PSYC 523 Chapter 13

___ : Enjoys helping others, is willing to take risks or make sacrifices to protect or benefit others, puts the needs of others ahead of own needs, volunteers for service activities that require extra time and are not part of the formal job requirements.

Altruism

____ is associated with values or attributes such as kindness, compas-sion, gratitude, understanding, forgiveness, patience, humility, honesty, trust, and loyalty.

Altruistic love

Guidelines for Ethical Leadership: ___ unethical practices in the organization.

Oppose

___ leadership describes how leaders can enhance the intrinsic motivation of followers by creating conditions that increase their sense of spiritual meaning in the work.

Spiritual

The limitations of spiritual leadership theory are similar to those for _____. How leader values and skills influence leader behavior is not clearly specified in the theory, and the processes by which leaders influence followers are not clearly explained.

servant leader-ship

One proposed standard for ethical leadership is for the leader to fully inform followers about the likely ___ and ___ of a risky venture, and ask followers to make a conscious decision about whether the effort is worthwhile.

costs and benefits

Another early conception of ethical leadership builds on examples found in the New Testament ( Greenleaf, 1977; Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002). In 1970, Robert Greenleaf proposed the concept of "____," and it became the title of a book published in 1977.

servant leadership

The leader seeks to __,___and __ conflict among groups of people, because this conflict can be useful for mobilizing and channeling energy to achieve shared ideo-logical objectives.

shape, express, and mediate

Effective leaders do not dwell too much upon the risks or obstacles, but instead emphasize what can be accomplished with a concerted, _____.

shared effort

The pursuit of _____ is often used as the excuse for making strategic deci-sions that are harmful to many stakeholders such as employees, customers, and towns where the company has facilities.

short- term profits

Kohlberg ( 1984) proposed a model describing how people progress through ___ sequential stages of moral development as they grow from a child to an adult.

six

Ethical behavior occurs in a ____, and it can be strongly influenced by aspects of the situation

social context

The research also indicates that responsibility for ethics should be taken seriously by all executives and not simply delegated to ___.

staff professionals

Doing what is best for one type of __ ( e. g., owners) may not be what is best for others ( e. g., employees, customers, the community).

stakeholder

However, in many cases leader decisions do not have consistent effects for different criteria or for different __s.

stakeholder

Guidelines for Ethical Leadership: Set clear ___ of ethical conduct.

standards

One difficulty in evaluating the morality of individual leaders is the ____ inherent in determining which criteria to use and their relative importance.

subjectivity

The ethical theories are primarily focused on leader values and how they affect the leader's relationship with ____.

subordinates

The potential benefits of servant leadership are similar to those suggested by theories of ___ and ___ leadership and theories of spiritual and authentic leadership.

supportive and empowering

A contrary view is that leaders have a responsibility to implement major changes in an organization when necessary to ensure its ___ and ___.

survival and effectiveness

The research involves mostly anecdotal accounts and ___, plus a few case studies and field survey studies.

testimonials

Conceptual confusion is increased and ___ made more difficult when theories include many different types of constructs ( i. e., leader traits, skills, values, and behaviors; follower values, perceptions, and needs; dyadic, group- level, and organizational explanatory processes; and several different outcome criteria).

theory testing

An important leadership responsibility is to interpret confusing events and build consensus around strategies for dealing with ___ and ___.

threats and opportunities

The _____ is that managers in business organizations are agents who rep-resent the interest of the owners in achieving economic success for the organization.

traditional perspective

Follower ___and ___ are another aspect of the situation that can influence unethi-cal leadership.

traits and beliefs

Ethical leadership is related to a leader's personality ___ and __

traits and needs

The theories of servant, spiritual, and authentic leadership all share some features in com-mon with theories of ___ and ____ leadership, but important differences are also evident.

transformational and charismatic

For example, the decision to move a manufacturing plant from Kansas to Mexico would be considered ethical if it would significantly improve profits, regardless of the effects on plant employees or the local economy.

example

Recent examples include reducing employee rights and benefits, and outsourcing employee jobs to low- cost vendors in other countries.

