PSYC 100 Final Exam Notes (Weeks 13-24)
Why are infant reflexes important? What happens to some of the reflexes as the infant develops and why does that happen?
The presence of strong reflexes is necessary for infant survival and is a good indicator of neural development. Some reflexes that are present at birth are lost or replaced by voluntary behaviours (they are no longer needed because of motor development). First motor milestones begin and continue through life, and they are indications of normal development. --> rooting reflex, sucking reflex, Babinski reflex, tonic neck reflex, moro reflex, eye blink reflex are all necessary for survival and only disappear once child is developed enough to survive without them
How is the rouge test used to show sense of self?
The rouge test is used to reveal sense of self because if the organism being tested is able to recognize that the red dot is on them (not just on some other organism staring back at them), they show that they have a sense of self
What does each layer of the blastocyst become during development?
The trophoblast (outer layer of blastocyst) will become placenta and embryonic tissue. Endoderm develops into digestive system, urinary tract and lungs. Mesoderm transforms into muscle, bone and circulatory system. Ectoderm develops into skin, hair, teeth and central nervous system.
What to adolescents become aware of regarding emotional displays and what are the effect of that awareness? What are the consequences of emotional regulation not developing normally?
Adolescents become aware of the social consequences of public emotional displays. As result, they modulate emotions depending on who they're with. They are more likely to use effective strategies for emotional regulation than younger children do. If emotional regulation does not develop normally, emotional stress could become the trigger for anxiety, depression and conduct disorders
How does sense of self change at around age 8?
At around 8 children become more likely to use knowledge about themselves to evaluate and modify their behaviour and are able to make social comparisons
How do the roles of friendship change throughout life?
At first children define friendship by who they engage in activities with. Then they enter true peer groups, groups that interact regulars, create belonging in their members and have their own norms and hierarchy. Children begin to think about people with whom they have a reciprocal helping relationship, can share feelings and with whom they fit in.
Explain Freud's theory of personality (include explanations of the id, ego, superego, fixation and defence mechanisms). What was the criticism of this theory?
Freud's theory of personality based on conflict between the conscious and unconscious mind and on developmental stages tied to various bodily fluid Id: completely unconscious, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating on pleasure principle and demands immediate gratification Ego: largely conscious, mediates the conflicting demands of the id, superego, and reality. Strives to satisfy the id's desires in appropriate ways that bring pleasure rather than pain. Operates on reality principle Superego: partly conscious partly unconscious. Strives to live up to our internalized ideals and desires to follow the rules and restrictions society places on us. The superego punishes the ego for example creating feeling of shame If stages of psychosexual development are completed successfully the result is a healthy personality but if conflicts are not solved at the appropriate stage fixation will occur Fixation: lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage. Until conflict is resolved individual will remain stuck in this stage. People handle fixations or other unwanted thoughts through defense mechanisms that hide these elements from the ego's awareness (ex. Humour). Not all of the mechanisms suggested are accepted but there is evidence that people can repress unwanted feelings His theories are largely unstable; lacks the parsimony and explanatory power we want to see in theories
When does the embryo become a fetus and when does most of development occur?
From the 9th week until birth it becomes a fetus and from then until birth is when most of development occurs.
How long does it take for the frontal lobe to finish myelination? What effects does late myelination have on adolescents and young adults? What does this process tell us about the behaviour of adolescents and young adults?
Frontal lobe is still going through myelination during adolescence, even at age 20. Late myelination can affect behaviour and experiences of adolescents and adults. This may be why young adults and adolescents have trouble with planning, risky behaviour, intuition and attention
Explain the difference between experience-dependant brain plasticity and experience-expectant brain plasticity.
Experience-dependant plasticity: ability to the nervous system t wire and rewire itself in response to lasting changes in experience Experience-expectant plasticity: development that will not happen unless a particular experience occurs during its critical period
What are examples of theory of mind tests?
False belief problems: Explores how kids think that the knowledge they have, everyone has. Don't understand that someone's perspective can be different than their own. Displacement test: Explores how children reason through a change in location from two different perspectives.
What did animal theory of mind research show?
Findings from theory of mind research with animals showed that animals do have some theory of mind capacity
What is the framing effect and the sunk-cost fallacy?
