolize lactose
Genes influence people's likelihood of drinking milk by controlling which of these? Taste buds on the tongue Ability to metabolize lactose Pleasure areas in the brain Stomach contractions
Developmental psychologist—child behavior
Here are four types of psychologists. Which one is correctly matched to a research area? Social psychologist—evolution of behavior Developmental psychologist—child behavior Cognitive psychologist—how people behave in groups Biological psychologist—thought and knowledge
nature-nurture issue
How do differences in behavior relate to differences in heredity and environment?
Monozygotic twins develop from a single fertilized egg, whereas dizygotic twins develop from two eggs.
How do monozygotic twins differ from dizygotic twins? Monozygotic twins develop from a single fertilized egg, whereas dizygotic twins develop from two eggs. Dizygotic twins develop from a single fertilized egg, whereas monozygotic twins develop from two eggs. Monozygotic twins are the same sex, whereas dizygotic twins are of different sexes. Dizygotic twins are the same sex, whereas monozygotic twins are of different sexes.
They block reuptake of dopamine and serotonin by the presynaptic neuron.
How do stimulant drugs such as cocaine affect neurons? They attach to the same synapses as dopamine and serotonin. They increase reuptake of dopamine and serotonin by the presynaptic neuron. They block reuptake of dopamine and serotonin by the presynaptic neuron. They inhibit release of dopamine and serotonin.
Basic research seeks theoretical understanding, rather than a solution to a current problem.
How does basic research differ from applied research? Basic research is simpler, and requires less training. Basic research is more complex, and requires greater training. Basic research seeks solutions to current problems, rather than theoretical understanding. Basic research seeks theoretical understanding, rather than a solution to a current problem.
If some studies replicate an effect and others do not, a researcher may conduct a meta-analysis that combines all studies as if they were one large study.
How does meta-analysis relate to replicability?
A clinical psychologist earns an advanced degree in psychology, generally a PhD or PsyD, that focuses more on research. A psychiatrist earns an MD, like other medical doctors.
How does the education of a clinical psychologist differ from that of a psychiatrist?
Negative Zero Positive
Identify each of these as a positive, zero, or negative correlation: The more crowded a neighborhood, the lower the income. People with high IQ scores are neither more nor less likely than other people to have high telephone numbers. People who awaken frequently during the night are more likely than other people to feel depressed.
The mouse will react faster because the action potentials have a shorter distance to travel in the mouse's nervous system than in the giraffe's.
If a mouse and a giraffe both get pinched on the toes at the same time, which will respond faster? Why?
Correlation
If a researcher does not control anything but measures relationship between two variables, what is the research method?
Other investigators can repeat the results
If a result is replicable, which of these must be true?
We can imagine evidence that would contradict it
If a theory is falsifiable then which of the following is true?
Fewer than average connections from the fusiform gyrus in the left temporal cortex
If someone has trouble recognizing faces despite normal vision in other regards, what is a possible explanation? Fewer than average connections from the fusiform gyrus in the left temporal cortex Abnormal shape of the eyeball, with one axis longer than the other Damage to the primary visual cortex in the occipital cortex of both hemispheres Damage to the language areas in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere
Increases in A have no relationship to the values of B
If the correlation between variable A and B is 0, then which of the following is true?
If a few individual scores are vastly higher or lower than most of the others
If we want to know the central, or typical, score when is the mean a misleading figure?
Someone who should be in the better position to provide convincing evidence
In both the U.S. legal system and in scientific disputes, the "burden of proof" falls on whom?
the elements that compose mind ... what mind can do
In the early days of psychology, structuralists wanted to discover and functionalists wanted to understand . what mind can do ... the elements that compose mind the elements that compose mind ... what mind can do treatments for mental illness ... the best ways to rear children the best ways to rear children ... treatments for mental illness
The most sensitive areas, such as the lips and hands
In the primary somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe, the greatest amount of space is devoted to which parts of the body? The most sensitive areas, such as the lips and hands The areas with the most muscle, especially the arms and legs The areas closest to the brain, such as the face and neck The areas with the greatest amount of skin, such as the abdomen and back
Only in the hippocampus and basal ganglia
In what parts of the adult human brain, if any, can new neurons form? In all parts of the brain Only in the cerebral cortex Only in the hippocampus and basal ganglia In none of the brain
Methylphenidate, taken as a pill, reaches the brain more slowly and its effects decline more slowly.
In what way do the effects of methylphenidate (Ritalin) differ from those of cocaine? Cocaine increases activity at dopamine synapses, whereas methylphenidate decreases the activity. Cocaine decreases activity at dopamine synapses, whereas methylphenidate increases the activity. Cocaine and methylphenidate attach to different types of receptors. Methylphenidate, taken as a pill, reaches the brain more slowly and its effects decline more slowly.
