PSYC 315 Final Exam
Describe how can circadian rhythms be studied in the laboratory
Running wheel in mouse cage—change lights-see activity of mouse
Compare and contrast Scones, M cones, and L cones
S: 420 nm peak sensitivity M: 530 nm L: 560 nm 2x as many M and L (explain why acuity is much lower at short wavelength) most ganglion and LGN cells are spectrall opponent cells so they are excited in response to some wavelengths and inibited by others (ex. +M/-L)
3. The _______ is the site at which the action potential is initiated.
axon hillock
Describe the major forms of deafness and how hearing can be restored
conduction: middle ear problem that blocks sound vibrations from reaching the inner ear-when ossicles fuse together sensorineural: problem with the structures (esp the cochlea) that convert sound vibrations int neural activity and project to the brain; exposure to extremely loud sounds central: damage to auditory structures can affect hearing in various ways like word deafness or cortical deafness
7. _______ specifically blocks the release of ACh from axon terminals at the injection site.
botox
9. Discuss the specialized support systems present in the nervous system that are designed to protect and nourish the brain.
brain floats within layers of membranes: 3 protective layers called meninges (dura mater (tough)-arachnoid (webby)--pia mater (delicate)); then cerebrospinal fluid
10. The region that appears to be responsible for activating wakefulness is known as the _______.
brainstem
13. Studies have shown a correlation between higher rates of _______ and spending too much time indoors.
depression
8. Bipolar disorder is characterized by repeated fluctuations of episodes of _______ and _______.
depression; mania
4. The band of the skin that is innervated by a single spinal nerve is called a(n) _______.
dermatome
8. A hearing impairment that arises from problems with the middle ear is called _______ deafness.
conduction
Describe the differences between the dorsal stream and the ventral stream
dorsal: where path-vision for movement and location ventral: what path-vision for recognition of objects and faces
Explain why men are more likely to be colorblind than women
gene is on the x chromosome and men only have one x so if they get the colorblind gene from the mother, then they have no other chromosome to "save" it and they are colorblind
11. LTP in the hippocampal formation depends on the excitatory neurotransmitter _______.
glutamate
3. Inner hair cells release the neurotransmitter _______, and outer hair cells release the neurotransmitter _______.
glutamate; GABA
9. The body stores glucose for later use after first converting it to a more complex form called _______.
glycogen
13. Loss of consciousness and intense bursts of synchronized EEG are characteristic of _______ seizures.
grand mal
6. What is the function of the basal ganglia, and what structures comprise this system?
it is a group of forebrain nuclei including caudate nucleus, globulus pallidus, and putamen--crucial role in movement
7. What is the function of the limbic system, and what structures comprise this system?
it is a loosely defined group of brain nuclei that innervate each other and form a network
Explain the idea of a cognitive map
it is a mental representation of the relative spatial organization of objects and information -mammals use this to understand a maze
3. A(n) _______ solution is a solution with the same concentration as physiological saline.
isotonic
3. In the testes, _______ cells produce testosterone, and _______ cells produce sperm.
leydig, sertoli
8. Any substance that binds to a receptor is known as a(n) _______.
ligand
Describe how the eye focuses light on the retina
light travels and bends when it reaches the cornea, then further refracted by the lens which changes its shape to fine tune image (shape change controlled by cilliary muscles)
Neuron doctrine v reticular theory:
neuron doctrine: The brain is composed of independent cells. Information is transmitted from cell to cell across synapses (ramon y cajal). reticular Theory: verything in the nervous system, such as brain, is a single continuous network. (golgi)
4. The field of study concerned with the immune system and its interaction with the nervous system and behavior is called _______.
psychoneuroimmunology
8. Discuss the functional and anatomical distinctions between the pyramidal and extrapyramidal systems.
pyramidal: motor system that includes neurons within the cerebral cortex and their axons which form the pyramidal tract extrapyramidal: includes the basal ganglia, and some closely related brainstem structures-they pass into the spinal cord outside the pyramids of the medulla
2. The _______ of a sensory neuron is the stimulus region that causes the cell to alter its firing rate.
receptive field
2. Pituitary hormones that induce cells to release their hormones are collectively known as _______ hormones.
releasing
Explain what the case of H.M. taught us about memory
(he had anterpgrade amnesia after getting surgery to stop epilepsy by removing amygdala, most of hipocampus and surrounding temporal lobe) -showed us that short term memory and long term memory were distinct -showed distinction between declarative (he lost this type) and nondeclarative memory (he still had this memory
4. Two _______ opioids are_______-enkephalin and leu-enkephalin.
endogenous; met
Describe the process of synapse rearrangement - including where it happens, and possible reasons why it happens
--this is the loss of some synapses and the development of others -takes place after the period of cell death --neural activity helps decide which cells remain or are lost
Explain how gonadal steroid hormones activate sexual behavior
-Although androgens-esp. testosterone- are important for normal male sexual function, individual differences in sexual activity are not determined by androgens—only need a little to return to normal-drive must differ -Only correct estrogen and progesterone combos will result in copulatory behaviors—activational effects;
Describe the different patterns of sexual differentiation that lead to syndromes such as CAH and AIS
-CAH: developing girls exposed to androgen before birth—adrenal glands produce more androgens-intersex-intermediate phallus—no testes, -AIS: XY has bad androgen receptor—so develop normal testes with normal AMH but wolffian does not develop and external is labia and clitoris—but at puberty—have breasts but no ovulation
3. Visual acuity is best in the region of the retina called the _______.
fovea
Explain the influence of hormones and other factors on sexual orientation
-Fraternal birth order effect -Heritable -POA is largest in males>homosexual males>females -Lesbians were exposed to slightly more androgen in fetus than heterosexual females
How did Berthold's experiment reveal the effects of hormones on behavior?
-He removed testes from normal position then re-implanted them elsewhere in abdomen, disconnected from normal innervation -Animals with re-implanted testes grew up to look much like normal males—so Berthold realized there must be a signal that has widespread effects (if removed completely, had neither appearance or behavior of male) -Lucky because if he waited until they were adults, there would be little effect
Describe how the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary regulate gonadal hormones
-Hypothalamic releasing hormones govern anterior pituitary -Anterior release tropic hormones that act on different gonads; to regulate the release of tropic hormones, the hypo uses releasing hormones that are released from axons that terminate on hypothalamic pituitary portal system -release into local blood stream to anterior pituitary and control release of general circulation of tropic hormones -Hypo-releasing hormone system exerts high level control over endocrine organs throughout the body, translating brain activity to endocrine activity
Describe the neural and hormonal mechanisms of ring dove courtship behavior
-Male ringdove sees attractive female, retina causes neural to neural transmission of info; males perception of available mate activates neural to endocrine link as neuroendocrine cells in hypo secrete GnRH into hypo pituitary portal system-then pituitary mediates endo to endo signal releasing gonadotropin (LH and FSH)—inducing the release of testosterone—then testosterone uses endo-neural link altering excitability of some brain neurons and causing the male to do courtship behaviors like bowing coos—then female dove responds to display providing new stimulation and further neural to neural
Explain how hormones can have many different effects on different parts of the body
-Often more than one receptor responds to a hormone, or sometimes same receptor for same signal are diff because target cell responds differently
Describe how exposure to androgens early in life can masculinize the brain and spinal cord of rats
-Organizational effect-sensitive period-single steroid signal diffuse through all tissues masculinizing brain and body and behavior • Normal: mount female and do not do lordosis even when given female hormones • Untreated female-show lordosis and do not show male mounting even if exposed to testosterone • Female treated early with test—show little to n lordosis and given testosterone-will mount other females • Male castrated—demasculinzed as adults-little copulatory behavior etc. and are feminized • Sexual dimorphism of rats • SDN-POA- is more evident in males than females; spinal nucleus of bulbocavernous (SNB) males have 200 and females have far fewer—muscles innervated for penis to create more • Onufs nucleus-restrict vaginal opening but also penile movement
Explain why it is difficult to distinguish between social and biological influences on sexual differentiation
-Originally subtle sexual differences might be magnified by social experience especially early in life -Rat licking more males than females—fewer SNB for males not licked
Compare and contrast the mechanism of action for protein/amine hormones and steroid hormones
-Peptide: string of amino acids; (ACTH, FSH, LH); Amine: smaller and simpler, more just adaptations of a single amino acid (adrenaline, Norep)-surface of cell binding-highly specific -pretty rapid -Steroid: derivative of cholesterol-carbon rings-can pass through membrane (estrogen, androgens, cortisol etc); receptors inside cell; slower than the others
Describe the neural and hormonal mechanisms of the milk letdown reflex
-Posterior pituitary-does not itself produce hormones—they are produced in supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei and transport them down axons to pituitary and when they are activated they'll release into local blood stream through action potentials -Hypo produce and release oxytocin and vasopressin -Milk letdown—contract mammalian breast ducts -stim of mother nipple to infant produces brain activity—stimulates hypothalamus cells to release oxytocin from posterior pituitary—oxytocin causes the cells of mammary glands to contract releasing mil-then baby rewarded with milk keeps suckling -Involved in pair bonds-oxytocin infusion helps with these bonds
Describe the four stages of reproductive behavior
-Sexual attraction-animals emit stimuli to attract opposite sex -Appetitive behavior: helps establish or maintain sexual behavior, including proceptive behavior (state where female advertises its readiness to mate through species -Copulation: the sexual act -Postcopulatory behavior: include rolling in cat or grooming in rat; -Coolidge effect: will resume mating sooner if provided new partner-men -No refractory period
Describe the neural circuitry needed for classical conditioning
-cerebellum needs to function well because it combines the reflex activity with the unconditioned stimulus
Describe potential treatments for amblyopia
-surgically readjust balance of eyes -put eye patch over good eye -
Explain how sound localization works
1. intensity differences-diffs in loudness at the 2 ears 2. latency differences- difference in tie of arrival ; onset and ongoing phase disparity a high freq-use sound shadow structure of ear-spectral filtering