Framing effect: the effect of wording on judgement and decision making Sunk-cost fallacy: framing effect that occurs when individuals' decisions and/or judgements are based on past investments they have made
What happens in the germinal period of prenatal development?
Sperm and ova become diploid zygote. Morula of blastomeres forms and eventually turns into blastocyst.
Explain how people learn to read
A reader can approach a written text by sounding out (phonetic reading) or reading by sight. Knowledge of morphology can help the reader to break words into smaller units. Reader's vocab also plays a part in comprehending a text (unless a word is in your vocab it might as well be nonsense). Knowledge of the world is essential for interpreting written language in context . Before learning to read people need to be able to map the visual symbol system onto the auditory symbol system
Give an example of language learning in atypical environments. Does it support the nativist or interactionist theory?
A school for deaf children was formed in Nicaragua. This brought together many deaf children, most of whom had never encountered another deaf person in their lives. They made their own deaf language. As younger children entered the school, they rapidly mastered the older students' signs and spontaneously imposed a structure and grammar. The children who entered the school at the youngest ages are now the most fluent speakers. Supports nativist and interactionist theory
What is altruism? How is it linked to survival?
Acts performed primarily for the benefit of another person and at a cost to the person performing the action Early understanding of altruism is related to survival --> the more altruistic you were the more likely you were to survive
How do emotions play a role in social development and communication?
Emotions play a crucial role in social development, serving am important function in communication. We communicate needs through emotional cues and understand other' through their communicative physical cues. Emotion includes physiological responses, cognitive responses, drive, and behaviour.
What are the four different parenting styles? What effects does each have on children?
Authoritative: parents highly demanding of their children and highly responsive to them. They are unlikely to physically discipline their children and will more often explain the reasons behind the rules they have laid out. --> Children tend to be socially competent and self-confident and have the best overall outcome. Do well in school, feel good about themselves and feel supported by their parents. They have better self-regulation and are quicker to adapt to new situations Authoritarian: highly demanding, inflexible about deviations from expected behaviour and less responsive to their children's needs. Tend to discipline using threats and punishment and are much more likely to use physical discipline. --> Children may be unhappy and lack social competence. They conform well to standards and expectations of adults but lack self-confidence. They may be unsure of themselves in social situations and look for the guidance pf authority figures when faced with moral issues. Use of physical discipline is associated with anxiety and increased aggressive behaviour in children. Rejecting-neglectful: parents are disengaged from their children and are neither demanding nor responsive to them. They do not set limits for their children, do not monitor their activities and may actively discourage them. --> Children may have lower perceptions of themselves and are less competent. May be antisocial and lack self-regulation and are prone to substance abuse. More likely to internalize their problems leading to depression and social difficulties and are more likely to engage in risky sexual behaviours. Permissive: parents place very few demands in their children but are highly responsive to them. They believe children learn best on their own without structure imposed on them by adults. --> Children of permissive parents often have di
What is autobiographical memory?
Autobiographical memory: memory for specific experiences that make up a person's life; influences development of self-concept
What is the availability heuristic? What are issues that occur because of it (base-rate fallacy, conjunction fallacy, false-consensus effect)?
Availability Heuristic: tendency to estimate how frequently something occurs based on the ease with which examples come to mind False-Consensus Effect: tendency for a person to overestimate the number of people who share their beliefs and behaviours. Base-rate fallacy: tendency to ignore general info about the frequency of events in favour of specific salient info such that rare events are overestimated Conjunction fallacy: belief that multiple specific conditions are more likely than a single one
Explain social learning theory
Behaviour, environment, and cognition are the key factors in development (kids will copy what others do)
What is empathy?
Being able to understand and share the feelings of others
When do children start being able to regulate their emotions?
Between 3 and 6 children becomes more effective at regulating emotional states
Explain the ecological systems model
Bronfenbrenner's model is made up of five types of systems at different levels. The microsystem (level 1) consists of you and your relationships with those in your immediate surroundings, such as family, teachers, and peers. The mesosystem (level 2) is made up of connections between different relationships you have within your microsystem. The exosystem (level 3) refers to those settings that you might not directly experience but remain influenced by. The macrosystem (level 4) refers to the larger social constructs that shape your environment in less-direct ways. The chronosystem (level 5) encompasses those historical changes that influence development and those systems that surround us. The chronosystem also refers to the way in which you take a greater role in the course of your development as you age.
