PSY 302 - Exam 3

employment and adolescent development research findings

- It's possible that adolescents can learn many of the same skills by participating in extracurricular activities as they can on the job o Popular belief that working teens build character, teaches them about the real world and prepares them for adulthood § Not supported by research § In fact, intensive employment during the school year may negatively affect the development and preparation for adult work § Research is based on full time, not part-time

autonomy as an adolescent issue

- independence - autonomy o These two meaning slightly different things § Autonomy includes independence but also emotional & cognitive aspects too § Gaining independence in opinions also § Being able to make decisions on your own § Gaining independent relationships with others o Early adolescent is a period of growing independence and autonomy o Establishing healthy sense of autonomy is actually a lifelong process o Puberty and the development of autonomy § Cognitive changes · Being able to make decisions in face of conflicting opinion § Biological changes · Changes in stature/physical appearance how much autonomy given by parents/teachers · Looking older may lead to more responsibility § Social/emotional changes · Establishment of more adultlike and less childish relationships w/ family members & peers o Each person's perspective their advice & future consequences of each course and of action

identity - why an adolescent issue?

-puberty & identity development - cognitive changes

Researchers have addressed three broad questions when examining the role of working on the life of the adolescent. These three questions include: A. Does working help adolescents develop a sense of responsibility?, does working interfere with other activities?, does working promote the development of undesirable behaviors? B. Does working help adolescents develop a better grade point average?, does working interfere with other activities?, does working promote the development of undesirable behaviors? C. Does working help adolescents develop a better grade point average?, does working interfere with other activities?, does working help adolescents learn the value of commitment? D. Does working help adolescents develop a better sense of commitment?, does working interfere with family relationships?, does working promote the development of undesirable behaviors?

A. Does working help adolescents develop a sense of responsibility?, does working interfere with other activities?, does working promote the development of undesirable behaviors?

Two countries in which one would find virtually no student workers are: A. Japan and Korea B. France and Sweden C. Canada and Australia D. Japan and Great Britain

A. Japan and Korea

Overall, which group of adolescents feels least positive about themselves? A. White females B. White males C. Black females D. Black males

A. White females

Mei was an impulsive preschooler. According to some research, it is likely that, as an adolescent, she will be: A. too difficult to answer; the research is divided on whether her preschool personality would predict her adolescent personality. B. shy. C. anxious. D. nearly all research points to the idea that Mei's early personality would not predict her adolescent personality, so it is likely that she would be well-adjusted.

A. too difficult to answer; the research is divided on whether her preschool personality would predict her adolescent personality.

According to the graph from the chapter about adolescents who show the most educational promise, adolescents who are most likely to go on to get a four-year bachelor's degree are those who: A. are not employed and have low/limited educational promise B. are not employed and have high educational promise C. engage in intensive work and have low/limited educational promise D. engage in sporadic work and have low/limited educational promise

B. are not employed and have high educational promise

What does the Five-Factor Model describe? A. research methodology B. personality dimensions C. false-self behavior D. self-esteem dimensions

B. personality dimensions

How positively or negatively people feel about themselves defines: A. self-regulation. B. self-esteem. C. self-attribution. D. self-idealization.

B. self-esteem.

Amy, a 16-year-old girl, is shy around boys though she would really like to be more outgoing. This reflects: A. the drive toward positive self-esteem. B. the discrepancy between her ideal and actual selves. C. a false sense of self-concept. D. All of these are correct.

B. the discrepancy between her ideal and actual selves.

Which of the following statements about self-conception is most likely to be made by a child rather than by an adolescent? A. "I am a complicated person." B. "Most people think I'm very secure, but really I'm pretty shy." C. "I am a girl; I have two brothers; I like to read." D. "I am honest; I am helpful; I am friendly."

C. "I am a girl; I have two brothers; I like to read."

Two factors that changed in our country that worked together to restrict adolescents' access to jobs were: A. Post World War I affluence and child labor laws B. The development of retail and service industry jobs and compulsory education laws C. Compulsory education laws and child labor laws D. Child labor laws and the development of retail and service industry jobs

C. Compulsory education laws and child labor laws

In class we discussed one reason that McDonalds created the "my first job" ad campaign. One reason was: A. McDonalds wanted to reinforce the idea that adolescents who work 20+ hours a week may experience a negative effect on school performance. B. The U.S. President at the time, George Bush, Sr., once worked at a McDonalds and stated that there was little value to be gained by working at such a job. C. McDonalds wanted to combat the idea that fast food jobs are the least likely to provide skills or lead to a career. D. McDonalds wanted to combat the idea that fast food jobs are the most likely to provide skills or lead to a career.