4. Outline the pathway of pain from the nociceptor to the cingulate cortex.
1. A delta or C fibers 2. axons of dorsal horn neurons cross the midline and ascend the spinal cord in anterolateral quadrant 3. pain info is provided to various brainstem sites which control pain related behavior like vocalization 4. pain info is distributed to many thalamic and cortical areas 5. cingulate cortex is especially activated
9. What are hallucinogens? List at least two and the transmitter systems they affect.
1. LSD-5HT2 receptors that are esp concentrated in visual cortex 2. MDMA-5HT2 but also changes dopamine levels
7. What are the three classes of antidepressant medications, and how do they alter transmitter function?
1. MAOI-block enzyme that degrades monoamines like dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine 2. tricyclic-block reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine 3. SSRI-act specifically at serotonergic synapses
Explain how we discriminate differences in light across different levels of illumination
1. adjusting pupil size to let in more or less light 2. range fractionation: the meass by which sensory systems cover a wide range of intensity values, as each sensory receptor cell specializses in just one part of the overall range of intensities 3. photoreceptor adaptation: the tendency of rods and cones to adjust their light sensitivity to match current levels of illumination
9. Summarize at least four pharmacological therapies that have been proposed as treatments for drug dependency, noting the mode of action of each.
1. benzodiazepines to reduce unpleasant withdrawal 2. providing alternative to addictive drug-nicotine patches 3. directly blocking actions of drug: narcan blocks heroin actions 4. block brains reward center-antabuse
6. What are two ways that drugs can affect neurotransmitter postsynaptic receptors?
1. effect receptors (blockade or activation) 2. effect cellular receptors (alteration of number of receptors) (modulation of second messengers)
6. Describe the mechanisms of the nervous system that function to modulate pain perception.
1. endogenous opioids -esp in periaqueductal gray
the four interacting neural systems that underlie sleep
1. forebrain-SWS 2. brainstem-activates sleeping brain into wakefulness 3. pontine system that triggers REM sleep 4. hypothalamic system that coordinates the other 3 systems to determine which state we're in
1. Name four sensory receptors found in the skin and identify the stimuli to which each is sensitive.
1. free nerve endings: pain/temp 2. merkel's disc (touch)-edges 3. meissner's corpuscle (touch)-fast acting 4. hair follicle receptor (touch) 5. pacinian corpuscle (vibration and pressure) 6. ruffini copruscle (stretch)
8. Discuss the four perspectives developed to explain substance abuse.
1. moral model: result of weakness of character 2. disease model: requires medical treatment 3. physical dependence: to avoid withdrawal 4. positive reward: powerful reinforcements
Describe how learning changes synaptic structure and function
1. more transmitter release 2. postsynaptic membrane becomes larger and/or more sensitive to transmitter 3. synapse enlarges pre and post synaptically 4. shift in synaptic input 5. new synapses formed
Describe the cellular developmental process
1. neurogenesis 2. cell migration 3. cell differentiation 4. synaptogenesis 5. neuronal cell detah 6. synapse rearrangement
4. What are glial cells? Name the four types of glial cells, and describe a function for each one.
1. oligodendrocytes: forms myselin in CNS 2. Schwann Cells: form myelin in PNS 3. astrocytes: numerous processes that run in all directions, control blood flow, form tough outer membrane and modulate neural activity 4. microglial cells: contain and clean up sites of injury and maintain synapse
5. Identify three ways drugs can affect presynaptic transmitter release (Note: focus on transmitter release, not transmitter production or clearance).
1. prevention of synaptic transmission-block Na+ channels 2. alteration of synaptic transmission release-calcium channel blockers 3. modulationof transmitter release by presynaptic receptors: caffeine competes and prevents release of adenosine
Describe the different stages of memory
1. sensory buffer (encoding) 2. short term memory/ working memory (consolidation/performance) 3. Long term memory (retrieval *at any stage info may be forgotten
4. Describe the three major research designs employed by researchers in biological psychology and provide an example of each.
1. somatic intervention: manipulating the body might affect behavior (ex. administer hormone may increase mating behavior) 2. behavioral/enviro intervention: experience affects the body (ex. put male in presence of female and track changes in hormone levels) 3. correlation (compare somatic variables like brain size with behavioral variables like learning scores)
somatosensory path
1. touch receptors detect stimulation and send action potentials along axons that enter the dorsal spinal cord 2. after entering spinal cord via dorsal root, the axon joins dorsal column of white matter and ascends to the brain 3. in medulla, axon from periphery makes its first synapse, innervating a medullary neuron that sends its axon across the midline, to terminate in the thalamus 4. at this point the thalamus will be receiving info about the right side of the body. the thalamus will in turn send this info to the somatosensory cortex
7. Explain how motoneurons cause muscles to contract.
1. weight is dropped onto hand which stretches biceps muscle 2. stretc excited the muscle spindle which sends axons to dorsal spinal cord 3. action potentials synapse onto motor neurons i the spinal cord that cause the biceps to contract restoring the arm to its original position 4. muscle spindle also excited interneurons that inhibit triceps motoneurons, causing the triceps to relax when biceps contract
12. Blocking _______ at the neuromuscular junction blocks a muscle _______.
ACh, contraction
11. A treatment for depression that is about as effective as SSRI treatment is called _______.
CBT
Compare and contrast endotherms and ectotherms
Endo: make own heat inside Ecto: make heat comes form outside-lizards and snakes
10. In an experimental manipulation, before a group of rats were timed running in a maze, half the rats in a study were given caffeine and half were not. In this study the caffeine is the _______ variable and the time spent running in the maze is the _______ variable.
IV; DV
Explain how environment affects the brain
In an enriched condition, rats show 1. increase size and thickness of cortex 2. enhanced cholinergic activity 3. more dendritic branches 4. larger cortical synapses 5. more hippocampal neurons 6. enhanced recovery from brain damage
4. In the female, increased levels of estrogens during the ovarian cycle induce the release of _______, which triggers ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum, which then secrets _______.
LH, estrogen
9. Drugs used to treat depression that work by inhibiting reuptake of norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin are called _______.
MAOI's
Explain how homeostasis is related to motivation
Mismatch of internal state (becoming dehydrated) and the regulated, intended state produces a drive to restore balance—drive can increase as mismatch worsens—the imbalance of homeostasis results in motivated behaviors to reestablish set point
7. Phencyclidine can produce a state resembling schizophrenia through its interactions with _______ receptors, suggesting that the neurotransmitter _______ may be involved in schizophrenia.
NMDA, glutamate
Describe the features of homeostatic systems
Negative feedback, • General set zone not point • We can change set zone under certain instances like creating a fever o Redundancy • Several back up systems • Hypothalamus senses and controls body temp by 2 mechanisms with behavior and physio response • 2 diff systems regulating same variable • POA lesion-physio response is impaired, behaviors still there • Lateral hypothalamus-behavior impaired, physio still there o Behavioral mechanisms • Allostasis: The combined set of of behavioral and physio adjustments in response to current and predicted behavioral and enviro stressors • hypo detects temp and transmits info to spinal cord brainstem and hypo • usually behaviors involve changing exposure to body surface (huddling or extending limbs), change external insulation (clothing or nests), change surroundings (move to sun etc)
17. The use of _______ to identify amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles means a formal diagnosis of Alzheimer's can now occur prior to death.
PET scans
13. High circulating levels of leptin activate the _______ satiety neurons and simultaneously inhibit the _______ hunger neurons.
POMC; NPY
14. _______ and ______ have opposing effects on "hunger" neurons.