How does language increase sense of self?
Children begin to describe themselves and in the beginning these descriptions are positive in nature.
Explain theory theory
Children form coherent and abstract models about the ways in which the world function and then actively experiment to test and revise their models. They form hypotheses about the world and test by observing the world and effects of their actions. They then use that to draw conclusions about the hypotheses and revise accordingly.
How do children learn appropriate and inappropriate behaviour?
Children learn appropriate and inappropriate behaviours when people teach them and the way it is taught is important
Explain the social, cognitive and cultural influence on self-concept
Cognitive: different parenting styles in different cultures can affect the time at which an infant can pass the rouge test Social: different stages of life present different stage of self-concept Cultural: some cultures put more importance on individuals while some focus more on group
When is executive functioning mastered in human development? What does this tell us about the behaviour of adolescents?
Executive function is the last to be mastered in human development. Lack of maturity in brain regions governing executive function may provide some explanation for reckless/impulsive behaviour of adolescents.
What are factors that contribute to development of theory of mind?
Executive functioning: Ability to control impulses, plan complex actions, foresee consequences, use working memory Richer social environments promote theory of mind development (ex. Having siblings around, pretend play)
What is the sequence of language development milestones? List and describe each.
Cooing: begins at 8-10 weeks. First speech like sound. Babbling: occurs around 7 months. Begin to mix vowel and consonant sounds. As they become better babblers their speech takes on more of the sounds, intonations and rhythms of the language spoken around them. Single word stage: most infants will produce their first discernable word by 10 and 15 months. Over and underextend words. Two-word stage: Speech is telegraphic (only essential words in a logical order). By 18 months they should have a vocab of about 50 words and will have a vocab spurt.
What is deviation IQ?
Deviation IQ: A procedure for computing the IQ; compares an individual's score with those received by other individuals of the same chronological age.
What are the different types of baby temperament?
Easy (40%), difficult (10%), slow to warm (15%), or doesn't fit into one of those categories (35%)
What are the three cortical network-level attributes that appear to underlie differences in intelligence?
Efficient use of neural resources High synchronization between cortical centres Adaptation of cortical networks in the face of changing demands
When does the embryonic period start and what happens during it? Explain neurulation and neural migration.
Embryonic period begins after blastocyst implants in uterine wall. Embryo develops the neural tube which develops into the brain and spinal cord (neurulation). Neural migration is the process through which neurons move, grow, and connect as the neural tube develops into a mature brain.
What is the adaptive significance of altruism and aggression?
In hunter gatherer societies, one needed to balance group interests with self-interest. Those who were more altruistic were more likely to survive. Aggression also likely had an evolutionary basis (especially for men who in modern day show more physical aggression).
What is gender identity and how and when do children start to form it?
Gender identity is how one identifies (not necessarily their biological sex) Between two and three most children learn to correctly identify their own biological sex and that of others which is part of forming gender identity
Explain when recognition of gender roles begins and how they affect children
Gender recognition begins in first years of life, very young children begin to understand these roles and a belief in gender stereotypes. It is common for gender roles to first be placed on young children by parents and common for parents to give them "gender appropriate" toys. As well some parents provide positive or negative responses to gender appropriate and inappropriate play and those children display more gender specific behaviour than those of parents who don't. Children are continually treated in subtly different ways in line with cultural gender stereotypes
What is "g"?
General intelligence (book smarts), part of Spearman's two-factor theory
What are the characteristics of a good theory?
Generalizability --> it can be applied to the greater community Reliability --> it is stable across observations and times, it is objective, and it is verifiable (others can run the same study and get the same results) Validity --> measures what is claims to measure and is not biased
Explain genes and environment in relation to intelligence. Explain gene-environment covariation and what supports that idea. Explain the differences between shared and unshared environment.
