PSYCH 101: Chapters 9 & 10
Piaget's three ways which children's moral thinking shifts as they grow and develop
1. Tends to shift from realism to relativism. As youngin, bad things are always bad, as we get older bad things get relative. Ultimately bad or relative 2. Tends to shift from prescriptions to principles: Ex. Children think a rule is everyone gets a turn on the iPad. As they mature, they learn that it's about equality and fairness. 3. Tends to shift from outcomes to intentions: As a child, the act of breaking an ipad accidentaly is very bad. As we grow older it's not as bad because they didn't intend to.
Language Structure Components?
Morphemes, Phonemes
2-Factor Theory
intelligence suggested that ever task requires a combination of a general ability (which he called g) and skills that are specific to the task (which he called s) - Charles Spearman.
Function Morphemes
serve grammatical functions
John Carroll
1916-2003 8 middle level abilities that included fluid and crystalized intelligences
Robert Sternberg
1949- 3 middle level abilities
Name the theories of intelligence
2-Factor Theory, Multiple Intelligence, Crystallized vs Fluid
Language production (Cooing, Babbling)
6-8 weeks: Cooing. Don't understand words but can distinguish between languages 4-6 months: Babbling- producing consonant vowel sounds MaMa, BaBa , repeating an interesting sound for the pleasure of making it 6- around 12 months: categorizing the sounds of their native language; they begin segmenting words After around 12 months: Semantic Development
Howard Gardner
8 Kinds of intelligences, Multiple intelligence theory. 1943
Skinner's Language Learning theory
Argued that children learn language through operant conditioning
Bowlby's Theory of attachment
Attachment bonds have four defining features: (1) proximity maintenance (2) separation distress (3) safe haven (4) secure base
Autonomous Morality (Automatically made by people)
Becomes aware that rules and laws are created by people; in judging an action, one should consider actor' s intentions as well as consequences (10+ years)
Freud's Psychosexual/Psychoanalytic Theory
Biologically based sexual instincts motivate behavior and steer development through 5 psycho-sexual stages, oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stage. Bad, Nurture, Passive, Discontinuous, Universal
Prototype theory
Bosch theorized that categories are organized around a prototype - the best or most typical member of a category. For American, prototype of the bird category would be a wren. According to prototype theory, if yor prototypical bird is a robin, a canary would be considered a better example of a bird than would an ostrich because a canary has more features in common with a robin than an ostrich.
Cultural/ Economic Biases of IQ test
Caucasians outscore Latinos who outscore African Americans. Men smarter than women..
Learning Theory: Nativism
Chomsky said language-learning capacities are built into the human brain and are separate from general intelligence. Nativist theory is the view that language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity. Children learn the grammatical rules of human language with ease in part because they are "wired" to do so
Piaget's Constructivism (NGADU)
Development proceeds through four stages of cognitive development from sensorimotor to formal operations. Nature, Good, Active, Discontinuous, Universal
Exemplar Theory
Exemplar theory holds that we make category judgments by comparing a new instance with stored memories for other instances of the category. (Medin and Schaffer) When walking and see a 4-legged animal and think it could be a wolf but it resembles a golden retriever so you figure it's a dog and you walk away in calmness. You do this because you used other examples of dogs as a specific example.
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
Humans progress through 8 psychosocial crisis in which a healthy developing individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood. Good, Nature AND Nurture, Active, Discontinuous, Univeral.
Learning Theory: Interactionism
Infants are born with an innate ability to acquire language, social interactions play a crucial role in language. Parents tailor verbal interactions with children to simplify. Bruner & Ferrar
Universal Grammar
Input (language data) -> Language acquisition device ->Output. States that all children are born with an innate ability to acquire, develop, and understand language.
Piaget's theories of moral development
It shifts in 3 ways. Heteronomous morality- justice and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people (4-7 years). And autonomous morality Becomes aware that rules and laws are created by people; in judging an action, one should consider actor' s intentions as well as consequences (10+ years)
Kohlberg's theories of moral development
Kohlberg also spoke moral reasoning in three stages Basically, Kohlber says moral reasoning shifts from an emphasis on punishment to an emphasis on social rules and finally to ethical principles.
Semantic Development
Learning the meaning of words 12 months: First words Initially this is a slow, gradual process Maybe learn a couple of words a week Object words, directives, some social words (bye-bye) Then, several months after it begins, word learning speeds up dramatically Usually begins when child's vocabulary is around 50-100 words 18-month-olds know about 50 words By 24-months, around 200-300 words At 3-yrs, 500-1000 words
Disorganized Attachment
No consistency
Most common word learning errors?
Over and Under extending
How do learning theories account for language acquisition?
Over repeated exposures, infants may learn to associate an object with a sound or word for that object. When an infant babbles 'dada,' the infant is rewarded by smiling and happy parents who cheer and reward their child's efforts at communicating. And infants may learn language by observing caregivers and imitating their sounds.
Morphemes
Phonemes are combined to make morphemes - the smallest meaningful units of language. Can be prefixes or suffixes.