example

However, in many situations the influ-ence process may involve: ( 3) influencing decisions that will benefit some people at the ____.

expense of others

When a corporation is facing difficult economic problems and cuts in __ are necessary to remain profitable, it is very difficult for a servant leader to balance the competing preferences of owners and employees

expenses

It is much easier for managers to oppose unethical practices when there is strong and ____ for such opposition and the standards for unacceptable behavior are clear rather than ambiguous

explicit support

However, it is often difficult to find any objective basis for predicting the likely outcomes of an innovative strategy and project. If an obvious crisis already exists for the group or organization, _______ and sharing complete information can create panic and ensure failure.

expressing doubts

Guidelines for Ethical Leadership: Help people find __ and __ ways to resolve problems and conflicts.

fair and ethical

Most people would agree that it is unethical to deliberately manipulate followers to do something contrary to their self- interest by making ___ or deceiving them about likely outcomes.

false promises

Because authentic leaders are motivated by a desire for self-improvement and self- verification, they are less defensive and more open to learning from ____ and ___.

feed-back and mistakes

The servant leader must stand for what is good and right, even when it is not in the ___ of the organization.

financial interest

How much influence the CEO or any other individual should try to exert on this process, and the __ of the influence, are ethical questions that are yet to be resolved.

form

In this situation, people with a strong moral identity and a primary concern for consequences will be the most likely to select a behavior that will result in benefits for others, even if it violates ___ or __.

formal rules or laws

If ___ is more important, the person will be inclined to obey rules and policies.

formalism

The same actions that benefit followers in some ways may also __ followers in other ways or at a later time.

harm

The most basic definition of integrity emphasizes __ and ___ between a per-son's espoused values and behavior.

honesty and consistency

Unfortunately, when different stakeholders have ____, an integrative solution is not always possible.

incompatible objectives

An ___ form of leadership influence on the behavior of followers is to establish pro-grams and systems

indirect

There is also an ___ effect through influence on follower self- concepts and self- identities.

indirect

Servant leadership in the workplace is about helping others to accomplish shared objectives by facilitating ___ development, empowerment, and collective work that is consistent with the health and long- term welfare of followers.

individual

How unethical practices are used to ____ was revealed in prominent scandals over the past decade. Examples include billing the government or other customers for services that were not provided, falsifying the qualification of applicants for loans or mortgages they are not be able to repay, marketing securities with inflated quality ratings, and counting future sales revenues as current income to prop up the value of the company's stock.

inflate profits

Followers are more likely to passively accept a domineering and abusive leader if they lack ____ and ____ and do not have much confidence in their own ability to deal with threats and hardship.

self- esteem and self- efficacy

As in the case of transformational leadership, spiritual leaders can enhance the meaningfulness of the work by linking it to follower values and ____.

self- identities

Another explanation for moral behavior involves ____. A person with a strong moral ___ is motivated to act in ways that are consistent with ethical values and beliefs

self- identity theory

___ : Treats others with respect, avoids status symbols and special privileges, admits limitations and mistakes, is modest about achievements, emphasizes the contributions by others when a collective effort is successful.

Humility

___ : Communicates in an open and honest way, keeps promises and commitments, acts in ways that are consistent with espoused values, admits and accepts responsibility for mistakes, does not attempt to manipulate or deceive people.

Integrity

The potential benefits derived from devel-opment and empowerment of subordinates have been demonstrated in research on ____ leadership, ___ leadership, and _____ leadership.

-participative -supportive -transformational

Followers of authentic leaders have more ____ with the leader and more ___ with the team or organi-zational unit.

-personal identification -social identification

At the lowest level of moral development, the primary motivation is ___ and the satisfaction of __ needs.

-self- interest -personal

Followers are elevated from their "___ selves" to their " __ selves."

- everyday -better

The leader can enhance follower commitment and optimism by articulating an appealing ___, modeling appropriate ___, and express-ing ___ and encouragement when there are setbacks and difficulties.