Genetic differences are responsible for at least 50% of the differences in IQ and educational achievement in a population. These genetic effects increase with age from about 40% in childhood to 70% in adulthood. As we grow into adulthood and make more choices about our lives, our genotype better predicts our phenotype. We choose unique environments that suit us as individuals. Gene-environment covariation: when exposure to environmental conditions extroverted characteristics might seek out a job that requires a lot of interaction with other people. --> For any individual, inheritance is a much more powerful predictor than environment, but environment does influence results of intelligence testing. The idea that both genes and environment effect intelligence is supported by twin studies Shared environment effects are things shared between individuals in similar environments that would affect their intelligence (ex. Shared economic status) and unshared effects are things that vary even though they are in similar environments (ex. One is vegetarian)
What happens to the grasping reflex?
Grasping is a reflex until 3 months when it is replaced by intentional grasping. At 7 months infants can make smooth and intentional reaches.
Explain Piaget's theory of cognitive development and explain what happens at each stage. Explain why this theory was criticized.
Humans' intellectual or reasoning abilities develop through a series of four stages that roughly map onto key ages. Emphasized importance between environmental and maturational factors in development. Children of similar ages make similar errors in problem-solving tasks and all typically developing children go through the same sequence of developmental stages. Sensorimotor stage: from birth to 2 years, infants build and understanding of their environment primarily though sensory and motor abilities. Many reflexes are replaced with voluntary behaviour. After 8 months they learn object permanence. Preoperational stage: lasts approx. 2 to 6/7 years old. To reach this stage children must be able to hold representations in mind over time. They are unable to perform operations. Children in this stage are ego-centric. Concrete operational stage: 7-11/12 years of age, transition intro adolescence. They master conservation and growth in ability to understand feelings and thoughts of others and begin to understand logical problem solving but use of logic is still challenging Formal operational stage: end of concrete operational until adulthood. Person gains ability to think about abstract concepts and formulate and test hypotheses in a logical and scientific fashion Was criticized for not accounting for variability in child development, vagueness, and modern research has shown that kids have more cognitive abilities than he thought
Explain what causes sex to become more pronounced in adolescence.
Hypothalamus starts secreting hormones that stimulate the gonads to mature further and for sex hormones to be produced. Maturation and hormone secretions causes rapid development of sex organs. Testes and ovaries produce hormones (testosterone and estrogen). In females, estrogen and other female hormones promote growth of breasts and hips and maturation of uterus and vagina. Female production of testosterone will induce physical growth and pubic hair. In males, testosterone promotes growth of pubic hair and development of more muscle than females. Male heart and lungs grow, leading to higher level of endurance.
What are some controversies surrounding intelligence testing?
IQ tests have been used to support racist claims. These tests themselves can be racially biased. They may be used to discriminate in the workplace. Many jobs choose those with high IQs even though intelligence isn't the only thing that determines occupational success
How does sense of self change around adolescence? Explain the idea of imaginary audience.
In adolescence children are quite concerned with how other's perceive them but this fades with age as a stronger sense of self develops Imaginary audience: adolescent thought process in which they believe they are constantly on a stage and everyone is watching them, attending to their every move and mistake
What is consistent in the evolutionary success of individuals in social species?
In every social species, the individuals with the greatest ability to outsmart their competition will be most likely to survive and mate
What is inductive discipline?
Involves highlighting to the child the consequences of their actions on others while disciplining him or her. Has been found to encourage development of feelings of empathy and guilt and to increase levels of pro-social behaviour in children
What is ratio IQ?
Ratio IQ (Stanford-Binet): Compares the mental age on an IQ score to the chronological age. One problem with ratio IQ is that although a person's mental age eventually stops, their chronological age increases until death. This changes the denominator, so the ratio IQ decreases with age (a 20-year-old with the mental age of a 30-year-old has a higher IQ than an 80-year-old with the mental age of a 30-year-old).
Explain the interactionist theory in regards to language acquisition, word learning and grammatical development
Language acquisition: Language development results from interaction among multiple biological and social influences. Language is a social process. Word learning: children have a drive to communicate so once they understand that words stand for symbols of real things they will learn as many as possible Grammatical development: grammar is a system of organizing and simplifying an extremely complex system rather than a disposition we're born with. There is a correlation between size of vocab and complexity of grammatical phrases someone can use.