Harlow's Theory of attachment and experiment + results
Rheusus monkey study. The baby monkeys that weren't allowed social cotact after 6 months compulsively rocked back and forth, avoided social contact when confronted, incapable of communicating w/or learning from others, mothers rejected their kids, chose the cloth mothers after.
4 Types of attachment
Secure, Avoidant, Ambiguant, Disorganized
Learning theory: Behaviorism.
Skinner said we learn to talk in the same way we learn any other skill: through reinforcement, shaping, extinction, and other basic principles of operant conditioning. Attractive because it offers a simple account of language development but it can't account for many fundamental characteristics of language development.
Attachment Theory
Social contact is vital especially in the first 6 months of a babies' life
What's the "Strange Situation"? (Ainsworth)
The strange situation is a procedure devised by Mary Ainsworth in 1969 to observe attachment relationships between a caregiver and a child. It applies to children between the ages of twelve and twenty four months. Revealed the 4 types of attachment.
Theory of Mind (and how does it help children learn from others)
The understanding that other people's mental representations guide their behaviors. 1. Being able to infer and use information from other people about their emotions, intentions, desires, and beliefs. 2. Understand that the behavior of others is not just a reaction to the environment, but also to mental states. A "theory" because child infers others' mental states from their behavior and use these concepts to predict and explain behavior
Multiple Intelligence Theory
Visual-Spatial - think in terms of physical space Very aware of their environments Bodily-kinesthetic - Movement/ body awareness Musical - show sensitivity to rhythm and sound. Interpersonal - understanding, interacting with others. Intrapersonal - understanding one's own interests, goals. Linguistic - using words effectively. These learners have highly developed auditory skills and often think in words. Logical -Mathematical - reasoning, calculating. Naturalistic - The ability to make consequential distinctions in the world of nature
Environmental Impacts on IQ
When physiological needs not met, less likely to pay attention to IQ requirements, etc.
Over Extension
Word LEarning Error- Ex. Using the word "Cat" to mean all 4-legged animals
Under extension
Word learning error- Ex. using the word "cat" to mean only their cat.
Ratio IQ and how to calculate it
a statistic obtained by dividing a person's mental age by the person's physical age and then multiplying the quotient by 100. After the age of 16 intelligence begins to level off so measure adult's intelligence by Deviation IQ
Deviant IQ and how to calculate it
a statistic obtained by dividing a person's test score by the average test score of people the same age group then multiplying by 100.
Goodness/ Badness
are humans innately good, innately bad (tabulae rasae) or both?.
Fast-Mapping
children map a word unto an underlying concept after only a single exposure- this lets children learn at a rapid pace.
Active/ PAssive
do humans actively shape their own environments and contribute to their own development- or are they passively shaped by forces beyond their control?
Continuity/ Discontinuity
do humans change gradually and in quantitative ways - or do they progress through qualitatively different stages and change dramatically into different beings?
Family Resemblance Theory
feature that appear to be characteristic of category members but may not be possessed by every member.
Universiality/ Context Specificity
is development from person to person and from culture to culture- or do pathways of development vary considerably depending on the social context?
Nature/ Nurture
is development primarily the product of genes, biology, and maturation - or of experience, learning, adn social influences?
Crystallized Intelligence
is the ability to retain and use knowledge that was acquired through experience.
Heteronomous morality
justice and rules can't be changed or controlled by people (4-7 years)
Cognitive Social Learning Theory
learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur ***purely through observation*** or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement.
Bandura's Cognitive Social Learning Theory (N,N,A,C,C)
learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement. Nurture, neither good nor bad, active, continuous, context specific.
Ambivalent Attachment
leaves-> distress. Comes back-> refuse calming attempts
Conventional Stage
moral development where the morality is determined by how it conforms to social rules. Immoral actions are those where one is condemned by others.
Ainsworth's Theory of attachment
mothers tend to be especially sensitive to signs of their child's emotional state. • Ugandan children show stranger anxiety earlier, also begin crawling at earlier age (Ainsworth, 1967). Correlation between attachment and mobility makes evolutionary sense.
Surface Structure
refers to how a sentence is worded
Deep Structure
refers to the meaning of a sentence
Content Morphemes
refers to things and events
Preconventional Stage
stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor.
Fluid Intelligence
the ability to see abstract relationships and draw logical inferences. Involves being able to think and reason abstractly and solve problems. Examples of the use of fluid intelligence include solving puzzles and coming up with problem-solving strategies.
Phonemes
the smallest unit of sound that are recognizable as speech rather than as random noise. There are appx. 44 phonemes - (AH noise, EH, etc.)
Postconventional Stage
when a behavior goes against core values such as the right to life, liberty, and happiness, it's considered immoral.
Secure Attachment
when caregiver leaves infant is either in distress or not. When caregiver comes back- infant go to caregiver or greet them with a glance or greeting accordingly.
Avoidant Attachment
when caregiver leaves, avoidant infants are not distressed but when they return, they don't acknowledge the caregiver.