Epigenetic changes are alterations in gene expression caused by environmental influences.
In what way does the field of epigenetics blur the distinction between hereditary effects and environmental effects? In epigenetics, some gene causes a change in the environment. In epigenetics, a particular environment alters behavior only for someone with a particular gene. In epigenetics, the effects of a gene multiply by the effects of the environment. Epigenetic changes are alterations in gene expression caused by environmental influences.
In the early 1900s, leading psychologists expected an insight that would revolutionize psychology in the same way that Darwin revolutionized biology. Fewer psychologists today expect such a grand theory.
In what way is psychology today less ambitious than it was in the early 1900s?
Determinism is not helpful as a philosophy of life
Many adherents of determinism concede one limit of this viewpoint:
If something is under genetic control, it is fixed and unchangeable.
Observations about phenylketonuria provide evidence against which of the following statements? A single gene can have a major effect on behavior. Behaviors depend on both genetic and environmental influences. Most children's temperament is consistent over long periods of time. If something is under genetic control, it is fixed and unchangeable.
0
Of the following correlation coefficients, which one indicates the weakest relationship between two variables—that is, the lowest accuracy of using one variable to predict the other one? 0 +0.5 −0.75
Social Psychologist
Of the following which type of psychologist is most likely to study how people behave in groups?
Structuralism
Of the following, WHICH has not been increasing in prominence during recent times?
Ask proponents of his predictions to state predictions of events before they happen. Then see how many come true, as compared to the percentage we could expect to come true by accident.
Of the following, which would be the most important step in evaluating the accuracy of Nostradamus's predictions? Take several predictions that someone claims to have been correct. Ask a large number of people to evaluate whether they seem to be correct. Count what percentage of his predictions seems to have come true and what percentage has not. Compare the percentage of his predictions that seems to have come true to the percentage for other people who claim to have psychic powers. Ask proponents of his predictions to state predictions of events before they happen. Then see how many come true, as compared to the percentage we could expect to come true by accident.
Psychiatrists, most psychoanalysts, and a few clinical psychologists
Of the following, who can prescribe drugs? Psychiatrists only Clinical psychologists only Psychoanalysts only Psychiatrists, most psychoanalysts, and a few clinical psychologists
Developmental Psychology
Of the kinds of psychological research just described—developmental psychology, learning and motivation, cognitive psychology, biological psychology, evolutionary psychology, social psychology, and cross-cultural psychology—which field concentrates most on children?
Perhaps the counseling sessions are helpful to people who want to quit drugs. Or perhaps the people with the most serious addictions are the ones who quit.
On average, drug addicts who regularly attend counseling sessions are more likely to stay drug-free than those who drop out. Propose alternative explanations for this correlation.
We can draw neither of these conclusions.
On average, old people who read more books are less likely to develop Alzheimer's disease. What conclusion can we draw from this result? Reading books tends to prevent Alzheimer's disease. People who are already starting to develop Alzheimer's disease don't read many books. We can draw neither of these conclusions.
We can draw neither of these conclusions.
On average, students who attend class every day get better grades than those who frequently miss. Which conclusion, if any, can we draw from this result? Attending class helps people improve their grades. Brighter students, who are likely to get good grades, are more likely than average to attend class conscientiously. We can draw neither of these conclusions.
Perhaps people get sick from complications caused by taking too many pills. Or maybe the people who take many medicines are those who already had serious illnesses.
On average, the more medicines people take, the more likely they are to die young. Propose alternative explanations for this correlation.
Convenience Sample
On the Mechanical Turk Website, researchers post studies and anyone who wants to can participate for a small fee. What kind of research sample does this provide?
glucose supply to brain areas ... oxygen use in brain areas
PET measures and fMRI measures . electrical activity on the scalp ... magnetic activity on the scalp magnetic activity on the scalp ... electrical activity on the scalp oxygen use in brain areas ... glucose supply to brain areas glucose supply to brain areas ... oxygen use in brain areas
The results do not justify any of these conclusions
People's happiness correlates positively with how often they eat at nice restaurants. From this observation what conclusion (if any) can we draw?
We can draw none of these conclusions
People's use of marijuana correlates positively with their probability of developing schizophrenia. What if anything can we conclude from this observation?
Differences among cultures
Researchers estimate heritability of a behavior by examining three types of evidence. Which of the following is NOT one of those types? Differences among cultures Examination of chromosomes Comparisons between monozygotic and dizygotic twins Comparisons of adopted children to their biological and adopting parents
The value of p is less than 0.05
Researchers typically consider a result statistically significant if which of these is true?