PYY and Ghrelin
Describe how fetal sexual differentiation occurs in males and females
Presence of y chromosome—gonads into testes (SRY gene) using DHT to masculizize wolffian ducts —hormones from fetal testes masculinize body -Without y chromosome—develop ovaries and fetal ovaries do not secrete testosterone so body develops feminine
8. The large proportion of _______ sleep seen in infancy suggests it is necessary for nervous system maturation.
REM
12. Disinhibition of spinal cord motoneurons during REM sleep can lead to _______ disorder.
REM behavior
8. _______ plot item recall on the x-axis and percentage of correct responses on the y-axis.
Serial Position Curves (show primacy/recency effects)
Describe how hormones work (i.e., what is the mechanisms of action?)
They are chemicals secreted by one group of cells and carried through the bloodstream to other parts of the body, where they act on specific target tissues to produce physiological effects-signal transduction path -Produced by your endocrine glands (vs. exocrine glands)
Explain how birth controls pills prevent pregnancy
They contain small levels of synthetic estrogens or progestins which create negative feedback inhibiting GnRH and thus prevents LH and FSH release so the body does not release an egg
Identify examples of receptive fields outside of primary visual cortex that respond to complex stimuli
V2-illusory contours V4: frequency gratings and concentric and radial stimuli and color differences V5-motion IT-particular complex forms-some specific shapes prefrontal cortex: faces
11. The _______ appears to be specialized for the detection of pheromones.
VNO
Describe the major components of the olfactory epithelium
a sheet of cells, including olfactory receptors that lines the dorsal portion of the nasal cavities and adjacent regions
Describe the organ of Corti
a structure in the inner ear that lies on the basilar membrane of the cochlea and contains the hair cells and termination of the auditory nerve; it convertes sounds into neural activity and is composed of 3 things (hair sensory cells, elaborate framework of supporting cells, and termination of auditory nerve fibers)
5. How is the absolute refractory period different from the relative refractory period?
absolute: no amount of stimulation will produce an action potential relative: only strong stimulation will produce an action potential
8. The restoration of sexual function in a castrated male treated with testosterone demonstrates the _______ effect of hormones.
activational
12. Long-term energy storage is accomplished by storage of fat in _______ tissue.
adipose
2. Castration reduces _______, and injections of _______ increase it.
aggression, testosterone
2. List the amino acid and amine neurotransmitters
amino acid: GABA, glutamate, glycine, histamine amine: ACh, norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, melatonin
5. The characteristic EEG recording obtained from subjects who are relaxed with their eyes closed is called the _______.
alpha rhythm
11. The _______ contains the receptor cells for the vestibular system.
ampulla (which is part of the semicircular canals)
Identify the regions of the brain that receive olfactory information.
amygdala & prepyriform cortex >>hypothalamus & medial dorsal thalamus and h >> lateral posterior orbitofrontal cortex and obritofrontal cortex (2nd olfactory cortex)
15. Research evidence suggests that fetal exposure to _______ increases the likelihood that a girl will grow up to be homosexual.
androgens
7. The hormone _______ is generated via a cascade of enzymatic actions in response to hypovolemia.
angiotensin II (has water conserving actions like increasing BP and constricting blood vessels)
14. Drugs used to treat anxiety are collectively known as _______; a major class of these drugs—the benzodiazepines—exert their effects through interactions with _______ receptors.
anxiolytics, GABA
7. Experience, music, and language all shape the responses of the _______ cortex.
auditory
16. _______ procedures bypass part of the intestinal tract or stomach in order to reduce the absorptive capacity of the digestive system.
bariatric
10. Discuss the role of the basal ganglia and the cerebellum in motor control, illustrating your answer with at least one human clinical example for each.
basal ganglia (caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, putamen)-recives input from wide expanses of the cortex via thalamus forming a loop and helps control amplitude and direction of movement and initiation of movement cerebellum: inputs come from sensory sources and other brain systems, helps establish and fine tune skilled movements
8. List at least four brain structures or brain systems implicated in movement.
basal ganglia (globulus pallidus, putamen, caudate nucleus), substantia nigra
10. About 10-20% of the energy we ingest is used for _______ processes.
basal metabolism
12. _______ LTP refers to the induction of LTP through training of an animal in a memory task.
behavioral
Another term for biological psychology is _______ neuroscience.
behavioral
4. The lack of photoreceptors at the optic disc creates a _______ in our visual field.
blind spot
17. _______ involves periodic binge eating followed by _______ or taking laxatives to avoid weight gain.
bulimia nervosa, purging
10. Eye-blink conditioning depends on the _______ circuit.
cerebellar
Describe how Alzheimer's disease is diagnosed
can only be diagnosed postmortem with amyloid plaques and associated built up beta-amyloid as well as neurofbrillary tangles; also a lack of basal forebrain neurons
8. The active ingredient in marijuana, THC, exerts its effects on the brain through interactions with _______ receptors.
cannabinoid
8. The sensory receptor that responds to noxious heat is also stimulated by _______, the heat-producing substance found in chili peppers.
capsaicin
11. Many people with narcolepsy also exhibit _______, in which muscle tone is suddenly lost without loss of _______.
cataplexy, consciousness
13. The interior of the neural tube eventually develops into the _______ system.
central nervous
1. In rats, lesions of the _______ nucleus of the amygdala inhibit blood pressure increases and constrain _______ behavior in response to conditioned fearful stimuli.
central; freezing
11. The stimuli associated with food, such as its smell, provoke the release of insulin during the _______ phase.
cephalic
9. Research shows that rats living in enriched conditions have more dendritic branches on cortical neurons and enhanced activity of _______ neurons throughout the cortex.
cholinergic
16. Some people with uncontrollable obsessive-compulsive disorder have been reported to experience improvement of their symptoms following surgery of the _______.
cingulate cortex
10. Hearing may be partially restored in deaf people through the use of devices called _______.
cochlear implants
3. Patients with Korsakoff's syndrome may _______ in an attempt to conceal gaps in their memory.
confabulate
7. The three successive systems that are necessary for recall of a past event are encoding, ________, and retrieval.
consolidation
6. Two physiological responses to hypovolemia are _______ of blood vessels and the secretion of _______ by the posterior pituitary.
constriction, vasopressin
The relationship between the number of visual receptor cells and the number of ganglion cells demonstrates a _______ of information.
convergence
2. The delayed non-matching-to sample test assesses _______ memory in _______.
declarative, monkeys
Compare and contrast declarative versus nondeclarative memory
declarative: memory that can be stated or described nondeclarative: (procedural) shown by performance rather than conscious recollection
Explain how animal research has helped us understand memory
delayed non matching to sample task-test of object recognition--showed us that we need at least one in tact medial temporal lobe including the hippocampus in order to make new memories
6. The four major perspectives of biological psychology are the systematic _______ of behavior, the evolution of brain and behavior, life-span development of the brain and behavior, and the biological _______ of behavior.
description; mechanisms
2. _______ of the pupils is associated with the use of drugs that block acetylcholine transmission, such as belladonna.
dilation
3. Many neuroleptic drugs have a high affinity for postsynaptic _______ receptors, which they _______.
dopamine; block
Describe how hair cells function. Include a description of the differences and similarities between inner and outer hair cells
each hair cell has miniscule hairs called stereocilia and nestle into hollows in tectorial membrane above and form a mechanical bridge between the membranes when sounds induce membrane to ripple, the movement causes steroecilia to move and the produces a large depolarizationdue to large ion channels that resemble a trap door---so opening them allows Ca2+ and K+ to rush in but as soon as wave is gone it swishes back causing rapid polarization and depolarization inner: positioned closer to central axis of cochlea and only 2500 -IHC afferent: perception of sound-95% of fibers leading to brain -IHC efferent: lead from brain to IHC and the brain can control responsiveness of IHCs outer: positioned farther from central axis and about 12000 of them -OHC afferent: convey info to brain about mechnical state of basical membrane but not perception of sounds themselves -OHC efferent: lead from brain to OHC's allowin brain to activated proterties of OH-they dont detect sound
Describe the major components of the vestibular system
each type pf head movement corresponds with a semicircular canal in the same plane of rotation; movement of rotation translates to movement of gel within the canals, which stimulates hair cells in ampullae at the base of canals exciting vestibulocochlear nerve
4. According to the dopamine hypothesis, schizophrenia is caused by a(n) _______ of dopamine release or oversensitive dopamine _______.
excess; receptors
5. In the retina, cone receptors that connect to on-center bipolar cells _______ on-center ganglion cells.
excite
15. A psychobiological model of PTSD draws connections among the symptoms and neural mechanisms of _______, behavioral sensitization, and _______.
fear conditioning; extinction
2. Endotherms may show a significant departure from their average body temperatures as a consequence of _______.
fevers
4. The brain responds to hypovolemia by triggering both thirst and hunger for _______.
fluid with isotonic salt concentrations
9. Electrical stimulation of the _______ can induce SWS activity.
forebrain
4. What is a dose-response curve?
graph of the relationship between drug doses and the effects
14. The _______ system is the sensory system that detects taste.
gustatory
5. A change in the processing of a stimulus on the basis of prior exposure to the same or similar stimuli is referred to as _______.
habituation
9. Drugs that activate 5-HT2A receptors are termed _______.
hallucinogens
14. Event-related potentials are particularly useful for diagnosing problems with _______.
hearing, esp in babies
1. _______ refers to the active process of maintaining a relatively stable internal environment.
homeostasis
15. The term still used to depict Penfield's maps of the brain is the _______.
homunculus
6. In humans, the plane that passes through the ears and divides the top of the brain from the rest of the brain is called the _______ plane.
horizontal
9. Parental behaviors are classified as _______ behaviors.
hormonal?