C. McDonalds wanted to combat the idea that fast food jobs are the least likely to provide skills or lead to a career.

Patrick just got his first summer job at the age of 15. He will be mowing lawns, and this job pays rather well. Most of the research on adolescent income shows that Patrick is likely to do what with his extra income? A. Start a savings account and save for big ticket items like cars or college B. Start a savings account, but only save half the money C. Spend this money frivolously and mismanage his funds D. Donate all his income to a charity

C. Spend this money frivolously and mismanage his funds

The in-class survey about the kinds of work that people did during high school was representative of typical adolescent work experiences. The jobs that most people held were like national averages in that: A. Most people did not work during high school. B. The jobs listed most frequently for adolescents typically includes office work. C. The jobs listed most frequently for adolescents typically includes lawn mowing and babysitting. D. The jobs listed most frequently for adolescents typically includes odd jobs and newspaper routes.

C. The jobs listed most frequently for adolescents typically includes lawn mowing and babysitting.

Adolescents are most likely to exhibit false-self behavior with their: A. friends. B. parents. C. dates. D. sibling

C. dates.

Erik Erikson believed that ________ is the primary psychosocial crisis of adolescence. A. balancing a sense of trust with a sense of mistrust B. developing a sense of autonomy and the ability to do things for oneself C. establishing a coherent sense of identity D. developing intimate personal relationships

C. establishing a coherent sense of identity

Adolescents are most likely to behave __________ in romantic situations and with a classmate, and they are least likely to engage in ___________ behavior with close friends. A. authentically; inauthentic B. authentically; authentic C. inauthentically; false-self D. inauthentically; true-self

C. inauthentically; false-self

Which of the following is not one of the personality dimensions of the Five-Factor Model? A. Neuroticism B. Openness to Experience C. Agreeableness D. Gender Intensification

D. Gender Intensification

From the 1970s to the early 2000s, there was a(n) _________ in the proportion of time that adolescents devoted to paid jobs & a(n)_________ in time devoted to leisure. A. no change; increase B. decrease; no change C. no change; decrease D. decrease; increase

D. decrease; increase

Which group of working adolescents are more likely to experience problem behaviors? A. upper class youth B. none; problem behaviors have not been shown to be associated with working for adolescents C. poor youth D. middle class youth

D. middle class youth

A position of money or wealth at an early age is called: A. early income B. young money C. adolescent economic growth D. premature affluence

D. premature affluence

premature affluence

a position of money or wealth at an early age

cognitive autonomy

ability to evaluate thoughts, to self assess, to be able to form opinions and values, and to make logical deductions

behavioral autonomy

ability to make independent decisions and to then complete action based on those decisions

emotional autonomy

becoming emotionally independent in relationships

independence

behavior apart from the influence of others

traits

behaviors which are consistent and enduring

autonomy

behaviors, thoughts, and emotions, that are apart from the influence of others

self conceptions

collection of traits/attributed that individuals use to describe themselves

8 stages of psychosocial development

developed by erik erikson these stages outline 8 phases through which a person must pass in order to form successful relationships with others and they also describe the individual's personality

3 types of autonomy

emotional, behavioral, cognitive

false self behaviors

engaging with others in a way that one knows is not in accordance with one's actual self; fake behavior

empirical

evidence which is based on observations

trait theory

examines stable patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, which can be measured for each individual and can be said to predict aspects of personality

future orientation

extent to which an individual is able to think about the potential consequences of decisions

self esteem

extent to which one feels positive or negative about themselves

moral reasoning

how individuals think about dilemmas that could either have an honorable or noble outcome vs an outcome in which person makes an immoral choice

sense of identity

how much an individual feels secure about who they are becoming

moral behaviors

hows individuals choose to behave in situations in which a person could either choose an honorable or noble outcome vs an outcome in which a person makes an immoral choice

cognitive changes

imagine possible selves develop future orientation social changes

post-conventional level

individual decides what is just or right on their own set of values

stages of moral reasoning

kohlberg's 3 levels § Studied how people make decisions when faced with moral dilemmas - pre-conventional moral reasoning / conventional / conventional morally

de-idealization

loss of admiration for a person that one previously admired

conventional

many rules of society are internalized; rules are followed to win approval or to maintain order