In both cases, smaller. A small 95 percent confidence interval indicates high confidence in the results. A small p value indicates a low probability of getting such a large difference merely by chance.
Should we be more impressed with results when the 95 percent confidence intervals are large or small? Should we be more impressed if the p value is large or small?
Haloperidol would increase the severity of Parkinson's disease. In fact, large doses of haloperidol induce symptoms of Parkinson's disease in anyone.
Some people with schizophrenia take haloperidol, a drug that blocks dopamine synapses. How would haloperidol affect someone with Parkinson's disease?
hereditary and environment
Someone interested in the nature-nurture issue would probably explore how behavioral development depends on which factors?
Scientists prefer the more parsimonious explanation. They resist an extraordinary conclusion if they can find a simpler one.
Suppose a new performer demonstrates what appears to be an amazing ability to read people's minds or predict the future. Before anyone investigates, why do scientists assume it is more likely to be a trick than a supernatural power?
We can draw none of these conclusions.
Suppose researchers find a +0.4 correlation between the number of vitamin pills people take and their mental health. Which conclusion, if any, can we draw from this result? Taking vitamin pills improves mental health. Strong mental health improves people's probability of taking action to maintain health. Wealthier people are more likely than average to take vitamin pills, and also to be mentally healthy. We can draw none of these conclusions.
The researcher made inaccurate measurements of either stress or depression.
Suppose some researcher reports a low correlation between stress and depression. One possible explanation is that stress had little to do with depression in that researcher's sample of the population. What is another possible explanation for these results? The people varied widely in their level of stress. The researcher made inaccurate measurements of either stress or depression. People with great stress are likely to become depressed. Depression is more common in some countries than in others.
The higher the level of that chemical, the lower the probability of aggression.
Suppose someone reports that blood levels of a certain chemical are negatively correlated with aggressive behavior. What does that mean? The higher the level of that chemical, the lower the probability of aggression. The lower the level of that chemical, the lower the probability of aggression. Levels of that chemical have no consistent relationship to the probability of aggression. As people grow older, that chemical declines and so does the probability of aggression.
We can conclude only that if we know either someone's interest level or test score, we can predict the other with reasonably high accuracy. We cannot conclude that an interest in psychology will help someone learn the material or that doing well on psychology tests increases someone's interest in the material. Either conclusion might be true, of course, but neither conclusion follows from these results. A correlational study cannot demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship.
Suppose we find a 0.8 correlation between students' reported interest in psychology and their grades on a psychology test. What conclusion can we draw?
This is a convenience sample. You made no effort to get a sample that matches the total population in age or anything else, so it is not a representative sample. Everyone in the population did not have an equal chance of participating, because not all kinds of people are equally likely to be walking down that street at that time of day.
Suppose you stand on a street and you interview every 10th person who walks by. What kind of sample is this—convenience, representative, or random?
It decreases release of glutamate or GABA.
THC, the active component of marijuana smoke, produces its behavioral effects by what action on neurons? It blocks the reuptake of dopamine and serotonin. It decreases release of glutamate or GABA. It attaches to serotonin receptors. It facilitates transmission at inhibitory synapses.
Functionalism
That is, instead of seeking the elements of consciousness, he preferred to learn how people produce useful behaviors. How can people strengthen good habits? Can someone attend to more than one item at a time? How do people recognize that they have seen something before? How does an intention lead to action?
Accurate timing
The cerebellum is important for behaviors that require which of the following? Prolonged exertion Accurate timing Reflexive action Coordinating vision with hearing
One possibility is that grades are unrelated to self-esteem. Another possibility is that we used an inaccurate measurement of either self-esteem or grades or both. If anything is measured poorly, it cannot correlate strongly with anything else.
The correlation between students' grades and their scores on a self-esteem questionnaire is very low, not much above 0. Why might that be?
Random Assignment
The experimenter uses a chance procedure, such as drawing names out of a hat, to make sure that all participants have the same probability of being assigned to a given group.
All-or-none law
The fact that an axon cannot vary the strength or velocity of its action potentials is known as the
Psychophysical Function
The mathematical description of the relationship between the physical stimulus and its perceived properties
A few people are earning extremely high salaries
The mean salary at your company is $100,00 per year but most workers are earning minimum wage. How can the mean be so high?
postsynaptic neuron
The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across a narrow gap to receptors on the _______, the neuron on the receiving end of the synapse. A neurotransmitter fits into its receptor as a key fits into a lock, and it either excites or inhibits the _______.
