psy 301 exam 3
What is "stigmatization"?
- people being subjected to negative stereotypes, labels, and cultural myths that portray them as deviant and harmful simply because of their different social characteristics
What does it mean to say that the "cultural script" for remarriage is underdeveloped, and that remarriage is an "incomplete institution" (a term coined by Andrew Cherlin)?
-A cultural script is a set of socially prescribed and understood guidelines for defining responsibilities and obligations and hence for relation to each other -Society offers an underdeveloped script for remarriages because there are no standard guidelines for remarriages as scripts about marriage all pertain to a first marriage, so those planning a second marriage must plan things as they go.
According to the influential Wallerstein research, with its generally negative "child of divorce" perspective, what stresses do children experience when their parents divorce?
-According to Wallerstein, children of divorce have lower outcomes than children whose parents stay together in areas of conduct, education, psychological adjustment, social competence, and have more trouble with future marriages
What are the social and emotional results of divorce?
-Individuals who have divorced typically have more health problems, anxiety, depression, and substance use. -This is largely due to the loss of companionship, changing of residencies, and anger that can result from a divorce.
Why are remarriages more likely to be less stable--more likely to break up--than first marriages?
-Lots of reasons that remarriages are likely to be less stable. -Partners who experienced a lot of conflict in their first marriage may be prone to avoiding issues or problems in their new marriage to avoid conflict, which is not healthy. -Plus, since these individuals have already gotten a divorce, they may be more open to another divorce if serious issues arise.
Why did divorce rates rise throughout the 20th century?
-Many factors, but mostly demographic factors (remarriage, young age at first marriage, marrying someone of a different race or religion, cohabitation before marriage, premarital sex/ pregnancy/ childbearing, having no or older children, having parents who divorced, etc.) -economic factors (the higher a couple's income, the more likely they are not to divorce. Also, married women who begin earning their own wage may feel more independent and therefore may want to leave her husband to pursue independence)
Do experts agree on the effects of divorce on children?
-Most experts agree that if a household contains a lot of conflict, then children tend to have better outcomes after divorce. -If the household had relatively low levels of conflict the child tends to have more negative outcomes.
Do all unhappy couples divorce, or are there some other solutions?
-No not all unhappy couples divorce -other solutions: marital separation and stable unhappy marriages (they make changes in their individual lives that allow them to be happy despite an unsatisfying marriage).
When partners in remarried families have a mutual child together, does this necessarily "cement" the remarriage?
-No, it does not cement the remarriage. -Especially if there are other children by one or both partners. In this case, having another child could potentially create waves.
What is Parentification?
-Parentification is when the child is forced to take on responsibilities that they are developmentally mature enough to handle them -such as hiding negative emotions for fear of making their parent more stressed out
How does courtship for remarriage differ from that for first marriage?
-People have to find partners who are willing to accept children as part of a relationship. -Counselors find that those who have been through a divorce may have personal issues they need to resolve before pursuing another marriage, and typically the dating process is sped up rapidly as adults see themselves as mature enough to make decisions earlier.
What are the pros and cons of "divorce mediation"?
-Pros for divorce mediation: couples have less relitigation, feel more satisfied with the process and the results, and report better relationships with ex-spouses and children. -Cons of divorce mediation: women's advocacy groups assert that these processes may be biased against females. Some also believe that mediators do not sufficiently take domestic violence into account.
Why are stepfamilies stigmatized in our society?
-Stepfamilies are perceived as less functional than two-parent families.
Why don't some parents pay child support?
-The principal reason that fathers don't pay child support is because of underemployment or unemployment. -Sometimes fathers withhold support as a "power play" in order to see their kids more often, or just to spite the mother.
Now that more women are in the labor force, does that mean that families are no longer economically interdependent as they were in the past?
-The relation between women's contribution to household income and divorce are inconclusive. -But it is true that, today, couples are less economically interdependent, though they still are in most ways -being married still does have economic advantages.
Do Americans of value marriage less than they did back in the early 20th century?
-The subsequent move from companionate to individualistic marriage in the mid-twentieth century added pressure on marriage to meet each spouse's need for love -also personal happiness and life satisfaction
Why are our government statistics today regarding stepfamilies (as broadly defined) not very accurate or reliable?