Discuss the genetics of odor receptors
humans have about 350 total receptors --so to be able to discrminate between 5000 odors, humans have to discriminate between the different combinations
7. Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials are characterized by _______ of the postsynaptic membrane.
hyperpolarization
Describe the factors that put one at risk for developing Alzheimer's disease
increasing age, family history, genetics
5. The _______ colliculus is part of the auditory pathway of the human brain.
inferior
10. Within the midbrain, auditory information is received by the _______ and visual information is received by the _______.
inferior colliculi, superior colliculi
2. The _______ ear contains the tiny chain of bones that facilitate sound conduction.
inner
9. Descending fibers from the brainstem directly _______ dorsal horn cells that transmit _______ information.
innervate, pain
1. Neurons receive information from other neurons at the _______ zone through cellular extensions called _______.
input; dendrites
2. _______ is a symptom of a mismatch between internal and external time while traveling.
insomnia and daytime fatigue
13. The _______ is an area of the brain which, when lesioned, allows patients to quit smoking effortlessly.
insula (its a region in the frontal cortex)
13. Human females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia typically exhibit _______ genitalia and a _______ orientation.
intersex; female
4. Discuss phantom limb pain and give at least one example of a therapy that may help to alleviate it.
it is neuropathic pain, where neurons continue to directly signal pain and indeed amplify the signal, in the absence of any tissue damage mirror visual illusion trick
Explain the role of epigenetics in development
it is the study of factors that affect gene expression without making any changes in the nucleotide sequence or genes themseleves -due to methylation
lesions to what brain region abolish REM
just ventral to locus coeruleus
2. MRI imaging studies of the brains of monozygotic twins in which only one twin has schizophrenia have shown that the affected twin's brain often exhibits _______.
larger ventricles
7. The boundaries of visual objects are enhanced through the process of _______.
lateral inhibition
12. The _______ model of depression involves a repetitive stressful stimulus, such as electric shock, from which there is no escape.
learned helplessness
5. Professional musicians who play string instruments have expanded cortical representations of the fingers on their _______ hand only.
left
11. Just prior to voluntarily moving of the arms, a person will adjust their _______. This is an example of _______.
legs; motor plan
14. Exposure of female rat pups to testosterone during a sensitive period from just before birth to just after birth results in a greatly reduced frequency of _______ in adulthood.
lordosis
7. The stereotyped copulatory posture of the female animals of many species is called _______.
lordosis
14. The mitotic division of undifferentiated cells to produce neurons is called _______.
neurogenesis
14. A neuron that fires shortly before an individual makes a specific movement and when they see another individual make the same movement is called a _______.
mirror neuron
Describe the spatial frequency hypothesis of vision. How is it different from the hierarchical model?
model of vsion that emphasizes the analysis of different spatial frequencies, of various orientations, and in various parts of the visual fiel, as the basis for visual perception of form -basiclaly visuall system anayzlyzes number of cycles of light-dark patches
12. _______ is the experience of nausea brought on by unnatural passive movement.
motion sickness
4. The mirror-tracing task is classified as a _______ skill, whereas learning to read mirror-reversed text is an example of a _______ skill.
motor; verbal
9. Damage to cortical area V5 results in an inability to perceive _______.
movement
13. Golgi tendon organs are to _______ as muscle spindles are to _______.
muscle tension; muscle strecth
Explain the differences between myopia and amblyopia
myopia: difficulty seeing distant objects--eyeball is too long so cornea and lens focus image in front of retina and not on it amblyopia: reduced visual acuity that is not caused by optical or retinal impairments-misalignment of the eyes-lazy eye-can be treated
10. The drug _______ blocks at least part of the analgesic effect of acupuncture.
naloxone
Explain what place cells are
neurons in the hippocampus that selectively fire when the animal is in a specific location
8. Explain how tobacco affects the brain and body.
nicotine enters blood and acts as a stimulant
7. Frightening dreams associated with stage 3 sleep are called _______.
night terrors
Explain why the use of SSRIs is controversial
o Effects of SRIs failures may be underreported-and profit motives might increase the prescription of SSRIS -20% show no improvement at all-even give to children when increases suicide risk sometimes
Describe what brain stimulation studies can tell us about emotion
o Electrical stim can produce emotional effects o Brain self stimulation in septum-sense of pleasure, warmth o Median forebrain bundle—affected at many self stim sites • Nucleus accumbens-rewards-pleasure from dopamine • Limbic system: mammillary bodies of hypo, anterior thalamus, cingulate cortex, hippo, amygdala, and fornix • VTA sends dopamine axons to nucleus accumbens-want to press more there
List the facial expressions associated with particular emotions
o 8 common facial expression, anger, sadness, happiness, fear, disgust, surprise, contempt, embarrassment o but some differences in surprise and disgust between western and non literate groups
Explain the effects of gonadal steroid hormones human sexual behavior
o Addition of testosterone will not increase vigor of mating—but boys with failure to create testosterone show little interest in dating o Women also show reduced sex drive during menopause
Describe the hormonal response to stress
o Androgens increase aggression -highest in women of unprovoked crimes; in men, it does not increase it directly but some positive correlation; confounding factor is dominance? o Hypo activates symp system to stim adrenal medulla to release epinephrine and Norep. Hypo also stim anterior pituitary to release hormones that drive adrenal cortex to release cortisol to prepare body for action o Skydiver: initially cortisol levels increased, but pituitary adrenal response slowed later, epinephrine first elevated then slowed o Testosterone was reverse and was low at first but then increased o Once mastering..no hormone response
Explain the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia - including evidence for and against this hypothesis
o Antipsychotics: block postsynaptic D2 receptors-chlorpromazine o Perhaps excess dopamine or increase dopamine receptors o Amphetamine psychosis-increase dopamine action o Against evidence: because LSD doesn't cause schizo symptoms, and also delayed action event though rapid effect
Explain how typical antipsychotics differ from atypical antipsychotics
o Atypical: only moderate D2 affinity and high affinity for others-reduce motor side effects • Clozapine-serotonin-these also increase dopamine in some places—another evidence against dopamine hypo • However new British study-no real differences • Atypical-more weight gain, typical-more motor dysfunction
Explain why the immune response is suppressed in times of stress
o Brain cause cortisol-directly suppress immune system because temp suppression because stress response demands rapid mobilization of energy-also limit swelling-to increase joint mobility o Long stress for animals=death
Explain how childhood bullying affects psychological health
o Bullied as children increase risk for anxiety disorders, depression and suicide
Describe stress immunization
o Concept that mild stress early in life makes an individual better able to handle stress later I life-due to effective comforting after events o Show lower adrenal steroid amounts after stress in adulthood o Epigenetic-changes expression of gene
Describe Kluver-Bucy syndrome
o Condition brought by bilateral amygdala damage, characterized by dramatic emotional changes including reduction in fear and anxiety -animals now not wild
Explain the major theories of of the function of sleep
o Conserve energy o Enforce niche adaptation o Restores the body and brain-immune system perhaps also clean out the brain o memory consolidation-aids in learning but not necessary
Explain how glucose is used and stored
o Diabetes 1: alack insulin production o 2: lack sensitivity to insulin
Explain what happens when we are deprived of sleep
o Fatal familial insomnia: humans sleep normally but then in midlife stop sleeping and 7-24 months later die -degenerate cortex-suffer diffuse bacterial infections, mouse-increase metabolic rate, lose weight and then die o Hallucinations, cognitive deficits o Behavioral deficits o Compromise immune system o Sleep recovery takes time • Stage 3 increase a lot
Describe the brain systems that control sleep/wake cycles
o Forebrain generates SWS • Specifically basal forebrain-lesions suppress sleep • Release GABA in posterior hypothalamus • Analgesics also trigger gaba receptors o Brainstem activates forebrain into wakefulness -reticular formation o Pons system triggers REM • Send widespread axons to promote rem-axons to spine inhibit motoneurons so they don't fire and resultant atonia o Hypothalamic triggers other to determine which state they're in • Orexin sends axons to other centers to coordinate them, lack of Orexin can lead to disorganized sleep, like narcolepsy (cataplexy-loss of muscle tone)
Explain fear conditioning
o Form of classical conditioning in which previously neutral stim is paired with unpleasant stim like foot shock until previously neutral stim elicits fear response
Explain the role of stress and heredity in schizophrenia
o Heredity: not simple recessive—mode of inheritance is combo of many genes o Monozygotic concordance: 50% o Dizygotic: 17% o DISC1 probably o Older men more likely to have children with schizo o Aspects of city living increased probability of schizo-people in large city 2X as likely of developing schizo and children who move earlier increase their risk o Prenatal stress-like contacting influenza incompatible blood types