Parsimony
The principle is a conservative idea: We stick with ideas that work and try as hard as we can to avoid new assumptions (e.g., ghosts).
Industrial/Organizational Psychology
The psychological study of people at work. This field deals with such issues as hiring the right person for a job, training people for jobs, developing work teams, determining salaries and bonuses, providing feedback to workers about their performance, planning an organizational structure, and organizing the workplace so that workers will be productive and satisfied.
X chromosome
The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.
Knowledge
The word science derives from the Latin word that means what?
small ... small
We should be more impressed with a result if the 95 percent confidence intervals are . We should be more impressed with a result if the p value is . large ... large large ... small small ... large small ... small
Scientific research can answer psychological questions
What did Wilhem Wundt demonstrate?
Reliance on theories and methods pioneered by Sigmund Freud
What distinguishes a psychoanalyst from other types kinds of therapists?
They consult with lawyers and testify in court
What do forensic psychologists do?
Thought and knowledge
What does cognition mean?
We can imagine results that would contradict the theory.
What does it mean to say that a theory is "falsifiable"? Research has contradicted the theory. We can imagine results that would contradict the theory. Most people disagree with the theory. People are still debating whether the theory is correct.
During and after World War II, the need for services was greater than psychiatrists could provide. Clinical psychologists began providing treatment for psychological distress.
What event led to the rise of clinical psychology as we know it today?
World War II
What event led to the rise of clinical psychology as we know it today? World War II Popular films that depicted mental illness The writings of Sigmund Freud Economic collapse
For our ancient ancestors, hair erection increased insulation.
What explanation do evolutionary psychologists offer for the "goose bumps" we get when we are cold? Activity of the sympathetic nervous system erects the skin's hairs. For our ancient ancestors, hair erection increased insulation. Goose bumps increase our probability of attracting a mate. Goose bumps may be useful at some time in the future.
It is a pill with no known pharmacological effects
What is a placebo?
An impulse that flows down an axon by movement of chemical ions
What is an action potential? An impulse that flows down an axon by electrical conduction An impulse that flows down an axon by movement of chemical ions A decision someone makes to start doing something A machine that measures brain activity
The ability to respond to visual stimuli without conscious awareness of those stimuli
What is meant by "blindsight"? The ability of blind people to find their way around by using other senses The ability to perceive objects without using any sensory information The tendency to see optical illusions, such as thinking one line is longer than another when both are really the same The ability to respond to visual stimuli without conscious awareness of those stimuli
A gene that exerts its effects only or mainly on one sex or the other
What is meant by a "sex-limited" gene? A gene that exerts its effects only or mainly on one sex or the other A gene that occurs on the X chromosome A gene that occurs on the Y chromosome A gene that occurs on either the X or Y chromosome
Either the axon produces an action potential, or it doesn't.
What is meant by the "all-or-none" law of the axon? Either the axon produces an action potential, or it doesn't. When one axon produces an action potential, all of them do. All axons throughout the nervous system produce action potentials of equal strength. Incoming input must excite all the dendrites, or the axon won't produce an action potential.
Both had high ambitions for discovering major principles of psychology
What is one way in which behaviorists and Sigmund Freud were similar?
The presynaptic neuron releases a neurotransmitter that travels to the postsynaptic neuron, where it activates an excitatory or inhibitory receptor.
What is the difference between the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic neuron?
Industrial/organizational psychologist
What kind of psychologist helps a company increase workers' productivity and satisfaction?
Early psychological research focused mainly on sensation because sensation is central to experience and because the early researchers believed that sensation questions were answerable.
What topic was the main focus of research for the earliest psychologists and why?
Every type of mental activity is associated with some type of measurable brain activity. Also, as discussed in Chapter 3, any type of brain damage leads to a deficit in some aspect of behavior or experience.
What type of evidence supports monism?
We might define sense of humor as the number of times someone laughs during a movie or the number of times someone says something that makes other people laugh. Other definitions are possible if they include a method of measurement.
What would you propose as an operational definition of sense of humor?
The results vary from one synapse to another.
When a neurotransmitter excites the postsynaptic neuron, how long do the effects last? Just milliseconds About a tenth of a second Several seconds or longer The results vary from one synapse to another.
neurotransmitter
When an action potential reaches the terminal bouton, it releases a _____________, a chemical that activates receptors on other neurons
Some mirror neurons develop their properties by learning.
When people moved one finger while they saw someone else move a different finger, certain neurons began responding to both of these events. What does this finding imply about mirror neurons? Some mirror neurons develop their properties by learning. Mirror neurons make it possible for us to imitate. Each mirror neuron corresponds to a different movement. Each mirror neuron has a corresponding mirror neuron with similar properties on the opposite side of the brain.