-They aren't reliable because the data is funded on government agencies and it depends on the budget of each year whether the data will be updated, so it could be old information. -Also, many of our current figures are based on old surveys. -Finally, because remarriages and cohabitation are less durable than first-marriages, there is an ebb and flow to stepfamilies, making it hard to capture in social surveys.
What is "stress-related growth," and do all divorcing people experience it?
-refers to when a traumatic event ultimately makes an individual stronger, whether that be from a divorce strengthening a child's resolve as he learns to cope with situations he cannot control, or from a feeling of relief as divorce actually dispels issues that would have been otherwise present without separation such as abuse. -It is experience by most, but not all.
How are the refined divorce rate and the crude divorce rate different?
-refined divorce rate: the number of divorces per 1,000 women -crude divorce rate: number of divorces per 1,000 population
What kinds of problems and advantages do children have living in a stepfamily?
-research has found that stepchildren of all ages have somewhat higher rates of smoking, alcohol and drug use, and juvenile delinquency, do less well in school and are somewhat less well-adjusted than kinds in first marriage families -another study shows that living with a stepparent increase school performance in kids k-5th grade
What is "no fault" divorce?
-sometimes referred to as unilateral divorce -one partner can secure the divorce even if their partner wants it to continue -occurred when both parties agreed that the marriage was "irretrievably broken."
What special problems can occur when the stepchild is an adolescent?
-stepparent-stepchild relationships are more conflicted when the stepchild is an adolescent.
What is the "divorce divide"?
-the large disparity in divorce rates between those with and without a college degree -a woman with a college degree has 25-percent lower risk of divorce than one who did not complete high school
How does language reveal that norms for stepfamilies are more "ambiguous" (see box, "Do You Speak Stepfamily?")
-there is no standard way for stepchildren to refer to their step parents, step siblings, or step family
Who tends to experience the greater loss economically following divorce--men or women?
-women -Women typically experience a decrease of 20-30% in their income-to-needs ratio after divorce
Lamanna et al. suggest the actual legal process of divorce can make distress over the breakup worse. Why?
2 aspects make legal divorce emotionally difficult: 1) divorce creates the need to grieve, and divorced individuals may feel frustrated by their lack of control over a process in which lawyers are the principals 2) is the "adversary system" in which lawyers are only interested in their own client's interest and want to "get the most" for their client
How common is remarriage in the U.S.?
30% of all marriages today are remarriages
Do the weddings of remarrying couples follow the fairly rigid formats of first marriage weddings, or are they more diverse?
Remarrying couples' weddings are not as rigid and tend to be more diverse, such as destination weddings.
How do our expectations for marriage influence divorce rates?
Research has found that couples whose expectations are more practical are more satisfied with their marriages than are those who expect completely loving and expressive relationships
How do remarriages compare to first marriages in happiness?
Research suggests there is basically no difference in marital happiness or satisfaction between remarriages and first marriages
What is "co-parenting"?
a "team" approach to raising children after a divorce where the parents communicate and try to be colleagues with the goal of meeting the child's needs, typically has the best outcome for kids.
What are "nontangible assets"?
degrees or managerial positions
How are divorce trends different today for women with college degrees versus less educated women?
divorce is more common among the less educated
What is "role ambiguity"?
few clear guidelines regarding what responsibilities, behaviors, and emotions stepfamily members are expected to exhibit
What are the disadvantages of joint custody?
kids may have difficulty following two sets of household rules, parents can feel "out of the loop", parents may worry that their child can't get fully settled in either house, lack of geographic mobility, travel can be expensive when transferring the child, etc.
How do kids affect the decisions of the Levinger model of divorce decisions?
kids would be seen as a barrier
What are "joint custody"?
means that both parents take equal responsibility for important decisions regarding their child's well-being despite being divorced, and it may be physical, legal, or both.
What is the "nuclear-family model monopoly"?
means that the first marriage is seen as the "real" marriage, and all marriages after are seen as deficient
Who is more likely to remarry, men or women?
men
How does being a custodial parent affect whether a man will remarry?
men with custody of children are much more likely to cohabit or remarry than a childless man
What are "tangible assets"?
money, houses, cars
What are the advantages of joint custody?
parents get a chance to be more involved instead of one being involved and the other not, physical time spent with both parents is better than phone calls or texting the noncustodial one, time with children is "normal" as opposed to constrained by time limitations, less power play between parents, more free time for each parent, etc.