Explain the nativist theory (Noam Chomsky) in regards to language acquisition, word learning and grammatical development
Language acquisition: we are born with the knowledge of language already present, so no learning is involved in early language acquisition. Word learning and grammatical development: Children require exposure to words for linguistic growth.
How is personality effected by genes and environment?
Like intelligence and other hereditary factors, personality is affected by the interaction between genetics and environment. Although our traits remain fairly consistent over time, we also behave according to our social norms and environmental cues. We can't easily separate genetics from environment when it comes to personality development.
What are heuristics?
Mental shortcuts based on experience that allow us to think in fast and make efficient judgements and decisions
Explain core knowledge theory
Modern theory that says that infants and younger children have much more sophisticated set of cognitive tools than older theories acknowledge. From birth the brain has mechanisms that predispose humans to learn specific skills quickly and to understand certain phenomena in certain ways. Infants who have really early cognitive propensities are more likely or survive --> through evolution this was passed on.
How does observational learning play a role in social development?
Much of what we learn about how to exist in our social world is through observing and imitating others. In early life, caregivers and parents dominate the social world but as we enter school, social influences expand to teachers and friends. By adolescence our social sphere is large, and we learn mostly from friends.
What are the four things a good IQ test must have? Define each factor.
Norming: process of gathering data concerning comparison groups that permit an individuals score to be assessed relative to his or her peers Standardization: determining typical performance on a test Reliability: a characteristic of a measure that provides consistent and stable answers across multiple observations and points in time Validity: the degree to which the instrument or procedure actually measures what it claims to measure
Explain the 5 factor model of personality (OCEAN)
Openness to experience: willing to participate in new experiences, has a wide set of interests, creative/imaginative Conscientiousness: describes how organized, methodical, disciplined and motivated one is Extraversion: describes how talkative, outgoing and assertive one is Agreeableness: describes how kind, sympathetic and affectionate one is Neuroticism: describes the extent to which one is anxious and tense. Someone who is described as high on this factor tends to exhibit anxiety
Why are peer relationships important? How are they evolutionarily helpful?
Peer relationships may be the most important socializing factor in development They are evolutionarily helpful because having friends protects from victimization, having strong and supportive friends can prevent children from experiencing the negative effects on self-perception that normally accompany problems with parents, and having trust in friends increases self-esteem and lessens likelihood of depression and loneliness
Explain each stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development and why the theory is problematic
Preconventional stage: preschool to 8 years, reasoning based on self interest and punishment avoidance, fairness is key when evaluating morals Conventional stage: 10 - adolescence, see others' perspectives, concern of being seen as good, concerned with good of society and follows rules and morals Post conventional: adulthood, recognize that people hold various ideas, choose personal ethical principles, grapple with "why" (may be spiritual). Not everyone gets to this stage. Theory is problematic because only refers to men so doesn't really work to explain behaviour of most people
What is prosocial behaviour?
Prosocial behaviour: includes helping, cooperation, comforting, and other behaviours that are primarily beneficial to someone else --> people do this because of empathy Some children start with aggression and it progresses throughout a lifetime. Environments shape how aggression and altruism develop
What is personality?
Personality is a pattern of thinking and interacting that is unique to each individual and remains relatively consistent over time and across situations
How is personality measured? Evaluate various types of personality tests and what makes a good test.
Personality is measured through tests. A good personality test is standardized, valid and reliable. Objective tests are the MMPI-2, NEO, NEO-PI-3 (based on 5 factor model) --> 5 factor model is currently the best way to measure personality Projective tests are inkblots which remains controversial Other personality tests like Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator and Thematic Apperception Test are controversial b/c not super reliable or valid without a great scoring system
How does pretend play help cognitive, physical and social development? How is it linked to evolutionary survival?
Play among children is part of typical development and is important for cognitive, physical, and social development. When children play with others it teaches them how to function effectively in groups, to share, socialize and resolve conflict with others Organisms with complex behaviours experience an extended period of immaturity (like human children). Since play happens during this time, it may be evolutionarily important to survival. They can practice skills promoted with survival in a safe environment
Explain punishment as a rule enforcer and how it compares to inductive discipline.