Negative Sodium Positive Action Potential
When the axon membrane is at rest, the inside has a ______ charge relative to the outside. When the membrane reaches its threshold, ______ ions enter from outside to inside, bringing with them a ______ charge. That flow of ions constitutes the ______of the axon.
Cognitive psychology.
Which concentrates most on thought and knowledge?
The −0.75 correlation indicates a stronger relationship—that is, a greater accuracy of predicting one variable based on measurements of the other. A negative correlation is just as useful as a positive one.
Which indicates a stronger relationship between two variables, a +0.50 correlation or a −0.75 correlation?
Learning and motivation.
Which is most concerned with studying the effect of a reward on future behavior?
Biological psychology.
Which is most interested in the effects of brain damage?
Physicists' principle of the conservation of matter and energy
Which of the following contradicts the idea of dualism? Biologists' principle of homeostasis Physicists' principle of the conservation of matter and energy Chemists' principle of ionic bonding Psychologists' principle of reinforcement
The amount of increased heart beat after hearing a loud noise
Which of the following could be an operational definition of "fearfulness"?
The number of hours one has devoted to political campaigns
Which of the following could be an operational definition of political activism? The number of hours one has devoted to political campaigns A tendency to read about political issues and discuss them Willingness to stick to one's own political opinion even when friends disagree A set of firm and well considered opinions on political issues
The question of how the brain creates a unified experience from sensations analyzed by separate brain areas
Which of the following defines the binding problem? The question of how the brain creates a unified experience from sensations analyzed by separate brain areas The question of how a person converts sensory information into motor output The question of how the brain compares information in the left hemisphere to information in the right hemisphere The question of how people coordinate movement of the left hand with movement of the right hand
The worry that some published results may not be replicable
Which of the following has become a serious worry for psychological research?
Every behavior has a cause.
Which of the following ideas is essential to determinism? People who try harder are more successful. People choose their behaviors by free will. Most differences in behavior are under genetic control. Every behavior has a cause.
the p value
Which of the following is an example of an inferential statistic?
Every mental activity is associated with measurable brain activity
Which of the following is an example of evidence to support monism?
The number of times one has applied for a new or better job
Which of the following is an operational definition of ambition? A desire to get ahead in life The number of times one has applied for a new or better job Setting high goals and trying to achieve them The ability to overcome obstacles and persist until succeeding at some task
A score on an IQ test is an operational definition of intelligence, because it provides a measurement—perhaps not a completely accurate measure, but that is a separate issue. None of the other answer choices tells us how to measure or produce intelligence.
Which of the following is an operational definition of intelligence?
Each neurotransmitter can attach to several types of receptors with different properties.
Which of the following is true of receptors for neurotransmitters? All neurotransmitters attach to the same type of receptor. Excitatory transmitters attach to one type of receptor, and inhibitory transmitters use another. Each neurotransmitter has its own receptor. Each neurotransmitter can attach to several types of receptors with different properties.
John B. Watson
Which of the following was one of the founders of behaviorism?
Of these, only demand characteristics are to be avoided. If you did not remember that falsifiability is a good feature of a theory, check page 29. Every experiment must have at least one independent variable (what the experimenter controls) and at least one dependent variable (what the experimenter measures). Blind observers provide an advantage.
Which of the following would an experimenter try to minimize or avoid? Falsifiability, independent variables, dependent variables, blind observers, or demand characteristics.
Interview all the students whose telephone numbers end with 3.
Which of these procedures produces a random sample of the students in your class? Interview all the students whose telephone numbers end with 3. Interview the first person in each row. Interview the last 10 people who show up for class. Interview anyone who is willing to volunteer.
Vision and other sensations
Which of these topics was a major research concern for the earliest psychologists? Vision and other sensations Mental illness Social conformity Expert problem solving
Thought and knowledge
Which of these topics would a behaviorist probably avoid? Stimulus-response connections Animal behavior Learning Thought and knowledge
Help design equipment so that people can use it easily
Which of these would someone in human factors (ergonomics) probably do?
Dendrites receive input from other neurons. Axons send messages.
Which part of a neuron receives input from other neurons (ordinarily)? Which part sends messages to other neurons?
Social psychology and cross-cultural psychology.
Which two are most concerned with how people behave in groups?
Developmental Psychologist
Which type of psychologist is most likely to study changes in children's taste preferences as they grow older?
Cognitive psychologist
Which type of psychologist specializes in the study of thought and knowledge?
Human factors psychologist
Which type pf psychologist is most interested in helping people use machines?