- vision -behaviors -optimism

Studies of " ____" and " ____s" provide insights about the conditions that make it easier for a chief executive to act in ways that are destructive for an organization and its members

-abusive supervision -toxic leaders

spiritual leaders increase mutual appreciation, affection, and trust among members of the organization. As a result, spiritual leadership can increase ___, encourage collective ___, and inspire higher ___.

-cooperation -learning -performance

Ethical leadership is also influenced by ___ values, ___ norms, ___ requirements, and professional ___ in countries where an organization is located

-cultural -social -legal -standards

Follower perception of leader authenticity may be jointly influenced by the leader's ability to express ___ values skillfully enough to be credible, on the extent to which the expressed values and ___ are consistent with follower perception of the situation, and on follower ability to accurately perceive when a leader is expressing genuine ___ and values.

-emotional -emotions -emotions

Judgments about the ethics of a particular decision or action usually take into account the purpose ( __), the extent to which behavior is consistent with moral standards ( ___), and the consequences for self and others (___).

-ends -means - outcomes

It is also useful to make a distinction between the ethics of an ___ and the ethics of specific ___ of leadership behavior, and both types of ethics are difficult to evaluate

-individual leader -types

Several criteria are relevant for judging individual leaders, including the person's values, stage of __ development, conscious intentions, __ of choice, use of ethical and unethi-cal behavior, and types of __ used.

-moral -freedom -influence

Unethical, abusive leadership is more likely for a person who has low conscientiousness, high ___, high narcissism, and a ___ power orienta-tion.

-neuroticism -personalized

Some ways a top executive can influence the ethical climate in an organiza-tion include __ about the importance of positive values, setting an __ of ethical behav-ior, making decisions that show ___ is as important as profits, and enforcing ___ for ethics violations.

-talking - example -integrity -discipline

Examples of ways to limit executive power include ___ limits, an independent ____, procedures for follower ___ of leaders, procedures for ___ decisions by leaders ( including decisions about punishment or dismissal), and ___ procedures for removing a leader who misuses power or is incompetent.

-term -board of directors -evaluation -appealing -formal

Several prominent theories in the leadership literature have a strong emphasis on ethical leadership. The theories include t__ leadership, s__ leadership, a___ leadership, and s___ leadership.

-transforming -servant -authentic -spiritual

____ includes using power and authority to humiliate, ridicule, bully, and otherwise mistreat subordinates. Such behavior is usually regarded as a form of unethical leadership, and the research indicates that it results in negative consequences for follow-ers and the organization.

Abusive supervision

___ leadership is based on positive psychology and psychological theories of self- regulation. The theory attempts to integrate earlier ideas about effective leadership with concerns for ethical leadership.

Authentic

___ and healing : Helps others cope with emotional distress, encourages acceptance of diversity, acts as a mediator or peacemaker, encourages forgiveness and reconciliation after a divisive conflict.

Empathy

___ : Consults with others about decisions that will affect them, provides an appropriate amount of autonomy and discretion to subordinates, shares sensitive information with them, encourages them to express concerns or dissenting views without becoming defensive.

Empowerment

___ or ____ is associated with values or attributes such as optimism, confidence, courage, endurance, persistence, resilience, and serenity.

Faith or hope

____ is manifest in the need for meaningful relationships and being connected to others in a way that provides feelings of joy and wholeness.

Fellowship

____ used to evaluate behavior include the extent to which it violates basic laws of society, denies others their rights, endangers the health and lives of other people, or involves attempts to deceive and exploit others for personal benefit.

Moral standards

____ : Encourages and facilitates the development of individual confidence and ability, even when not important for the current job; provides learning opportunities despite a risk of mistakes; provides mentoring and coaching when needed; helps people learn from mistakes.

Personal growth

The definition of spirituality provided by Fry ( 2003, 2005) includes two essential ele-ments in a person's life. _____ of self is manifest in a sense of " calling" or destiny, and the belief that one's activities, including work, have meaning and value beyond being instru-mental for obtaining economic benefits or self- gratification ( need for power, achievement, esteem).

Transcendence

_____ is an influence process between individuals, but it is also a process of mobilizing power to change social systems and reform institutions.