changes in moral reasoning

o 10 yrs old § Preconventional reasoning § Unlikely to see child in all stages unlike adulthood o Teen years § Conventional reasoning dominant mode of moral thinking o Adulthood § Postconventional reasoning, if it emerges at all § Can be across all levels and stages o Most studies find no major age differences in complexity of moral reasoning o Kohlberg's theory § Child think about hypothetical moral dilemmas primarily in preconventional manner § Adolescents conventional § Minority adults postconventional

adolescents' free time in contemporary society

o Abundance of free time in lives of contemporary adolescence has several origins § Compulsory schooling · Free afternoon & evening § Post- WW2 affluence · State of having a lot of money & possession · Great economic less work § Adolescence now have more free time than in past due to transition from agrarian to industrial society o Autonomy consumers with plenty of discretionary income § Market sector new category to markets towards § Adolescence can afford

determining an adolescents identity state

o Actively seek informative/ approach identity descriptions with an open mind o Attempt to conform to family/social expectation ; get identity decisions over as quickly as possible o Ways of resolving the identity crisis § Informational vs normative orientation · Take responsibility for own actions · Feel in control of decisions · Confidence to overcome obstacles § Identity is related to score on the five factor model of personality § One of defining characteristics of individuals who have achievement a coherent sense of identity § One of the defining characteristics of individuals who have achieved a coherent sense of identity, is that† they approach a life's decisions with strong sense of agency · Agency: the sense that one has had an impact on one's world

moral identity

o Adolescents develop a sense of moral identity tend to be: § More capable of advanced moral reasoning § Able to translate moral values into moral action · Holding the view that being a moral person is a central part of who you are § Adolescent who have a strong identity are able to do this

rise & fall of student work

o Before 1925, most entered the workforce by 15 yrs o Adolescents were either students or workers, not both § Student = elite o Compulsory education laws and child labor laws § Restricted adolescent's work opportunities § Decline in adolescent student workers § In 1940, only about 3% of high school students worked during the school year o Growth of retail & services of the economy § Teenagers were called upon to fill these positions · Ex: malls § Work for relatively low wages and short work shifts · No benefits, willing to have flexibility during evenings & weekends § Proportion of American high school students with part-time jobs rose dramatically during the 1970s

personality in adolescent

o Big 5 personality traits § Influenced by combination of genetic and environmental factors § Strong links between earlier infant temperament and adolescent personality · Controversy among researchers § Most personality traits are quite stable · How reactive, calm pretty consistent § Openness curiosity § Conscientious responsibility / thinking about other's feelings § Extraversion outgoing / try out new things § Agreeableness kind / compromising § Neuroticism anxious § Universal & can be observed across cultures

identity as an adolescent issue

o Changes in the way young people view and feel about themselves o Adolescence marks the firsts restricting of one's sese of self at a time when he or she can appreciate the significance of these changes o Self descriptions changes between childhood and adolescence § Less physical and more psychological § Less concrete and more abstract § More differentiated · Recognize themselves as different "selves" when with different people § More integrated and coherent · Recognize inconsistencies in behavior; that they are happy/grumpy different situations § Reflect greater self awareness · Think about the self & can become self conscious

social context of identity development

o Course of identity development varies by culture and historical era § Depending on culture its more or less acceptable for adolescents to engage in interactions w/ peers & adults o Society influences which identities are desirable and which aren't through feedback o Depending on the current society and what is valued, and the feedback will change § Ex: smart phone eye contact o More available alternative, the more difficult it is to establish a sense of identity § Due to having so many avenues, it can be difficult to choose § More in moratorium status o Because of this complication, adolescents may need a period of time to figure out identity before entering adult roles

employment & adolescent develop cont. part 2

o Despite these drawbacks majority of teens describe their jobs positively o In general, whether (and in what ways) working impacts maturity depends largely on the nature of the job § Create categories of what kind of job they have because the experience will be different · Challenging? New Skills? o The most common adolescent jobs - fast food & retail stores - ranked highest in: § Stress & interferences with other parts of life § Lowest in likelihood to provide skills or lead to career

civic engagement

o Development of moral identity § Can be fostered by parents · Induction & occasional disappointment § Fostered via involvement in community service § Activities that reflect involvement in community affairs