Behaviorists concentrate on observable behaviors, whereas thought and knowledge are unobservable processes within an individual. The early behaviorists hoped to find simple stimulus-response laws of behavior.
Why did behaviorists avoid the topics of thought and knowledge?
Structuralists asked people to describe their inner experiences in detail. However, researchers had no way to check the accuracy of the reports.
Why did psychologists abandon Titchener's structuralist approach?
Sensation is easier to study than many other psychological processes
Why did the earliest psychological researchers concentrate largely on sensation?
They decrease parasympathetic nervous system activity and increase sympathetic activity.
Why do many cold remedies interfere with sleep? They decrease sympathetic nervous system activity and increase parasympathetic activity. They decrease parasympathetic nervous system activity and increase sympathetic activity. They increase production of hormones, especially the sex hormones. They decrease production of hormones, especially the sex hormones.
By losing blood, they also lose salt, and a deficiency of salt triggers a craving for salty tastes.
Why do many menstruating women crave potato chips?
They have up to three times as many taste buds.
Why do some people taste certain foods more strongly than others do? The taste area of their brain is significantly larger. They have up to three times as many taste buds. They have higher amounts of a hormone produced by the adrenal gland. They come from a culture that puts more value on taste.
Naturalistic Observation
a careful examination of what happens under more or less natural conditions. For example, biologist Jane Goodall (1971) spent years observing chimpanzees in the wild, recording their food habits, social interactions, gestures, and way of life
Hypothesis
a clear predictive statement, often an attempt to explain the observations.
Parkinson's disease
a condition that affects 1 to 2 percent of people over the age of 65. The main symptoms are difficulty in initiating voluntary movement, slow movement, tremors, rigidity, and depressed mood.
Behaviorism
a field of psychology that concentrates on observable, measurable behaviors and not on mental processes.
sex-limited gene
a gene that affects one sex more strongly than the other, even though both sexes have the gene
Convenience Sample
a group chosen because of its ease of study. Unfortunately, many researchers overuse research on college students, a convenience sample that is satisfactory for some purposes but not all.
Correlation Coefficient
a mathematical estimate of the relationship between two variables.
Correlation
a measure of the relationship between two variables.
Placebo
a pill with no known pharmacological effects.
Control Group
a set of individuals treated in the same way as the experimental group except for the procedure that the experiment is designed to test.
Axons
a single, long, thin, straight fiber with branches near its tip.
informed consent
a statement that they have been told what to expect and that they agree to continue. When researchers ask for volunteers, they describe what will happen.
Experiment
a study in which the investigator manipulates at least one variable while measuring at least one other variable.
Survey
a study of the prevalence of certain beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors based on people's responses to questions.
Normal Distribution (Normal Curve)
a symmetrical frequency of scores clustered around the mean.
Case History
a thorough description of someone, including abilities and disabilities, medical condition, life history, unusual experiences, and whatever else seems relevant.
detour problem
an animal is separated from food by a barrier to see whether it takes a detour away from the food to reach it
delayed-response problem
an animal sees or hears a signal indicating where it can find food. After the signal, the animal is restrained for a delay to see how long the animal remembers the signal
Illusory Correlation
an apparent relationship based on casual observations of unrelated or weakly related events. Many stereotypes about groups of people are illusory correlations.
Structuralism
an attempt to describe the structures that compose the mind, particularly sensations, feelings, and images. For example, imagine you are the psychologist: I look at a lemon and try to tell you my experience of its brightness separately from my experience of its yellowness.
Resting Potential
an electrical polarization across the membrane (or covering) of an axon.
Action Potential
an excitation that travels along an axon at a constant strength, no matter how far it travels.
Myelin
an insulating sheath that speeds up the transmission of impulses along an axon.
prefrontal cortex
anterior sections of the frontal lobe
occipital lobe
area of the cerebral cortex located at the rear of the head, specialized for vision
Median
arrange the scores in order from the highest to the lowest. The middle score is it
human factors specialist (ergonomist)
attempts to facilitate the operation of machinery so that ordinary people can use it efficiently and safely.
Double-Blind Study
both the observer and the participants are unaware of which participants received which treatment.