What are "parallel parents"?
parents who parent alongside one another but with minimal contact or conflict, it is associated with worse child outcomes.
What is "legal custody"?
refers to who has the legal right to make decisions regarding the child's well-being and upbringing
What is "physical custody"?
refers to who the child lives with
Which is the more valid measure, refined or crude divorce rates?
refined divorce rates are more accurate
On average, are members of stepfamilies--parents and children--as well off as members of first families?
-Adults are less satisfied in their parenting of stepchildren than they are in parenting biological children - step-moms offer suffer from anxiety and guilt and low self-esteem. -However, stepmothers without children report much more positively, saying that the stepmother roles give them a chance to be maternal and help them grow. -Children in stepfamilies show few long term negative effects, but they are more likely to engage in drinking and smoking and show more juvenile delinquency, and they are typically less well-adjusted. -Yet, some studies show that kids kindergarten to fifth grade living in stepfamilies showed higher school performance.
Researchers other than Wallerstein argue that children's outcomes of divorce are not necessarily so negative. On what grounds do they argue this?
-Another researcher studied a significantly larger pool of families who had gone through a divorce. -While some of these children reported bearing emotional skills, the vast majority either insisted that they were largely unaffected by it in the long run or even agreed that their parents should have gotten divorced.
What are some examples of each of component of the Levinger model of divorce decisions?
-Barriers to divorce: children and the impact divorce would have on them, religious views and dedication, lack of financial resources. Long marriages are less likely to end in divorce because of the strong marital bond that is created and friendship networks. -Alternatives to the marriage: found to be the least important in decisions to divorce. Many individuals wonder if they would be happier if they got a divorce and think about either staying single or remarriage. Happy marriages are very advantageous for both parties, but unhappy marriages are very unhealthy. -Rewards of the current marriage: some couples stave off divorce because they see the rewards of their marriage as strong enough to fight for and to repair damage in the relationship.
How is family law inadequate for remarried families?
-Because family law assumes all marriages are first marriages. -Therefore, many of the legal provisions that affect stepfamily life proceed from one or both partners' divorce decrees. -Also, few legal provisions exist for stepfamilies, especially if the remarriage ends in divorce as well.
Why should we distinguish between psychological pain and clinical problems when assessing divorce effects?
-Because the seriousness of emotional problems (psychological pain) and legitimate clinical issues that require medication or psychological treatment is very different.
How are the kin networks of stepfamilies and remarried families different from those of first families?
-Because, with stepfamily, you have new grandparents, uncles, aunts, etc. and your family structure expands drastically with individuals that you are not blood kin with. -With first families, everyone is biological.
How does having children from earlier relationships affect courtship for remarriage?
-Children make it more complicated as parents typically feel like they need to hide their new sexual relationships, and it is difficult to determine the right time to tell a child that their parent has a new partner.
Why are financial strains common in stepfamilies?
-Financial issues typically start with the previous divorce. -Especially in the case of mothers or fathers being required to pay child support, and fathers report that it can be very financially strenuous to feel that one must support two families. -Mothers typically receive less child support from their ex-husbands once the ex-husband starts a new family, and this could make the mother feel guilty for putting financial strain on her new husband.
What advantages do men get from remarriage?
-For men it is less financial -men who are single or divorced tend to drink more, smoke more, and lead more unhealthy lifestyles than unmarried men.
What are the economic effects of divorce for children, for women, and for men?
-Women experience the greater economic loss following divorce. -Divorce leads to higher instances of single parent families, which typically cannot provide children on the same level that a two-parent family could. -Typically, these children are raised in poverty which produces behavior problems and less opportunities. -Men's income decreases as well but not as drastically. Men who are not in a typically family structure are often discriminated against and may even be paid less because of this.
What is a "binuclear family"?
-a child is the common "nucleus" in two households within one family. -Two types: perfect pals (parents called each other friends and often visited one another with their new families on holidays) and cooperative colleagues (worked well together but did not make attempts to maintain contact or visit on holidays, this is the most common).
What is a "starter marriage"?
-a first marriage that ends in divorce within the first few years, typically before the couple has children
How are sibling relationships affected after divorce?
-either sibling rivalry and conflict will increase because of lacking parental attention -or they will become closer through dealing with this difficult time and be supportive of one another during unstable circumstances. -Research shows that it is usually the first.