forging a sense of identity - erikson

o Erikson § Adolescence is a critical period in lifelong process of forming an identity as a person § Adolescence identity vs role confusion o Marica expanded on erikson o Adolescents are classified into one of four identity statuses depending on whether an individual has: § Experience a crisis § Achieved a commitment § Moratorium · Individual is experiencing a crisis actively raising questions and seeking answers · Does not make a commitment o Identity formation takes times § Over half of the 24 yr old's achieved a firm identity o Occurs @ different rates in different domains of identity § Only 5% of adolescents were in the same identity statuses in all 4 areas · Occupational choice, gender role attitudes, religious beliefs, political ideologies

adolescent identity crisis

o Erikson theoretical framework § Identity versus identity diffusion · According to Erikson, normative crisis characteristics of the firth stage of psychological development, predominant during adolescence · Adolescent identity results from mutual recognition between young person and society · Key to resolution lies in social interaction Erikson

develop future orientation

o Extent to which an individual is able to think about the potential consequences of decisions

moral intuition and emotion

o Greens has propose the dual process model of morality § Both deliberate thought and intuition/emotion play distinct roles · Explain why we sometimes make judgements based on quick emotion based intuitions · Other times make judgements using more deliberate cognitive processes § Use difference parts of the brain to make intuitive and deliberative moral decisions · What part of the brain is lighting up (how are we going to react) § Switch dilemma · In one scenario you do nothing · Second scenario you do have control § Footbridge · Do nothing trolley kills 5 people · Push large person they will stop the trolley § Most people hit the switch kills one person · Why o Greene suggested that footbridge brings on an emotional response § Involves · Emotion based process that prompts us to focus on the harm that would come to the man that we would push · Deliberative thinking in which we weigh the pros and cons of this action

erikson

o How do we resolve our identity crisis? § Learning how to respond to those who matter § We observe reactions of others to our behaviors § We choose the parts of us that become our identity o Learning how to judge others peoples reaction

Erikson: Sense of identity

o Identity vs role confusion o Adolescents must integrate varied perceptions of the self-concept into a coherent sense of self § Adolescents may experience an identity crisis · Revision of body image · Adjust to being sexual beings · Cognitive growth allows thinking about possible future selves · Social demands require them to grow up · Society supports youths by allowing them a moratorium o Time when the person is free of responsibilities and can experiment with different roles o Time when identity can develop

work impact on schools

o Issues is how many hrs an adolescent works, not whether an adolescent has a job § Need to be specific about where the adolescent works § Do not draw general conclusion o Work 20+ hours/week may negatively affect school performance o Working long hrs is related to § Being absent from school · To complete homework · Leisure time § Less time on their homework § Slightly lower grades § All factors are inter-related o Part time employment may even increase likelihood of dropping out of school § Very dependent on where a person lives, job opportunities, income

adolescent workplace today

o Job opportunities for after school work are plentiful in the US § Range of available jobs is very limited o Type of job depends on region, gender, or age § Rural regions : agricultural jobs § Among younger tends: babysitting (girls) and yard work (boys) § Among older teens: retail and service jobs · Variation on state laws

Patterns of time use in contemporary America

o Late 70s to early 200s significant decline in the proportion of time devoted to paid jobs & significant increase in time devoted to leisure o Avg. girl reported spending more than 6 hrs. / day and male 7 hrs. / day o Busier adolescents are better adjusted & more accomplished than their classmates § More on there task list to do o In a study of low-income minority youth, some forms of engagement were associated with positive outcomes when combined with a second type of activity (ex: athletics & academics), but negative outcomes if only 1 activity (athletics only) o Difficulty is that there are fewer academics clubs offered as compared to athletics clubs

employment and adolescent development cont.

o Little support for the view that holding a job makes adolescents more responsible § Up in the air some o Some data: adolescents engage in high rates of misconduct § Employers & bosses is main discussions § Lot of factors that contribute socio-economic, treatment o Opportunities to learn how to manage a budget? § Few save income · More likely to spend § Having more income than one can manage maturely · Premature affluence o Drawbacks of most teen jobs § Few permits independent behavior/ decisions making § Little instruction from supervisors · Same activities over and over time · Employer will stick them in same position · Most jobs require short amount of training § Skills learned in school rarely used @ work · Bidirectional · Misfit between job and classes such as calculus/ geometry/ history § Jobs often are repetitive or boring, leading to injury and accidents · Some studies report the most common are adolescents · Do jobs faster to make it interesting

trait theory

o Personality is a set of depositional trait dimensions along which people can differ o No stages o Can development identity through traits

measuring - emotional autonomy

o Teens de-idealize parents (de-idealization of parents) § Happens sooner with mothers than fathers § Perhaps because of fewer father interaction § See them in a new way (not longer on a pedestal) o Teens see parents as people o Adolescents depend on themselves, rather than their parents (no dependency) § Rely on their own emotions o Adolescents feel individuated within the relationship with his/her parents (individuation)