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
primary motor cortex
brain area important for controlling fine movements
medulla
brain area that controls some muscles of the head, some sensations from the head, and output to the stomach and intestines
interpreter
brain function that makes up a story to explain a behavior, which may have occurred for some other reason
Psychiatry
branch of medicine that deals with emotional disturbances. They can prescribe drugs, such as antidepressants, whereas most psychologists cannot.
peripheral nervous system
bundles of axons that convey messages between the spinal cord and the rest of the body
mirror neurons
cells that are active when you make a movement and also when you watch someone else make a similar movement
Glia
cells that support the neurons in many ways such as by insulating them, synchronizing activity among neighboring neurons, and removing waste products. They are smaller but more numerous than neurons.
plasticity
change as a result of experience
epigenetics
changes in gene expression as a result of environmental influences, without modification of the DNA sequence
hormone
chemical released by glands and conveyed by the blood to alter activity in various organs
Cross-Cultural Psychology
compares the behavior of people from different cultures. Comparing people from different cultures is central to determining what is truly characteristic of humans and what varies depending on our background.
epilepsy
condition in which cells somewhere in the brain emit abnormal rhythmic, spontaneous impulses
Cell body
contains the nucleus of the cell.
temporal lobe
cortical area located toward the left and right sides of the head, largely responsible for hearing and certain aspects of vision
Demand Characteristics
cues that tell participants what is expected of them and what the experimenter hopes to find.
Applied Research
deals with practical problems, such as how to help children with learning disabilities.
electroencephalograph (EEG)
device that measures and amplifies tiny electrical changes on the scalp that reflect brain activity
magnetoencephalograph (MEG)
device that records magnetic changes
positron-emission tomography (PET)
device that records radioactivity of various brain areas emitted from injected chemicals
hallucinogens
drug that induces sensory distortions
stimulants
drugs That Boost Energy, Heighten Alertness, Increase Activity, and Produce a Pleasant Feeling
depressant
drugs that decrease arousal
narcotics
drugs that produce drowsiness, insensitivity to pain, and decreased responsiveness
Scatter Plots
each dot represents a given individual, with one measurement for that individual on the x-axis (horizontal) and another measurement on the y-axis (vertical).
opiates
either natural drugs derived from the opium poppy, or synthetic drugs with a chemical structure resembling natural opiates
Single-Blind Study
either the observer or the participants are unaware of which participants received which treatment
heritability
estimate of the variance within a population that is due to heredity
Biological Psychology
explains behavior in terms of biological factors, such as activities of the nervous system, the effects of drugs and hormones, genetics, and evolutionary pressures.
Cognitive Psychologist
focus on how people make decisions, solve problems, and convert their thoughts into language. These psychologists study both the best and the worst of human cognition (expert decision making and why people make costly errors).
sex-linked gene
gene located on the X or Y chromosome
dominant
genetic effect that appears even with only a single copy of the gene
recessive
genetic effect that appears only if the dominant gene is absent
endocrine system
glands that produce hormones and release them into the blood
evolution
gradual change in the frequency of various genes from one generation to the next
Cultural Sample
groups of people from at least two cultures.
Clinical Psychologists
have an advanced degree in psychology (master's degree, doctor of philosophy [PhD], or doctor of psychology [PsyD]), with a specialty in understanding and helping people with psychological problems. Those problem range from depression, anxiety, and substance abuse to marriage conflicts, difficulties making decisions, or even the feeling that "I should be getting more out of life."
Counseling Psychologists
help people with educational, vocational, marriage, health-related, and other decisions. deals mostly with life decisions and family or career readjustments.
phenylketonuria (PKU)
inherited condition that, if untreated, leads to mental retardation
gene
inherited structures that control the chemical reactions that direct development
Clinical Social Worker
is similar to a clinical psychologist but with different training. has a master's degree in social work with a specialization in psychological problems. Many health maintenance organizations (HMOs) steer most of their clients with psychological problems toward them
Descriptive Statistics
mathematical summaries of results.
anxiolytic drugs (tranquilizers)
medications that help people relax
Theory
more than a guess. It is an explanation or model that fits many observations and makes accurate predictions.
Dopamine
neurotransmitter that promotes activity levels and reinforcement
Random Sample
one in which every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Representative Sample
one that resembles the population in its percentage of males and females, various ethnic groups, young and old, city dwellers and farmers, or whatever other characteristics seem likely to affect the results.
cerebral cortex
outer covering of the forebrain
Anecdotes
people's reports of isolated events, such as a dream or hunch that comes true. Such experiences often seem impressive, but they are not scientific evidence.
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
procedure that uses magnetic detectors outside the head to compare the amounts of hemoglobin with and without oxygen in different brain areas
Forensic Psychologists
provide advice and consultation to police, lawyers, and courts. They advise on such decisions as whether a defendant is mentally competent to stand trial or whether someone eligible for parole is dangerous
binding problem
question of how separate brain areas combine to produce a unified perception of an object
reflex
rapid, automatic response to a stimulus
Experimental Group
receives the treatment that an experiment is designed to test.
statistically significant or statistically reliable
results that chance alone would be unlikely to produce
autonomic nervous system
section of the nervous system that controls the organs
Basic Research
seeks theoretical knowledge for its own sake, such as understanding the processes of learning and memory.
corpus callosum
set of axons that connect the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex
Extrasensory Perception
some people sometimes acquire information without receiving any energy through any sense organ.