Family scholars used to use the term "blended family" for stepfamilies. Why have they generally stopped using this term?
-family therapists and other experts have concluded that stepfamilies do not readily blend -Rather, stepfamilies adapt and create novel support systems to foster and facilitate individuality in the house and create pathways for open communication and rule setting.
How does divorce affect children's educations?
-from the Wallerstein research -because divorce is so financially hindering, paying for college was problematic -therefore, kids are likely to receive less education than their fathers and mothers
Why do stepfathers find it often difficult to enter into a family that previously consisted of a single mom and her kids?
-he must work his way into a close group -the mother and kids share a common history that doesn't include a stepfather -they must construct their step-parenting role parallel to that of the nonresidential but still involved biological father
What factors affect the kinds of experiences stepfathers have in their new families?
-if the child has close ties with his or her mother before the stepfather entered the family
What helps make life in stepfamilies better?
-members of first families tend to be more well off. -Many things contribute to a better life for step families, including letting the passing of time happen to better acquaint themselves with one another and to strive toward open communication and clear support systems.
What is "fault" divorce?
-one person in the marriage had to be legally determined as "at fault" for the divorce, and the other person had to prove that they had "grounds" to divorce that person abuse, adultery, etc.). -The person judged guilty rarely received child custody and it was common for facts to be falsified.
What is a "silver divorce"?
-refers to the proportion of divorces among older couples and those in long-term marriages that has shown an increase
Why are "baby boomers" having increasing divorce rates when most of the rest of the population does not?
1) during the baby boom era, there was a significantly larger proportion of marriages, therefore leading to many more possibilities of divorce 2) there was a very high rate of remarriage among this group which leads to more divorces 3)divorce was much less accepted than it is today, so couples that wanted a divorce during that time now feel that they have more freedom to do so.
Most researchers believe the divorce rate has stabilized, and perhaps even declined in the last 30 years. Why?
1) fewer people are marrying at young ages and those who marry at a later age are more likely to make better choices and have more maturity 2) the standard of living has increased which leads to less stress and tension 3) federally funded marriage education programs 4) increased determination from children with divorced parents to make their marriages work 5) increase in cohabitation leads to less divorce as people who are satisfied with cohabiting see no need to marry at all 6) divorces are expensive and the bad economy and real estate market make it less appealing.
What are seven different perspectives on how children can be harmed by divorce?
1) life stress perspective (the stress that accompanies divorce) 2) parental loss perspective (assumes that the healthiest environment for a child is one with two parents which is taken away after divorce) 3) parental adjustment perspective (notes the psychological adjustment that the custodial parent must make after divorcing their partner) 4) economic hardship perspective (assumes that economic hardship brought about by divorce and loss of income plays a very large role in the issues a child is faced with) 5) inter-parental conflict perspective (the conflict between parents results in lower well-being of the child) 6) selection perspective (at least some of the child's problems after the divorce were also present before the divorce) 7) family instability perspective (the number of transitions in and out of various family settings affects children's adjustment)
What are the 3 terms people evaluate their marriages in according to the Levinger's model of divorce decisions?
1. barriers 2. alternatives 3. rewards
What advantages do women get from remarriage?
Advantages for women are mostly financial.
Do all custodial mothers get legal (that is, court approved or ordered) support agreements with their exes? Why or why not?
I would think not because not all custodial mothers need financial support from their exes
Who usually pays such support—moms or dads?
Because mothers retain custody in the preponderance of cases, the vast majority of those ordered to pay child support, about 85%, are fathers
What makes stepfamilies of the past (even into the early 20th century) so different from the stepfamilies of today?
In the past, almost all stepfamilies were created after the death of a spouse. So, a "stepparent" was usually someone who replaced a dead parent, not an additional parental figure.
How might a "selection effect" be operating to make divorce after remarriage more likely?
Individuals who "select" who they want to marry are already prone to divorce and most likely pick individuals who are also prone to divorce, and divorcees are disproportionately form lower classes, which have a higher divorce tendency.
What is "boundary ambiguity" in stepfamilies?
Boundary ambiguity is a state when family members are uncertain in their perception of who is in or out of the family or who is performing what roles and tasks within the family system
What is child support?
Child support involves money paid by the noncustodial to the custodial parent to support the children of a now-ended marital, cohabiting, or sexual relationship.
How does being a custodial parent affect whether a woman will remarry?