Compare and contrast hypovolemic and osmotic thirst
o Hypovolemic: baroreceptors detect pressure loss from total fluid loss-due to diarrhea hemorrhage or sweating—low extracellular volume\ • Activate thirst, hunger, constrict arteries, reduce ANP secretion and release vasopressin to slow urine, and produce angiotensin—constrict vessels, increase blood pressure, o Osmotic thirst-osmosensory neurons detect increased saltiness and due to gaining salt or losing water and pulls water out of extracellular- o OVLT(organum vasculosum or lamina terminalis)—Preoptic area -controlling vasopressin and thirst
Describe the ways in which the schizophrenic brain differs from those without schizophrenia
o Increase ventricle sizes o Differ in functional activity of corpus callosum o Accelerated cortical thinning reduced metabolic activity in frontal lobes (hypofrontality), lose gray matters
Compare and contrast the theories of emotion
o James Lange-autonomic reaction triggers feeling-body response evokes feeling o Cannon bard-simultaneous feeling and autonomic—brain must interpret the stimulation
Explain the role that the amygdala plays in fear
o Lesions prevents bp increase and freezing o Low road? Direct from thalamus to amygdala -allow for immediate action o High road: routes info to sensory cortex-for higher level functioning like memory o SM-damage to both amygdala-no fear o Each emotion activates different path basically
Explain how information about day/night reaches the brain
o Light info reaches SCN directly -photoreceptors outside of the eye o Pineal gland secrete melatonin to inform body about day length o In mammals though, cells in eyeball sense when light is out-retinohypothalamic pathway-rely on melanopsin-(dysfunctional in blind people so having problems sleeping) o Lesions of SCN—stop clock o Metabolic activity is clocklike dim light—random rhythms o Free running: maintain own cycle entrainment: shifting rhythm o Zeitberger: any cue an animal receives to dictate time-like light dark cycle o More metabolic activity in light phase for scn o Clock and cycle proteins transcribe per gene and usually rate of transcription degradation etc 24 hours, retinal ganglion detect melopsin and release glutamate to scn and leads to transcription of per gene entraining the molecular clock
Describe how age affects sleep
o Mammals sleep more during infancy than adulthood, Rem sleep up to 80% in infants-perhaps related to maturing the nervous system early life-16 hours o Adults-8 hours and 20% rem o Age 60 and older decrease SWS 3 sleep -perhaps diminished cog functioning
Compare and contrast patterns of sexual arousal in men and women
o Men have refractory period, women do not o But there is a resolution phase o Also emotional intimacy and desire (more than physio arousal) is important for initiation and following sexual encounter, combo of emotion and physical activity affects likelihood of subsequent ones
Describe the major categories of schizophrenia symptoms
o Negative: insufficient functioning, emotional and social withdrawal, and blunted affect, motivational impairment, cognitive impairment o Positive: hallucinations, delusions, excited motor behavior
Compare and contrast nightmares and night terrors
o Nightmares: long, frightening dream that awakens the sleeper from REM o Night terrors: sudden arousal from stage 3 marked by intense fear and ANS stim • Sleeper does not recall nightmare but suffocation feeling • Activation synthesis theory: our REM sleep dreams are due to random activation of neurons
Explain how some animals can be active around the clock, yet still get some sleep
o Only one side of brain engages I SWS at a time-dolphin-unilateral sleep o Birds-flying so much
Explain the glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia - including evidence for and against this hypothesis
o PCP-pscyhomimetic-NMDA receptor antagonist-preventing glutamate from having usual effects by block calcium channel o Ketamine also does this o Perhaps under activation of glutamate receptors • Try to do metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) not NMDA receptor agonists because cause seizures
Describe the main types of anxiety disorders and how they are treated
o PTSD o Generalized anxiety disorder, phobic disorder, and panic disorder • Benzodiazepines (valium) • Bind with GABA as noncompetitive agonists • Boost GABA mediated postsynaptic inhibition, reducing excitability • Buspar-serotonin 5Ht • Anxiolytics-drugs that combat anxiety and may have anticonvulsant and sleep inducing properties o Benzodiazepines are anxiolytic (anxiety reducing) drugs used to treat anxiety (valium or Xanax) o Serotonin agonists and ssris are also used to treat anxiety
Describe bipolar disorder and its treatments
o Periods of depression alternative with period of excessively expansive mood or mania -sustained over activity, talkativeness, strange grandiosity and increased energy o Lithium-interact with circadian clock, narrow safe range
Describe PTSD and how it is related to fear conditioning
o Persistent memories and fears in PTSD may be a failure to forget o PTSD symptoms may have an increased sensitivity to stress hormones like cortisol o Fear conditioning • Operant conditioning-tone and shock • Freezing behavior? They are hyper aroused to something they should not be that stressed about o Propanylol reduced high BP—possible new treatment right after trauma
Describe the facial feedback hypothesis of emotion
o Sensory feedback from our facial expressions can affect our mood-pencil under nose-make you happier, -lending support to James Lange theory o Superficial face muscles-smiles -facial nerve VII o Deep face muscles-chewing motor branch of trigeminal V
Describe the various sleep disorders
o Sleep enuresis-bed wetting -SWS-nasal vasopressin spray o Somnambulism-sleepwalking-sws -first half of night o Insomniacs-difficulty getting to sleep or staying asleep o Sleep apnea-respiration slows or stops altogether -excessive daytime sleepiness-usually don't remember o Sudden infant death syndrome- arises from sleep apnea because immature systems of respiration o Sleep state misperception-belief that they have not been asleep-very beginning o Rem behavior disorder-organized behavior from someone who is asleep • Acting out a dream-early dementia or Parkinson's o No perfect sleeping pill • Benzodiazepines bind to gaba and inhibit brain -addictive and tolerance is high
Explain what research findings have refuted the James-Lange theory
o Turns out no distinctive autonomic pattern for each emotion-symp (fight or flight) activation-fear surprise anger while para (relaxing) is joy and sadness
Provide examples of ultradian and infradian rhythms
o Ultradian: more than once a day o Infradian: less than once a day o Circadian about 24 hours
Describe the neural circuitry that regulates reproductive behavior
o VMH is crucial for lordosis bc lesions abolish lordosis -and little additions of estradiol in VMH can induce receptivity • Because it activates progesterone receptors and help mediate lordosis o VMH send axons to periaqueductal gray—so lesions diminish lordosis o VMH monitors steroid concentration and at right time, neural circuit allows lordosis response to occur in response to a mounting male o For males-Medial preoptic area (mPOA) has steroid sensitive neurons-lesions may abolish male copulatory behaviors -does not interfere with motivation, just with actual mounting • Higher order actions o Ventral midbrain o Antidepressants reduce sexual drive because serotonin brainstem help increase erection o VNO-pheromones -olfactory -medial amygdala is target—lesions will abolish erections o mPOA integrate hormonal sensory info like pheromones and coordinate motor patterns of copulation
Explain how the hypothalamus controls hunger
o VMH lesion-obesity-satiety center • Period of rapid weight gain but stabilize at new normal o LH lesion-rapid lost weight-hunger center o Arcuate nucleus: key element in highly specialized appetite network of integration of signals o Stop leptin release-obese (long term) • And release activate POMC and inhibit NPY o Short term energy balance—ghrelin stim appetite buy stim NPY o Orexin (aka hypocretin)-involved in switching between sleep states and in control of appetite • PYY-suppress appetite by inhibit NPY o POMC neurons-satiety o NPY neurons-hunger o CCK-also appetite suppress through vagus o Nucleus of solitary tract (NST)-common path for feeding behavior—direct via the vagus nerve • We don't stop drinking bc mouth is wet • Endocannabinoids might act on mesolimbic reward dopamine system
Compare and contrast maternal behavior of a naive female rat versus that of a female who has had previous pregnancies
o Virgin rats do not show parental behaviors; but if exposed for long enough, will show this; but rat dam that gave birth will instantly show this; also disgusted by smell at first o Parabiotic preparation—surgically join rat dam and virgin so same hormones so virgin rat immediately shows parental behaviors
Describe the different stages of sleep and how you measure them
o Waking: desynchronized-beta o Stage 1: alpha, vertex spikes o 2: sleep spindles and k complexes o stage 3 SWS: delta o REM: EEG like waking • More time in rem as night goes on paradoxical sleep-vivid dreams -most dreaming-loss of stage 3 as night goes on • Getting to rem quicker (BA(SKT)D)
Describe the results of the Schachter-Singer experiments
o While autonomic responses can intensity our feelings, they cannot explain why we have different emotional experiences in different situations o Participants warned that their injection might increase heart rate had o emotion o Participants that were not warned said they had emotion, but which emotion they experienced matched confederate
Describe the incidence rate of psychiatric illness
o Worldwide 15-50% of population reports psychiatric symptoms at some point in their life o 19% of US adults experience symptoms in a year and 4% are so ill they can barely do normal functions
Explain the evidence that suggests that facial expressions of emotion are inherited vs. learned
o people in preliterate new guinea show emotional expressions like western societies and most agree on the faces o most literate will agree without explicit training