Transforming leadership

__ is established by being completely honest and open, keeping actions consistent with values, and showing trust in fol-lowers

Trust

The behavior of authentic leaders, including their espoused values, is consistent with their ____.

actual values

Conversely, some decisions and actions that improve short- term organizational perfor-mance will have ___ for employees or customers.

adverse consequences

In contrast, people with a strong moral identity and primary concern for formality will be the most likely to conform with existing rules or laws, even when the behavior is likely to have ____ for some people.

adverse consequences

However, as Heifetz ( 1994) pointed out, there is no ethically neutral ground for theories of leadership, because they always involve values and implicit __ about proper forms of influence.

assumptions

It is unclear whether the theory is a description of ___ actually possessed by effective leaders, or only an ideal form of ethical leadership that people can hope to attain

attributes

Nevertheless, follower ___ of charisma to the leader remains a central feature of the theory.

attribution

Both types of leaders use transformational behaviors, but the ___ leaders have integrity and do not attempt to manipulate or exploit follow-ers.

authentic

In most versions of the theory, an ___ relationship means that leader behavior is con-sistent with the leader's values, and both are consistent with follower values.

authentic

When the potential for unethical use of transformational behaviors was pointed out, the theory was modified to distinguish between ____ and ____ transformational leadership

authentic and inauthentic

a primary leadership role or function is to increase ___ about ethical issues and help people resolve conflicting values.

awareness

Efforts to ___ competing values and interests involve subjective judgments about rights, accountability, due process, and social responsibilities.

balance

When asked to describe ethi-cal leaders in one study, executives identified several __,___ and __ ( e. g., hon-est, trustworthy, altruistic, fair)

behaviors, values, and motives

These writers question the implicit assump-tion that the leader knows what is __ for followers, and there is concern about the misuse of power and control over information to bias follower perceptions about problems and events.

best

A study conducted in large U. S. corporations ( Weaver et al., 1999) found that top execu-tives with a strong concern for ethical behavior are more likely to implement ethical programs, and the scope of the programs is likely to be ___.

broader

Even more controversial is an attempt to ___ the underlying values and beliefs of indi-vidual followers.

change

However, in many situations the influ-ence process may involve: ( 2) inducing followers to ___ their underlying beliefs and values,

change

A special concern is the influence of ___ leaders on followers who are weak and insecure.

charismatic

In theories of servant, spiritual, and authentic leadership, the leader's values for humility, openness, and transparency in decision making and the emphasis on follower development and empowerment make it unlikely that the leader will be viewed as ___.

charismatic

Abusive supervision results in less organizational ___ behaviors by employees, and it also results in more retaliation and displaced aggression toward coworkers and the organization

citizenship

The influence of authentic leaders with some followers is enhanced by their confidence, ___ of values, and integrity.

clarity

Emotionally mature leaders with a socialized power orientation, a high level of _________, and a strong moral identity are more likely to resist the temptation to use their power to exploit others.

cognitive moral development

Thus, transforming leadership involves not only the moral elevation of indi-vidual followers, but also ___ efforts to accomplish social reforms.

collective

Influencing follower ___ and ___ for a task are the central aspects of most theories of effective leadership, but this influence is also the source of ethical concerns. The chal-lenge is to determine when such influence is proper.

commitment and optimism

The criteria appear plausible, but they may not take into account all of the ___ and ___ in evaluating ethical leadership.

complexities and dilemmas

If _____ are more important, the person will favor actions likely to result in the greatest benefit to all affected parties.

consequences

Sometimes effects at the individual and organizational level are ___, such as when higher employee trust and commitment also result in improved financial performance for the organization.

consistent

Authentic leaders have positive ___ such as honesty, altruism, kindness, fairness, accountability, and optimism. These ____ motivate authentic leaders to do what is right and fair for followers, and to create a special type of relationship that includes high mutual trust, transparency ( open and honest communication), guidance toward worthy shared objectives, and emphasis on follower welfare and development.

core values

Some ethical decisions will benefit employees or customers but increase ___ and reduce short- term financial performance.

costs

The difficulties in evaluating the effectiveness of leaders include ___ with complex trade- offs and stakeholders with partially conflicting interests.