Children are more of a liability in the marriage market for women
What are the various types of stepfamilies?
Different types of stepfamilies include those created by widowhood, divorce, non-marital childbearing, or cohabitation; families with adult stepchildren; stepfamilies with racial/ethnic diversity, and so on.
What does it mean to say that division of "tangible assets" equitably does not guarantee that wives will fare as well economically as their husbands after divorce?
Dividing things (tangible assets) such as money, houses, cars, and the like are not likely to place women in an economic standing that is commensurate with their husband's, because the "non-tangible" assets, such degrees or managerial positions, secure the husband's future more so than his wife's, especially in the case that the husband was the main provider.
What is meant by "divorce fallout"?
Divorce fallout refers to ruptures of relationships and changes in social networks that come about as a result of divorce
How have divorce rates changed since 1920?
Divorce has increased since the 1920s and began to level off, though in high numbers, in the 1990s.
In what ways do divorces have "fallout" effects?
Effects include: -kin relationships (kin promotion, redefinition of a close/distant relative, reclassifying a familial relationship, etc.) -family ties that are created during a remarriage -grandparents tend to worry that they will not have as much connection to their grandchildren -change in the community of one's friends and friendships.
What limitations did Judith Wallerstein's research have that may have overemphasized the negative effects of divorce on children?
Her study had a small, unrepresentative sample, it did not have a control group, it was during a time period when divorce was a new trend, and "there was difficulty separating family troubles and mental health concerns that predate the separation and divorce from those that might be effects of divorce
How do kids often feel about their parents' remarriage weddings?
Kids often have mixed emotions, and typically report wishing that they had more involvement in their parents' remarriages.
Do men prefer marrying women who already have children or not?
Men do not prefer marrying women who already have children.
How have fathers been able to improve their custodial status?
Men have been able to improve their custodial status because of men's changing social roles and their growing involvement with children.
Who usually gets child custody today?
Moms
Do most Americans today see divorce as morally unacceptable or acceptable?
Most Americans today are much more accepting of divorce, though religious attitudes and differences in culture do still oppose divorce unless necessary.
Who is most likely to become a noncustodial parent, a mom or a dad?
Most noncustodial parents are fathers.
Why do some mothers give up custody of children voluntarily?
Mothers typically become the "gatekeepers" in the relationship between the child and the noncustodial father. Most mothers who willingly give up custody of their children do so because they fear that they cannot financially support their kids by themselves.
What do noncustodial "visiting" parents experience after divorce?
Noncustodial parents usually find it difficult to have a satisfying relationship with their child and often feel lonely.
Why have mothers been increasingly agreeing to joint custody?
Some believe that women are less likely to insist on sole custody as they are slowly moving away from feeling like being a successful woman equals being a successful mother.
Does the presence of stepchildren tend to make remarriages more or less stressful?
Stepchildren typically create more stress, specifically because of issues related to discipline.
When one partner wants a divorce and the other doesn't, who tends to feel more distress once the divorce happens?
The one who wants the divorce is typically the one who feels less distress, as they usually have already taken time to process the decision.
Why do mothers often have an advantage when seeking custody, particularly of younger children?
They are usually the ones who physically cared for the child as it developed, and because many judges still have traditional views about gender, they tend to give custody to mothers who they see as the more nurturing parent.
Who is more likely to remarry, more educated or less educated people?
They are varied because there are simply many different avenues through which a stepfamily can be created. Be it that a child is born to a mother outside of marriage (any marriage after that creates a step family), or two parents divorce and remarry, etc.
Why are stepfamilies so varied?
They are varied because there are simply many different avenues through which a stepfamily can be created. Be it that a child is born to a mother outside of marriage (any marriage after that creates a step family), or two parents divorce and remarry, etc.
Who tends to initiate divorce--men or women?
Women tend to initiate divorce.
What is the "stepmother trap"?
the conflict between 2 views: 1) society sentimentalizes the stepmother's role and expects her to be unnaturally loving toward her stepchildren 2) at the same time, society views her as the wicked witch
Why do we use the crude divorce rate to look at changes over time?
these data are the only long term annual data available
Are remarriages actually less happy than first marriages, or is this mostly a matter of people's perceptions?
those who divorced and even those who divorced and remarried were not happier than those who stuck with their marriages
Is cohabitation with a potential partner common before remarriage?
yes