16. Vomeronasal organ (VNO) receptors project to the accessory _______.
olfactory bulb
Explain how photoreceptors can both excite and inhibit bipolar cells
on center cells: turn on light in the center will excite the cell becayse it receives less glutamate which inhibits off center: turn on light in center inhibits because glutamate excites this cell
6. In _______ cells, light falling in the center of the cell causes excitation, and light falling in the surround causes inhibition.
on center/off surround
Describe the receptive fields of the retina
on center/off surround:excited by illumination in the center and inhibited by illumination in the surround off center/off surround: the opposite
7. The process by which an individual changes in the course of a lifetime is called _______.
ontogeny
Explain tonotopic organization
organizational system in which neurons are organizes as an orderly map of stimulus frequency, with cells responsive to high freq located at a distance from those responsive to low freq
5. The two main kinds of thirst are _______ thirst and _______ thirst.
osmotic; hypovolemic
. Stimulation of the nipple of a breastfeeding mother stimulates the release of _______ from the _______ pituitary.
oxytocin; posterior
1. The onion-like receptor found in skin that selectively responds to vibration and pressure is the _______.
pacinian corpuscle
13. The _______ of the tongue contain taste _______, which are made up of taste _______.
papillae; buds; receptors
10. Explain the positive reward model of drug abuse. What evidence supports this model of addiction?
people get started with drug abuse and become addicted because the abused drug provides powerful reinforcement
16. The physical characteristics that make up an individual are called the individual's _______.
phenotype
Compare and contrast the photopic and scotopic visual systems
photopic: cones, 4 mill, 2 classses of cone opsisns which is the basis of color vision, ow sensisivity and needs strong stimulation, used in dsy, concentrated in and near fovea, less densely throughout the retina, small receptive field in fovea and larger outside fovea, rapid response scotopic: rods, about 100 million, rhodopsin photopigment, high sensitivity, used for night vision, concentrated outside fovea, large receptive field, slow response time
4. Unlike in mammals, in birds the _______ is sensitive to light and may mediate entrainment of rhythms even after surgical removal of the eyes.
pineal gland itself
Describe the path that auditory information takes from receptor to primary auditory cortex
pinna>ear canal>tympanic membrane>malleus, incus, stapes>oval window>cochlea>organ of corti> hair cells> vestibulocochlear nerve>cochlear nuclei>superior olivary nuclei (bilateral input)>inferior colliculi>medial geniculate nucleus of thalamus>auditory cortex
Identify and describe the components of the external ear. Include a description of the function of the external ear
pinnae: external part of the ear that funnels sound waves into the inner part of the ear; distinctly mammalian ear canal: tube leading from pinna to tympanic membrane
6. In rats, hippocampal _______ cells change their firing patterns when the animal is in a particular location.
place
Compare and contrast place coding and temporal coding
place: freq discrimination in pitch which the sound is determined by the locatin of activated hair cells along the length of the basilar membrane temporal: freq discrimination in which the pitch of a sound is determined by the rate of firing of auditory nerves
7. _______ neurons are very active in people with synesthesia.
polymodal
6. S1 is located in the _______.
postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe
13. Benzodiazepines, in the presence of GABA, enhance the GABA-mediated _______.
postsynaptic inhibition
9. Discuss the functional and anatomical distinctions between primary and nonprimary motor cortex.
primary: apparent executive region for the initiation of movement-primarily the precentral gyrus nonprimary: anterior to M1; contribute to motor control and modulate the activity
2. What is meant by "sensory adaptation," and what is its evolutionary significance?
progressive loss of receptor response as stimulation is maintained
6. Male rats do not engage in sexual behavior during the _______ period that follows ejaculation.
refractory
Describe the path that information takes from receptor to primary visual cortex
retina>rods/cones> bipolar cells (horizontal cells in between these layers)> ganglion cells (amacrine in between these layers)>optic nerve (blind spot)> optic chiasm> optic tracts> terminate in LGN of thalamus or superior colliculus> axons project back and forth between LGN and striate cortex via optic radiations
1. _______ amnesia is a loss of memories that formed prior to a brain damaging event.
retrograde
Describe the main types of amnesia
retrograde: difficulty in retrieving memories from before the onset of amnesia anterograde: difficulty in forming new memories beginning with onset of amnesia
Describe the five basic tastes
salty: ion channels sour: ion channel; H+ concentrations sweet: metabotropic; T1R family of receptor proteins (T1R2 and T1R3) Bitter: metabotropic; T2R(30 members because bitter signals poison) umami: metabotropic glutamate receptor s
15. Agouti-related peptide (NPY) neurons and pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons have opposing effects on _______ and _______.
satiety and hunger
9. After many years of going to loud rock concerts a young man reports ringing in his ears, or _______.
sensorineural deafness
Explain the role of the vestibular system in motion sickness
sensory conflict theory: there is a discrepancy between visual system and vestibular system-discrepancies might signal a dangerous neurological problem triggering dizziness and vomiting to potentially get rid of the substance that is causing it
5. Of all the stages of reproductive and sexual behavior, _______ is required before other behaviors can occur.
sexual attraction
10. In the circuit mediating _______ behavior in female rats, the VMH sends axons to the _______ region of the midbrain.
sexual; periaqueductal gray
Describe how Aplysia synapses change during short-term vs. long-term habituation
short term -when syphon is irst stim, gill retracts-reflex mediated by sensory neurons synapsing directly on motoneurons that retract the gills -if syphon is squirted repeatedely, animal habituates and no longer retracts--happens because sensory neurons release less NT long term -if syphon squirted repeatedly pver a few days, it habituates faster and faster over those days -then eventually almost no response -due to retraction of synapses
13. It has been speculated that sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) may be a consequence of a form of _______.
sleep apnea
Describe optic ataxia
spatial disorientation in which the patient is unable to accurately reach for objects using visual guidance; due to damage to ventral stream
8. The _______ model of vision proposes that the visual system analyzes the number of cycles of light-dark (or color) patches in any stimulus.
spatial frequency model
Describe the vomeronasal system
specialized system that detects pheromones and transmits info to the brain
11. In _______ cells, two different regions of the visible light spectrum have opposite effects on firing response.
spectrally opponent
15. Undifferentiated _______ cells, if gathered from embryonic tissue and transplanted into the brain, will differentiate and integrate properly.
stem
6. Prolonged treatment with traditional antipsychotic medications can alter dopamine receptor density and lead to a condition known as _______.
supersensitivity psychosis
Describe the treatments for depression
symptoms(Reduce stage 3SWS sleep, 1 and 2 increased, enter REM quicker with increase in REM in first half; Reduced hippo volume, thinner cortex, increased neural atrophy etc) o MAOI's: inhibit enzyme monoamine oxidase that breaks down monoamine neurotransmitters like serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine o Tricyclics and heterocyclics: inhibit reuptake of norepinephrine, serotonin, and or dopamine o SSRI's: block reuptake of serotonin, having little effect on NE or dopamine synapses o Mild to moderate depression-drugs not really more effective than placebo o More severe-drug is more effective than placebo o For mild to moderate depression, placebos and drugs are equally effective o Ketamine • For treating severe depression • Immediate symptoms relief • Key because one problem with antidepressants is that it takes a while for symptoms to be relieved
5. Long-term motor problems associated with the use of antipsychotic drugs are symptoms of a disorder called _______.
tardive dyskinesia
Compare and contrast taste buds and papillae
taste bud: found in papillae and it consists of 50-150 taste receptor cells; extend microvilli to come in contact with chemicals papillae: the lumps on the surface of tongue to increase SA of tongue; may contain a bunch of taste buds
Describe the pathway that gustatory information takes, from receptor to primary gustatory cortex
taste receptor> vagus/glossopharyngeal/ facial nerve > solitary tract and its nucleus>brainstem>thalamus> gustatory cortex (anterior insula/frontal operculum)
3. Hamsters carrying the _______ mutation show abnormally short free-running rhythms.
tau
3. Military recruits training for parachuting showed higher levels of _______ after the first day's jump than before.
testosterone (norep, cortisol, epinephrine all initially were high then decrease)
15. In contrast to other sensory systems, olfactory information is not conveyed through the _______.
thalamus
9. Almost all incoming sensory information passes through the _______, which sends the information on to the overlying cortex.