multiple criteria

Judgments about ethical leadership vary somewhat across __, but researchers find that some types of leader behavior ( e. g., exploiting followers) are considered improper regardless of national ___.

cultures

Inspirational motivation can be used to increase subordinate commitment to task objectives, even though the leader cares only about ____ and career advancement.

self- enhancement

Most scholars consider integrity to be an important aspect of ethical leadership, but the meaning of integrity is still a subject of ___

debate

Service includes nurturing, __, and empowering followers. It is only by understanding followers that the leader can determine how best to serve their needs.

defending

As Heifetz ( 1994) proposed, it is important to help people understand a problem without ___ them.

demoralizing

Unlike physical maturation, moral development is not inevitable, and some people become fixated at a particular _____.

developmental stage

A person at this level may __ from norms and risk social rejection, economic loss, and physical punishment in order to achieve an important ethical objective

deviate

The _____ of a leader's decisions and actions complicate the evaluation of ethical leadership.

diverse consequences

A ___,____ environmentand a lack of strong regulation by government may encourage more risky decisions and illegal activ-ities intended to improve financial performance.

dynamic, uncertain

The ethical leadership theories described in this chapter are still in the ___ of devel-opment, and like most new theories there is substantial conceptual ambiguity

early stage

From this perspective, ethical leadership is satisfied by maximizing ____ that benefit own-ers while not doing anything strictly prohibited by laws and moral standards.

economic outcomes

If a servant leader is able to influence other leaders to become servant leaders as well, the result may be an ____ culture that attracts and retains talented, committed employees.

employee- oriented

Effective leaders ___ members and other stakeholders in a dialogue to determine what types of changes are necessary and morally right for the organization.

engage

However, in many situations the influ-ence process may involve: ( 1) creating ___ for a risky strategy or project,

enthusiasm

The use of ethical programs in an organization is also influenced by ____, such as media attention for ethical failures and corporate scandals.

environmental pres-sures

However, the theories do not specify a list of ____. The theories describe how ethical leaders can improve the lives of followers, and the leader's effects on followers have implications for improving collective performance, but maximizing performance is not a primary concern.

essential behaviors

They do not seek leadership positions to gratify a need for __,___or__, but rather to express and enact their values and beliefs.

esteem, status,and power

A leader who is at a higher level of development is usually regarded as more ____ than one at a lower level of development.

ethical

Despite the growing interest in __ leadership, there is considerable disagreement about the appropriate way to define and assess it.

ethical

Proponents of the revised versions of transformational and charismatic leadership theo-ries have attempted to clarify the criteria for determining when this type of leadership is __

ethical

Most theories of ethical leadership emphasize the importance of leader influence on fol-lowers and the ____ of an organization.

ethical climate

How the leader influences follower perception of the risks and prospects for success is relevant for ___ ethical leadership.

evaluating

As the charismatic leadership theories ___, there was more emphasis on leader values and socialized charismatics were differentiated from personalized charismatics

evolved

An example is to use kindness to gain the trust of people who will later be exploited.

example

Examples of typical features of ethics programs include a formal code of ethics, an ethical committee that is responsible for developing policies and practices, methods of reporting ethical concerns to the ethics committee or top management, ethics education programs, methods to monitor ethical behavior, and disciplinary processes to deal with unethical behavior.

example

For example, a study of abusive behavior by restaurant managers found that it resulted in higher food loss from employee theft and waste

example

For example, individual-ized consideration can be used in an inauthentic way to build subordinate loyalty

example

An_____ appears more ethical than supporting the faction that will provide the highest personal gain for the leader, playing stakeholders off against each other ( e. g., by encouraging negative stereotyping and mutual distrust), or trying to ignore substantive conflicts of interest.

integrative orientation

___ is an attribute that helps to explain leadership effectiveness. In cross- cultural research on the essential traits for effective leader-ship, ___ is near the top of the list in all cultures that have been studied

integrity

Many large organizations have ethical programs, and they often involve both an attempt to strengthen relevant ____, and features to enforce com-pliance with ethical guidelines and policies

internal values

At the highest level of moral development, the primary motivation is to fulfill ____ values and moral principles.