develop of EA

o Two competing hypothesis § Changes in teens appearance provoke changes in how teen views self and how parents view teen; alters parent-adolescent interactions § Social cognitive development stimulate movement toward individuation · Recognize that parents view is one of many

work promotion of problem behavior

o Work & problem behavior § Belief that working deters teens from criminal by keeping them out of trouble · Due to work long hours § Working long hours may be associated with increases in aggression, school misconduct, precocious sexual activity, minor delinquency · Too many hours bad behavior o Differential impact of work depending on the individual person § Middle-class working associated with problem behaviors · Aggression, school misconduct, sexual activity, minor delinquency § Poor youth working may not lead to problem behaviors · Really focus on money to help family · Can't afford to get in trouble @ school or in the job · Responsibilities

adolescent work environment

o adolescents become less likely to work in informal jobs, like babysitting, and more likely to enter the formal labor force o 8th graders babysit a lot o 10th graders other occurs a lot o 12th graders retail workers § Grows over time

school & work in the early 20th century

o fewer adolescents work now as compared to recent years o smaller proportion of adolescents have after school jobs than at any time in recent history

authoritative

parenting style in which the parents include the children in making decisions, have high expectations, yet are supportive and loving

ideal self

representation of who you like to be

detachment theory

says that a person no longer yearns for an emotional connection with another

psychoanalytic theory

says that our behaviors are the result of unconscious desires and experiences that we had as young children

identity crisis

term coined by erik erikson which refers to he person who struggles to seek an integrated sense of self

agency

the sense that one has had an impact one's own world

preconventional level

the tules of society are not internalized; rules are only followed because of external factors

metacognition

thinking about your own thought

moratorium period

time when a person is free of responsibilities and can experiment which different roles

possible selves

various identities an adolescent might imagine for him or herself

actual self

who a person imagines themselves to really be

feared self

who you are afraid to become

puberty & identity development

§ Appearance § Relationships with others

self esteem tends to decrease from childhoot to early adolescence

§ Become more realistic about strengths and weakness § Temporarily unsure of themselves when transitioning to middle school § Unhappy with body changes § Most common among white females

adolescent with high self-esteem

§ Better physical and mental health § Better career and financial prospects § Lower involvement in criminal behavior

cognitive autonomy

§ Developing an independent set of beliefs and principles, resisting peer and parental pressures

emotional autonomy

§ Gaining emotional independence in relationships with others, especially parents § Ex: Transferring emotions from parents to children § Start to pull away § Psychanalytic theory · Physical changes of puberty disrupt family systems · Resurgence of sexual impulses increases family tensions · Freud says that when we are little we have attraction towards the parent of the opposite sex · Puberty reawakens this feeling o Feel good about yourself by being around opposite parents

behavioral autonomy

§ Making independent decisions and following through on them § Decision making abilities improve across adolescents § Older adolescents more likely to · Consider both risks and benefits associated with the decisions they make · Weigh the long term consequences of their choices · The adolescent is focusing on the immediate consequences · The adult is able to focus on longer-term implications of the decisions

Niko Everett

§ Spend time with people who make you feel good § Turn up positive thinking and push back on negative thinking § Tell other people what you like about them § Exercise gratitude for other's compliments § Think about what you admire about yourself

most self esteem emerges from adolescents with high self esteem if ...

§ There are opportunities to feel competent § Experience approval & support from peers, parents § Many not have these opportunities if one doesn't have support from parents

employment & adolescent development - research questions

§ Whether working helps adolescents develop a sense of responsibility § Whether working interferes with other activities, such as school § Whether working promotes the development of undesirable behaviors, such as drug and alcohol use

teen employment in other nations - nonindustrialized societies

§ generally leave schools at the age 15 or 16 § common for adolescents to work for their families § depends on how wealthy they area and if they need all members of the family to contribute § similar to American 100 yrs ago

teen employment in other nations - industrialized societies

§ teen employment varies from country to country · about 50% of students in Canada & Australia; virtually nonexistent in Japan or Korea · western Europe - varies between countries o rare in France, Italy, Spain o common in great Britain, Netherlands, Sweden

false self behavior

· Acting in a way that one knows in inauthentic or fake o Do so when you want to impress someone · Most likely to happen in dating situations · Least likely to happen around close friends