thalamus
Explain cell differentiation
the developmental stage in which cells acquire distinct characteristics
Explain lateral inhibition
the phenomenon in which interconnected neurons inhibit their neighbors producing contrast at the edges of regions
3. Describe the receptive field of a somatosensory neuron. What happens when the patch of skin it innervates is stimulated?
the receptive fields are shaped like donuts with an excitatory area and inhibitory area-differ in size shape and the quality of information that activates them
10. Deep brain stimulation for the treatment of intractable depression targets the _______.
vagal nerve
Identify and describe the function of ossicles
the three small bones that transmit vibration across the middle ear, from the tympanic membrane to the oval window-mechanically couple the tympanic membrane to the inner ear at a specialized patch of membrane called the oval window 1. malleus-hammer 2. incus-anvil 3. stapes-stirrup
Describe the experiments conducted by Hubel and Weisel
they compared receptive fields of neurons at each level and see how they relate to one another -LGN cell with concentric field: on center/off surround -simple cortical cell: responds to orientation like edge or a bar -complex cortical cell: responds to motion of a particular bar hierarchical model: more complex fields are built from smaler ones
2. What are tonic and phasic receptors and how are they related to sensory adaptation?
tonic: frequency of action potentials declines slowly or not at all as stimulus
10. The _______ hypothesis proposed that there are separate receptors in the retina sensitive to blue, green, and red.
trichromatic
Compare and contrast the hypotheses used to describe our perception of color
trichromatic: 3 different types of cones each excited by a different region of the spectrum and separate pathway to the brain*** opponent process: different systems produce opposite responses to light of different wavelengths
8. What are Golgi tendon organs and what is their function?
type of receptor found within tendons that send impulses to the central nervous system when a muscle contracts
6. Bats are very sensitive to sounds of very high frequencies, which are also called _______.
ultrasound
12. The _______ stream of visual processing may be said to process the "what" information in visual inputs.
ventral
4. Fibers of the _______ nerve contact the bases of hair cells.
vestibulocochlear
Explain how reconsolidation makes us vulnerable to inaccurate memories
when we take memories out of LTM, they become unstable and are susceptible to disruption or alteration
12. During mammalian sexual differentiation, the male internal reproductive tract develops from the _______ ducts.
wolffian
1. Any cue that an animal uses to synchronize its activity with the environment is called a _______.
zeitberger
10. Compare and contrast at least four different human brain imaging technologies through discussion of their technical bases and the types of information each provides.
-Computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT)—a measure of X-ray absorption at several positions around the head, maps tissue density Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides higher resolution images Positron emission tomography (PET)—gives images of brain activity: Uses radioactive chemicals injected into the bloodstream and maps their destination by the radioactive emissions Identifies which brain regions contribute to specific functions -Functional MRI (fMRI) detects changes in brain metabolism (eg oxygen use), in active brain areas. The amount of oxygen available is measured indirectly (blood-oxygen-level-dependent signal (BOLD signal). fMRI can show how networks of brain structures collaborate. -Diffusion Tensor Imaging: Measures water diffusion to demarcate the underlying neural structures. Free diffusion of water is isotropic. Diffusion in the brain is anisotropic, or restricted: it does not diffuse equally in all directions. -Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) briefly stimulates discrete cortical regions with magnets.
3. Describe the anatomy of the dopaminergic systems of the brain.
-mesolimbocortical pathway: ventral tegmental area (VTA) to nucleus accumbens and cortex (abnormalities are shown in schizophrenia sufferers) -mesostriatal pathway: substantia nigra to basal ganglia
4. Summarize the sequence of events that occurs when a synapse is activated. Begin at the arrival of an action potential at the axon terminal and end with the release of neurotransmitters.
1. action potentolal arrives at presynaptic terminal 2. voltage gated calcium channels in the membrane open and Ca2+ flood in 3. Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles filled with NT to fuse with presynaptic membrane and rupture, releasing transmitter molecules into synaptic cleft 4. bind og NT to post neuron--result in EPSP or IPSP 5. these IPSP or EPSP spread to axon hillock 6. synaptic transmission stopped so message is brief
6. Outline the major classes of psychoactive drugs and describe how they interact with transmitter systems.
1. antipsychotics: selective antagonist of Dopamine D2 (ex. haldol) 2. antidepressants: MAO inhibitors, tricyclic blick serotonin and norep reuptake; SSRIs 3. anxiolytics: bind to GABA receptors to produce more IPSPs 4. opiates: bind to opioid receptors (periaqueductal gray)
1. Identify and discuss the formal criteria for classifying a substance as a neurotransmitter.
1. can be synthesized by presynaptic neurons and stored in axon terminals 2. released when action potentials reach the terminals 3. recognized by specific receptors located on the postsynaptic membrane 4. caused changes in the postsynaptic cell 5. blocking its release interferes with the ability of the presynaptic cell to affect the postsynaptic cell
5. Discuss, with examples, how drugs can alter presynaptic processes.
1. effect on transmitter release: prevent synaptic transmission, alteration of synaptic tranmitter release, modulation of transmiter release by presynaptic neurons 2. effect on transmitter production: inhibition of transmitter synthesis, blockade of axonal transport, interference with storage of transmitters 3. effect on transmitter clearance: inactivation of transmitter degradation, inactivation of transmitter reuptake
3. Name the four cranial nerves that have both afferent and efferent pathways. Then name two cranial nerves that just have afferent pathways, and two that just have efferent pathways.
A and E: Trigeminal (V), facial (VII), glossopharyngeal(IX), and Vagus (X) A (sensory): olfactory (I) and optic (II) E (motor): trochlear(IV) and abducens (VI)
9. The toxins bungarotoxin and curare both block _______ receptors, preventing _______.
ACh; movement and paralyzing the animal
10. The enzyme _______ breaks down molecules of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, stopping its action at synapses.
AChE
2. _______ proposed the concept of spinal _______ and a neural pathway for them.
Descartes; reflexes
list monoamines
Dopamine norepinephrine epinephrine serotonin
1. Provide a historical sketch of some of the major advances in understanding the organization of the human brain that have occurred during the last 500 years.
Egyptians: describe anatomy Hippocrates (460-379 BC) : father of medicine, natural causes of disease, record keeping Galen(130-200): physician to gladiators Vesalius (1514-1564): describe anatomy of human brain (King henri dissection explanation in class) Descartes: dualism and reflexes Gall (1800s): phrenology Broca (1824-1840): damage to specific areas can cause certain issues 18th century: nervous system described in detail-white matter is continuous with nerves, 2 divisions of NS (CNS and PNS), brains are pretty different, can identify lobes of brain 19th century: nerves as wires (bell magendie), localization of specific functions to different parts of the brain (broca), evolution of NS (darwin), microscope led to discovery of neuron, cell theory (schwann),
5. Many modern neuroscientists are interested in the idea of _______ synapses, which may change in strength through use.
Hebbian (aka plastic)
6. Name the 12 pairs of cranial nerves, and briefly describe the functions performed by each one.
I: Olfactory Nerve: Sense of smell II: Optic Nerve: Vision III: Oculomotor Nerve: Eyeball and eyelid movement IV: Trochlear Nerve: Eye movement V: Trigeminal Nerve: This is the largest cranial nerve and is divided into three branches consisting of the ophthalmic, maxillary and mandibular nerves. Functions controlled include facial sensation and chewing. VI: Abducent Nerve: Eye movement VII: Facial Nerve: Facial expressions and sense of taste VIII: Vestibulocochlear Nerve: Equilibrium and hearing IX: Glossopharyngeal Nerve: Swallowing, sense of taste, and saliva secretion X: Vagus Nerve: Smooth muscle sensory and motor control in throat, lungs, heart, and digestive system XI: Spinal Accessory Nerve: Movement of neck and shoulders XII: Hypoglossal Nerve: Movement of tongue, swallowing, and speech sensory: I, II, V, VII, VIII, IX, X motor: III, IV, VI, XI, XII
5. Describe in general terms the postsynaptic electrical events (i.e., postsynaptic potentials) associated with the presynaptic arrival of an action potential. Include in your answer the differences between spatial and temporal summation.