internalized

By doing things to help people satisfy the two essential needs for transcendence and fel-lowship in the workplace, spiritual leaders increase their ____, confidence, and organizational commitment.

intrinsic motivation

Fairness and ___: Encourages and supports fair treatment of people, speaks out against unfair and unjust practices or policies, opposes attempts to manipulate or deceive people or to undermine or violate their civil rights.

justice

With each successive stage, the person develops a broader understanding of the principles of ___,____ and _____.

justice, social respon-sibility, and human rights

The three criteria are usually considered in relation to each other, and a common issue is the extent to which the ends _____.

justify the means

Like the other theories of ethical leadership, the authentic leadership theories suffer from a ____ in the definition of essential qualities and the explanation of influence processes

lack of clarity

A ___ organizational change will not be successful without changes in member beliefs and perceptions.

large- scale

The ethical leadership theories have more emphasis on ____ than on leader behav-ior, and more emphasis on consequences for stakeholders than on enhancement of subordinate motivation and performance.

leader values

Burns described ___ as a process in which leaders and followers influence each other as the relationships evolve over time.

leadership

However, making this type of decision requires courage and strong convictions, because powerful stakeholders may expect a leader to protect their interests, regardless of the harm to people who are not viewed as _____

legitimate stakeholders

Research on the consequences of servant leadership is still ____, but several studies have found positive outcomes such as more commitment, self- efficacy, and organizational citi-zenship behavior

limited

Servant leaders must __ to followers, learn about their needs and aspirations, and be willing to share in their pain and frustration.

listen

Another dubious practice is to reduce spending on activities that are costly but essential for ___ performance. An example is less maintenance of equipment, despite the increased risk of costly breakdowns or accidents in the future.

longer- term

More research, including some intensive, ___ studies, will be needed to clarify the relationships proposed by the theories and determine their utility for explaining effective leadership.

longitudinal

The transformational behaviors can be used in a ____ way to influence follower task commitment and loyalty to the leader

manipulative

Greenleaf proposed that providing ____ for employees is as important as providing a quality product or service for the customer.

meaningful work

The impact of these values on behavior is most evident when there are rules or tradi-tions about proper behavior but no strong ___ about it.

moral consensus

A limitation of this narrower definition is the difficulty of getting agreement about justifi-able ____, especially when they are not the same for all cultures.

moral principles

Behaviors commonly regarded as _____ include observing the same rules and standards applied to others, being honest and candid when providing information or answering questions, keeping promises and commitments, and acknowledging responsibility for mistakes while also seeking to correct them.

morally justifiable

The initial version of transformational leadership was focused on the effects of specified leader behaviors on subordinate ___ and ____.

motivation and performance

A very different perspective is that managers should serve ______ inside and outside the organization. From this perspective, judgments about ethical leadership must take into account the extent to which a leader balances and integrates the interests of different stakeholders within the constraints imposed by legal and contractual obligations.

multiple stakeholders

Leader values are not explicitly specified, and there is ____ that leader behavior ( including espoused values and beliefs) must be consistent with the leader's actual values and beliefs.

no requirement

Conflicts between financial objectives and employee welfare are less intense in ___,___ and ___sector organizations, but even for these organizations a reduction in employee benefits may be necessary in a weak economy.

nonprofit, voluntary, and public

In the process, both the leader and followers will be changed. They will begin to consider not only what is good for themselves, but also what will benefit larger collectivities such as their __,__and __.

organization, community, and nation

A key characteristic was leader's efforts to influence the ethical behavior of __

others

Guidelines for Ethical Leadership: Model ethical behavior in your ____

own actions.