detachement

· Adolescents are driven to separate emotionally from parents; turn to peers o Emotional feedback from peers · Relationships with parents severed · View conflict as normal part of development in adolescents · Process through which adolescents sever emotional attachments to their parents/authority figured · No actually severing just developing their own feelings · Research o Storm & stress of adolescence not supported § Not as bad as we interpret it to be o High levels of adolescent parent tension are not the norm o Parents and adolescents may bicker; however, no significant emotional distance o Research supports a transformation of relationships, not a breaking off or severing o Although this is an increase in bickering, no evidence that closeness decrease in a lasting way

emotional autonomy

· Adolescents mental health is best when their desire for autonomy matches their parents willingness to grant autonomy · Mismatch can make it more likely to increase bickering and restrict autonomy · Healthy individuation and positive mental health are fostered by close, not distant, family relationships o Conditions that encourage both individuation and emotional closeness facilitate autonomy o Authoritative parents § Best to encourage emotional autonomy

when do adolescent makes as well as adults?

· Difficult to determine when adolescents can make legal decisions as well as adult o Society draws the line between children and adults in different places for different things § Access to birth control § Driving § Purchasing alcohol and cigarettes § Tried in adult court

conventional moral reasoning

· Following societal rules and norms · Individual has internalize many moral values · Child conforms to rules to win approval/maintain order o Follow rules because we like how it functions when everyone follows rules · Stage 3: o What is right is what please others · Stage 4: o Doing one's duty and order are valued § Extensions of order or rules to expand § Tell others to follow along § Felt it was duty because you like how order was being followed

develop of BA

· Improved decisions making abilities are likely due to o Decline in the salience of immediate rewards o Improvement in ability to control impulses § Appealing at young ages ; appeal fades as we age § Self-control increase § Long term = rewarding

post-conventional reasoning

· Individual defined what is right in board terms of justice · Difficult level to achieve · Many adults cannot do this · Challenged laws (segregation) bc they violate moral principles · Taking perspective of all individuals · Distinguish between what is moral and legal · Stage 5: o Differs from stage 4 bc this person will call for change in law that violates rights · Stage 6: o Rare o A person is able view a problem from every perspective, regardless of religion or moral beliefs · When presented with a moral dilemma, a person can take the chair of each person/group/social system & find a solution would be just from each chair · Seeing problem from every perspective · Person might perform an action even if it breaks the law

changes in the decisions making

· More sophisticated reasoning leads adolescents to hold multiple viewpoints in mind simultaneously, allowing them to compare different perspectives o Crucial for weighing the opinions and advice of others o Early adolescence: more drawn to the potential benefits of decisions rather than the potential costs o Late adolescence: these factors are weighed evenly · Ability to control impulses also influences decision making

social changes

· Self conception o Self conception is the way individuals think about & characterize themselves (traits and attributes) o During adolescence more complex, abstract self conceptions develop o Collection of traits/attributes that individuals use to describe themselves o Personality is expressed in different ways in different situations - actual/ ideal/fear changes in self-conceptions --> false sense of behavior - self-esteem - a sense of identity - find balance of showing authentic selves but have to find appropriate ways

individuation

· Sharpening (more aware) of an individuals sense of being and autonomous, independent person · Process of individuation begin during infancy · Does not involve stress or turmoil · Acceptance of responsibility for choices & actions o "I made this choice and this what happens"

when do adolescents makes moral decision as well as adults

· The study of moral development includes the study of both o Moral reasoning § How individuals think about moral dilemmas § Researchers assess individuals' moral reasoning by examining their responses to hypothetical dilemmas about difficult, real-world situations o Moral behaviors § How individuals behave in situations that call for moral judgments o Means that people might believe differently then they behave

imagine possible selves

· Various identities an adolescent might imagine for himself

pre-conventional moral reasoning

· Worry about punishment and reward · What will the adult in charge going to think about me and what do I gain o child conforms to rules to avoid punishment/get rewards · Stage 1: child obeys to avoid punishment o may not consider an act wrong if it is punished o can occur as adults as well as speeding tickets · stage 2: child follows rules to gain rewards o ex: a chart for chores · doing this because of rewards and punishments · externalize not internalize

decrease in adolescents student employees in the last 15 years

· recession/ economics o Unemployed adults were hired over teenagers · Technology o Growth of new technologies expanded potential leisure activities · past two deceased educational reformers called for tougher standards in high schools · immigration brough many willing and able adults o willing to work for less / pay under the table o willing to work manual / difficult tasks