Blind Observer
someone who records data without knowing the researcher's predictions.
School Psychologists
specialists in the psychological condition of students, usually in kindergarten through the 12th grade. identify children's educational needs, devise a plan to meet those needs, and then either implement the plan themselves or advise teachers how to implement it.
Comparative Psychologists
specialists who compare different animal species
Military Psychologists
specialists who provide services to the military in many ways. Some are similar to industrial/organizational psychologists, conducting intellectual and personality tests to identify people suitable for certain jobs within the military, and then helping to train people for those jobs.
Falsifiable
stated in such clear, precise terms that we can see what evidence would count against it—if, of course, such evidence existed.
Inferential Statistics
statements about a large population based on an inference from a small sample.
Chromosome
strands of hereditary material
primary somatosensory cortex
strip in the anterior portion of the parietal lobe of the brain, including cells sensitive to touch in different body areas
amygdala
structure in the temporal lobe, responds strongly to emotional situations
parietal lobe
structure just anterior (forward) from the occipital lobe, specialized for the body senses, including touch, pain, temperature, and awareness of the location of body parts in space
hypothalamus
structure just below the thalamus, important for hunger, thirst, temperature regulation, sex, and other motivated behavior
spinal cord
structure that controls the muscles from the neck down
Learning and Motivation
studies how behavior depends on the outcomes of past behaviors and current motivations. How often we engage in any particular behavior depends on the results of that behavior in the past.
Positive Psychology
studies the predispositions and experiences that make people happy, productive, and successful.
Social Psychologist
study how an individual influences other people and how the group influences an individual. For example, people usually eat together, and on the average we eat about twice as much when we are in a large group as we do when eating alone (de Castro, 2000). If you invite guests to your house, you offer them something to eat or drink as a way to strengthen a social relationship.
Developmental Psychology
study how behavior changes with age
multiplier effect
tendency for a small initial advantage in some behavior, possibly genetic in origin, to lead to experiences that magnify the advantage
frontal lobe
the anterior (forward) pole of the brain, which includes the primary motor cortex, important for controlling fine movements
Free Will
the belief that behavior is caused by a person's independent decisions
Determinism
the idea that everything that happens has a cause, or determinant, that someone could observe or measure
Independent Variable
the item that an experimenter changes or controls
Dependent Variable
the item that an experimenter measures to determine the outcome
hemisphere
the left or right half of the forebrain
Dualism
the mind is separate from the brain but somehow controls the brain and therefore the rest of the body
Burden of Proof
the obligation to present evidence to support one's claim. In a criminal trial, the burden of proof is on the prosecution. If the prosecution does not make a convincing case, the defendant goes free.
Mind-Brain Problem
the philosophical question of how experience relates to the brain
p < 0.05
the probability that randomly generated results would resemble the observed results is less than 5 percent. The smaller the p value, the more impressive the results.
95 percent confidence intervals
the range within which the true mean lies, with 95 percent certainty.
Mode
the score that occurs most frequently.
Y chromosome
the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.
Synapse
the specialized junction between one neuron and another (see Figure 3.6), a neuron releases a chemical that either excites or inhibits the next neuron
Mean
the sum of all the scores divided by the total number of scores.
Psychology
the systematic study of behavior and experience
Experimenter Bias
the tendency of an observer (unintentionally, as a rule) to misperceive the results.
Monism
the view that conscious experience is inseparable from the physical brain
Psychoanalysis
therapy providers who rely heavily on the theories and methods pioneered by the early 20th-century Viennese physician Sigmund Freud and later modified by others.
replicable results
those that anyone can obtain, at least approximately, by following the same procedures.
dizygotic twins
those who share only half their genes because they developed from two eggs
Cognition
thought and knowledge
Introspect
to look within themselves.
Evolutionary Psychologist
tries to explain behavior in terms of the evolutionary history of the species, including why evolution might have favored a tendency to act in particular ways. For example, why do people and other animals crave sweets and avoid bitter tastes? Here, the answer is easy: Most sweets are nutritious and almost all bitter substances are poisonous (T. R. Scott & Verhagen, 2000).
stem cells
undifferentiated cells
Meta-analysis
which combines the results of many studies as if they were all one huge study.
Neurons
your brain consists of an enormous number of separate cells called