However, even in the revised version of the theory, improvement of ___ remains a stronger priority than improvement of subordinate welfare and happiness.

performance

Discussions of ethical leadership invariably involve the concept of ____

personal integrity

However, it is better to avoid scandals and financial failure by being ___and creating a strong ethical climate.

proactive

Guidelines for Ethical Leadership: Implement and support ___ to promote ethical behavior.

programs

The Kohlberg theory of moral development is similar in many ways to Kegan's ( 1982) theory of ____ development.

psycho- social

The final evaluation can be influenced as much by the __ of the judge as by the __ of the leader.

qualities

A favorable relationship and increased __ power for the leader make it easier to influence subordinates to carry out requests.

referent

Examples of research on the effects of ethical leadership are provided by a number of studies ( Reave, 2005), and there is clear evidence of beneficial effects for followers and for leader- member ___.

relations

Fry ( 2003) makes the point that ___ usually involves spirituality, but spirituality does not need __ to be meaningful.

religion

Two interesting ____ are the reason for differences in ethical behavior among leaders, and the consequences of ethical leadership for followers and the organization.

research questions

A servant leader must attend to the needs of followers and help them become healthier, wiser, and more willing to accept their ___.

responsibilities

In organizations that lack mechanisms to limit the power of the chief executive, abusive leaders are more difficult to ___ or ___ once they have been appointed or elected.

restrain or remove

For charismatic and transformational theories, these priorities are ___.

reversed

The formal ____ can encourage and support ethical or unethical behavior by leaders and members.

reward system

It is easier to evaluate ethical leadership when the interests of the leader, the followers, and the organization are congruent and can be attained by actions that do not involve much __or __.

risk or cost

A _____ may result in great benefits for followers if completed successfully, but the costs can also be high, especially if the project fails or takes much longer than expected.

risky venture

At a middle level of moral development, the primary motivation is to satisfy ___ and ___ determined by groups, organizations, and society.

role expectations and social norms

Decisions about moral behavior are also affected by values involving the consequences of behavior and the observance of formal __,___,___, and traditional practices

rules, policies, laws

Many different measures have been used to assess the effects of ethical leadership on followers, and they include some criteria seldom used in the earlier leadership research ( e. g., follower values and ethical behavior, follower _____, follower feelings of spiritual fulfillment).

self- awareness

Burns ( 1978, p. 20) described ___ as a process in which " leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of morality and motivation." These leaders seek to raise the conscious-ness of followers by appealing to ideals and moral values such as liberty, justice, equality, peace, and humanitarianism, not to baser emotions such as fear, greed, jealousy, or hatred.

transforming leadership

For example, a study of critical incidents found that a lack of leader integrity was the most frequent reason for erosion of __ by subordinates

trust

It is more difficult to discourage unethical behavior in countries where bribes and kickbacks, gender and religious/ ethnic discrimination, child labor abuse, hazardous working conditions, unsafe products, deceptive advertising, sexual harass-ment, and falsifying accounting records to evade taxes are widely accepted practices in organiza-tions.

understand

However, behaviors that appear morally justifiable can be used for ____ purposes.

unethical

Some writers contend that this type of leader influence is clearly ___, even when the intended outcome is to benefit followers as well as the organization

unethical

Unethical behavior is more likely when performance goals are ______, there is high pressure for increased productiv-ity, there is intense competition for rewards and advancement, and the organization does not have strong cultural values and norms about ethical conduct and individual responsibility.

unrealistically difficult

The development of new measures of ethical leadership is still in the early stages, and more ___ research is needed for them.

validation

The integration of spirituality with work is difficult if not impossible in organizations that encourage or require employees to act in ways that are inconsistent with their ___

values

The types of values emphasized in the ethical lead-ership theories indicate that some types of leadership behavior are more revelant than others, and the behaviors should be consistent with the leaders' ___.

values

What the leader ___ and how the person acts are not part of this definition, and critics contend that the values must be moral and the behavior must be consistent with a set of justifiable moral principles

values

Consistency between personal ___ and ____ is important to leaders as well as to followers.

values and work objectives

Despite the potential benefits from servant leadership, there may also be some negative con-sequences for an organization when the __ of followers is considered more important than financial performance

welfare

The definition of authentic leadership varies for different theorists, but they all emphasize the importance of consistency in a leader's __,___and ___.

words, actions, and values

Leaders of business organizations sometimes have an opportunity to support a ____, even though it does not provide any short- term benefit to the financial performance of the organization.

worthy cause