IPSP: hyperpolarizing potential-decrease the prob that the post cell will fire an action potential EPSP: depolarizing potential in post neuron that is caused by synaptic excitation; they increase the prob that the post neuron will fire an action potential
1. What has the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel have to do with biological psychology?
Michelangelo painted it-god is depicted pointing to earth to bestow gift of life but there might be a brain depiction behind him possibly making commentary on origins of behavior
1. What accounts for, and maintains the resting potential?
Na+-K+ ATPase pump - This pump pushes only 2K+ into the cell for every 3Na+ it pumps OUT of the cell. Therefore, its activity results in a net loss of positive charges within the cell.
10. Explain how PET scans differ from CT scans.
PET scan reveals the cellular level metabolic changes occurring in an organ or tissue
3. Substances are conveyed from the cell body of the neuron to the distant reaches of the axon through the process of _______.
action potential
5. The opposing nature of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system allows an organism to _______ changing circumstances/environments.
adapt to
8. Explain the difference between agonists and antagonists, and provide an example of each.
agonist: mimic effects of a NT by binding to receptors antagonist: block Nt from binding to their receptors and reduce their action
2. The size of the action potential is independent of stimulus magnitude. This is referred to as the _______ property of action potentials.
all-or-none
2. Give an account of the ways in which neurons may be categorized. What are the various categories, and what are some examples for each category?
categorize by function: 1. motoneurons: large with long axons reaching out to synapse on muscles, causing muscle contractions 2. sensory neurons: specialized to gather sensory info, and have diverse shapes, depending on what they detect 3. interneurons: analyze info gathered from one set on neurons adnd communicate with others classify by shape: 1. multipolar: many dendrites and one axon-classic neuron 2. biolar: one dendrite and one axon unipolar: single branch that extends in 2 directions that serve as axon and dendrite
11. While correlational studies can tell us which behavioral and bodily variables may be linked, they cannot reveal _______.
causation
13. Focus on a single neuron within a brain involves the _______ level of analysis.
cellular level
5. What does the embryonic hindbrain develop into?
cerebellum, pons, and medulla
12. _______ seizures are most often accompanied by an unusual sensation called a(n) _______, and may not necessarily involve the entire brain.
complex partial; aura
1. Draw and describe the main structural components and the four functional components of a typical neuron.
dendrites> cell body>axon> axone terminal input zone>integration zone> conduction zone> output zone
14. A common feature of addictive drugs appears to be that they cause the release of _______ in the _______.
dopamine; nucleus accumbens
4. Karl Lashley was engaged in a program of research that has been called the "search for the _______."
engram (his failed goal was to link a specific brain region to the formation of a specific long term memory-lashley gave us the idea that there is no localization of memory)
8. Rats neglected by their mothers when they are pups show a heightened stress response throughout their lives. This is an example of a(n) _______ effect.
epigenetics-differential gene expression due to environmental change
2. Describe the forces that influence ion movement across the membrane of a neuron.
equilibirum potential-electrostatic and concentration gradient membrane permeability sodium potassium pump
5. What do evolutionary psychologists study?
evaluate similarities among species due to shared ancestry and looking for species specific differences in behavior and biology; look at how natural selection shape brain and behavior
Bell Magendie Law
finding that the anterior spinal nerve roots contain only motor fibers and posterior roots only sensory fibers and that nerve impulses are conducted in only one direction in each case
2. Nitric oxide belongs to the _______ family of neurotransmitters.
gases
8. Compare and contrast the different types of seizure disorders.
grand mal: nerve cells fire in high freq bursts accompanied by convulsions and loss of conciousness petit mal: spike and wave EEG, loss of awareness, and inability to recall events surrounding seizures complex partial: doesnt involve entire brain so can cause a variety of sensations called auras
5. Give a full description of the physical and functional layout of the spinal cord, including the segmentation and sensory/motor roots.
gray matter in center of spinal cord contains interneurons, and motoneurons that send axons to muscles. surrounding white matter consists of myelinated axons that run up and down the spinal column; spinal cord is enclosed in bone and 3 layers of meninges; 31 pairs of spinal nerves; motor fibers project anteriorly and sensory enter dorsal side; 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar; 5 sacral; 1 coccygeal spinal segments
3. The pseudoscientific fad of phrenology helped establish the concept of _______.
localization of function (Gall)
6. The affinities of drugs are expressed in units of concentration—the higher the affinity, the _______ the concentration required.
lower
4. The major divisions of the spinal cord are cervical, thoracic, _______, and sacral.
lumbar
1. The _______ receptor uses a system of second messengers to cause changes in excitability.
metabotropic
8. What are the obligations of a researcher to ensure the ethical treatment of research animals?
minimize discomfort, bound by legislation
7. Damage to efferent cranial nerves would result in _______ impairments; damage to afferent cranial nerves would result in _______ impairments.
motor, sensory
5. Two types of acetylcholine receptors are called _______ and _______.
muscarinic (metabotropic)-can be excitatory or inhibitory, nicotinic: muscles, (ionotropic)-always excitatory
1. Draw and describe a myelinated axon of the peripheral nervous system. What purpose does myelin serve and what medical problem results when it is compromised?
myelin-fatty insulartionaround an axon formed by glial cells; imcreases speed of action potentials; multiple sclerosis-can no longer activate muscle movements
8. How does embryonic development provide a scheme for subdividing the various parts of the human brain?
neural tube--forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain; then forebrain into telencephalon(thatll become cerebral hemispheres) and diencephalon thatll become thalamus and hypothalamus; hindbrain further developsinto cerebellum, pons, and medulla
6. Discuss the prevalence of neurological and psychiatric disorders in the United States, citing statistics to support your statements.
neuro disorders: stroke (3,000,000)>epilepsy>alzheimers>others psychiatric: anxiety(85,000,000)>impulse control>mood>others
2. Describe, with examples, the differences between neuropeptides and neurotransmitters.
neuropeptides: short chain of amino acids (opioids, CCK, substance P, vasopressin) neurotransmitters: single amino acid molecule (GABA, glutamate, dopamine)
6. The _______ are regularly spaced along the length of myelinated axons.
nodes of ranvier
12. The _______ model of drug abuse argues that people become addicted to drugs because of the powerful reinforcement they provide.
positive reinforcement
2. Axon terminals typically form synapses on the cell body or dendrites of a _______ neuron.
postsynaptic
1. Inside the neuron there is a high concentration of _______ ions, while outside the cell there is a high concentration of _______ ions.
potassium (K+); sodium (Na+), chloride (Cl-), and calcium (Ca2+)
8. The most prominent type of neuron in the cerebral cortex, the _______ cell, is found mostly in layer III or layer _______.
pyramidal; V
11. MRI makes use of _______ waves and _______ fields to form images of the _______ of the living brain.
radio; magnetic, gross structure
9. What is the electroencephalogram (EEG) and what does it detect?
recording of gross electrical activity of the brain via large elctrodes on the brain
12. The scientific approach known as _______ involves analysis at a simpler or more basic level of organization than the structure or function to be explained.
reductionism
7. How does reductionism relate to levels of analysis in biological psychology? What levels of analyses are necessary in the study of the biological basis of, for example, sexual orientation?
reductionism aims to identify the levels of analysis that are just simple enough to make rapid progress of complex issues ; may need an analysis of social interactions, brain systems, circuits to a single cell or even molecular
11. Transporter molecules are involved in the _______ of neurotransmitter at the synapse.
return
10. The molecular structure of LSD resembles that of the neurotransmitter _______.
serotonin
4. The resting membrane potential is maintained by electrostatic pressure and _______ acting on the cation _______.
sodium-potassium pump; sodium
4. List the structures of the midbrain.
tectum (sensory processing), superior and inferior colliculi (process info about sight and sound), tegmentum including the substantia nigra, (dopamine centers that if malfuction lead to parkinsons), periaqueductal gray (pain), reticular function (behaviors like sleep and arousal)
1. Outline the establishment and maintenance of the resting membrane potential.
the resting membrane potential is restored by influx of K+ ions. The sodium potassium pumps maintain the resting potential in the long run, counteracting the influx of Na+ ions during action potentials
15. One novel approach to the treatment of drug abuse involves the use of the immune system. In this type of treatment, _______ are directed against drug molecules, resulting in a reduction in the concentration of the drug in the bloodstream.
vaccines are given to promote body production of antibodies
3. The _______ system is a dopamine-containing projection that originates in the substantia nigra and projects to the basal ganglia.
ventral tegmental area (VTA)
5. The generation of the action potential depends on _______ channels, which are opened through a process of regenerative _______.
voltage gated Na+; saltatory conduction
9. In a _______-subjects experiment, the control group is the same as the experimental group and the individuals are tested at two different time points.
within
7. What is a within-participants experiment?
within: control group is same set of subjects tested before any alteration; between subjects: experimental group is compared to a separate control group that has been treated identically except for manipulation