Punishment is an effective method of rule enforcement and causes an immediate behaviour change but unlike inductive discipline it doesn't necessarily teach children to behave appropriately in the long term
Explain Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and how it differs from Piaget's theory
Put more emphasis on social environment whereas Piaget focuses more on physical environment. Intersubjectivity encompasses joint attention (ability to share attention with another towards the same object/subject) and social referring (tendency of a person to look to another in an ambiguous situation to obtain clarifying info)
What is the representativeness heuristic?
Representativeness heuristic: occurs when a person wishes to determine the probability that an object or person belongs to a specific category. It is the tendency to ignore base rates and judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the extent to which it resembles the typical case
What are the four types of attachment?
Secure attachment: react positively to strangers while caregiver is present but is unhappy when caregiver leaves. Unlikely to be comforted by the stranger in the caregiver's absence but become calm when caregiver returns. Demonstrate "secure base" behaviour, freely exploring while using their caregiver as a base Insecure-resistant: uncomfortable in the strange situation; stay close to caregiver from the start, nervous throughout. Upset when their caregiver leaves but not comforted when they return. Seek contact and comfort upon the caregiver's return, crying and struggling against being held. Do not resume play but stay close to caregiver and watch them. Disorganized/disoriented: do not react to strange situation in any standard way. Behaviour is often contradictory; may scream while caregiver is gone but silently avoids them when they return or approach the caregiver without looking at them. These infants appear to seem to want to approach the caregiver while simultaneously fearing caregiver's reaction Insecure-avoidant: do not have solid or positive relationship with caregiver. Either pay no attention to or avoid their caregiver entirely during strange situation. They may not be upset, they are equally comforted by stranger. Unlikely to respond positively to caregiver's return and may avoid them entirely.
What are the three key properties of human language? Explain them.
Semanticity: the extent to which a form of communication can meaningfully represent ideas, events, and objects symbolically. Most words are symbols that have arbitrary sounds Generativity: we can express any given idea in numerous ways. Form of communication can be considered "language" if it has generativity. Displacement: ability to use language to convey messages that are not tied to the immediate context but instead communicate info about events in past, future, or another location.
What are precursors to theory of mind?
Sense of self as separate from others, executive functioning, intersubjectivity - ability to share a focus of attention with others, and lying (although poorly)
What is attachment?
Social and emotional bond between infant and caregiver that spans both time and space
Can different parenting styles have different outcomes on the same genes?
Some infants are predisposed to things because of genes but parenting affects the genes through change of environment. Different parenting styles can have different outcomes on the same genes.
What is factor analysis?
Some responses to certain items correlate or cluster
Explain Erikson's psychosocial development theory
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust - Birth to 12 months of age Infants at this age rely totally on others to look after their well-being. If their needs are met, infants learn to trust their caregivers, and if not, they learn mistrust. Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Self-Doubt - 1 to 3 years old Children's ability to interact with and understand the world increases dramatically. Children will gain either a sense of autonomy during this time, or, if their exploration is too often met with punishment or excessive scrutiny by overbearing parents, a sense of shame and doubt in themselves. Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt - 3-4 to 5-6 years old Now that children have begun to achieve control over their actions, they begin to set goals for themselves. A positive resolution to the setting of goals is learning a feeling of confidence about their ability to meet their own goals, while a negative outcome leads to feelings of guilt and an inability to control one's future. Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority - 5-6 years old until onset of adolescence This time in a child's life is marked by a transition to a more structured lifestyle, beginning school and perhaps getting new chores or becoming involved in organized sports. Children will either learn to adapt to this structure and feel a sense of accomplishment in succeeding, or through their inability to do so, gain a feeling of inferiority. Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion - Adolescence to early adulthood Adolescence is a period of important changes that are crucial to the formation of the adult self. During this stage, people either form opinions about what they believe themselves to be and develop a concrete sense of identity or they fail to do so and remain confused about their role in life. Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation - Early Adulthood During this stage, people learn to
What are stem cells and what is epigenetic modification?
Stem cells are cells that have the same DNA as all other cells but are yet to undergo epigenetic modification. All morula cells are stem cells. Once they are the blastocyst they begin to differentiate. In epigenetic modification some genes are turned on and other turned off which leads to differential manufacture, or expression, or proteins and eventually different cellular properties and functions.
What is categorical perception? What is the difference between auditory and speech perception?
Tendency of perceivers to disregard physical differences between stimuli and perceive them as the same, such that a continuous change in a physical attribute is perceived not as continuous but as a discrete change at a category boundary. Auditory categorical perception depends on your ability to ignore acoustic variability in speech sounds that is irrelevant in your language, while making use of meaningful variability to distinguish phonemes Speech perception "system" highlights phonemic contrasts that are used in the language you speak and minimizes contrasts that aren't meaningful. This allows perceptual system to dismiss or ignore meaningless variability in speech
What causes deviation from typical development?
Teratogens: external agents that cause extreme deviations from typical development if introduced to the developing organisms (ex. Tobacco, alcohol, drugs, etc.). Maternal stress and poor nutrition can lead to low birth weight.
What is emotional self-regulation?
The ability to initiate, suppress, or modulate the components of emotion. Develops slowly and as a result of experience. At infancy this ability is limited.
What is theory of mind? Why is it important?
The ability to reason about what other people might know or believe and how those beliefs and knowledge will relate to their actions. Also encompasses the ability to understand difference in visual, philosophical or experiential perspectives among people, and to understand difference in motives, goals or desires. Develops at around age 4. Important in developing empathy.
What is effortful control?
The ability to regulate one's responses to external stimuli, it is the ability to inhibit an automatic response and substitute a planned or intentional response instead
What is sexual dimorphism?
The condition in which two binary sexes of the same species exhibit different characteristics beyond the difference in their reproductive organs/genitals. Cognitive differences between males and females that are biological in nature. Males and females produce different hormones that can affect their behaviour and cognition. Also found in aggressive behaviours.
What is myelination?
The development of the myelin sheath around the axons of neurons. The sheath insulates neurons from each other and increase the speed at which neurons transmit info. This starts before birth and doesn't finish until early adulthood
What are the benefits of having secure attachment?
Those with secure attachments enjoy a higher quality of relationships and experience more positive daily emotional experiences and fewer negative ones
What does under and overextension and overgeneralization tell us about language learning?
Under and overextension and overgeneralization tell us that language learning is a process that occurs over time. As more experience and feedback is gained the language they use becomes more complex and specific.
What is the relationship between selfhood, theory of mind, and moral development?
Without selfhood it is much harder to have theory of mind because if you can evaluate yourself and know yourself, it will be hard to know what other people are thinking. Theory of mind leads to moral development because it allows you to understand others thoughts and therefore be more empathetic towards them . It also helps you understand different laws and rules that are in place, and allows you to work more morally. For full moral development, you develop your own set of morals, which can only be done if you have a sense of selfhood
What is anchoring?
a bias produced when a reference or starting point is provided for a judgement. The problem is often the adjustment the person makes is insufficient and remains biased towards the initial anchor.
How do we recognize speech?
by relying on experience with language and our knowledge of pragmatics
What is intelligence?
consists of a person's ability to use neural resources efficiently, synchronize his or her cortical centres, and adapt to change.
What is syntax?
determines how we combine words to form phrases and sentences to obtain the meaning we wish to convey
What is cleavage?
division of cells in early embryo to form blastomeres
What is synaptic pruning?
facilitates a change in neural structure by reducing the overall number of synapses leaving more efficient synaptic configurations
What are articulators?
mouth structures that make speech sounds (jaw, tongue, lips, soft palate)
What does one need to do in order to understand what someone is saying?
one needs to recognize phonemes, identify words and associate them to meanings, analyze syntax and interpret the utterance in context
What is synaptogenesis?
process through which new synapses are formed between neurons. This happens at an extremely rapid rate prenatally and it continues in the first year of birth
What are pragmatics (referring to language)?
refers to knowledge of the world as it relates to understanding and using language. Has to do with social communicative aspect of language.
What are semantics?
refers to the meaning of words and the rules that govern those meanings. Can be crucial for comprehension.
What is a morula?
solid mass of blastomeres resulting from a number of zygote cleavages
What is confirmation bias?
the process by which people interpret, seek and create info that confirms already held beliefs
What is a morpheme?
the smallest unit of meaning, either free or bound
What is a phoneme?
the smallest unit of speech
