psych 484 exam 2
self efficacy meta analysis Stajkovic & Luthans
114 studies, 21,616 individuals; self efficacious individuals perform better (.38); 28% gain in work performance due to self efficacy; 2 factors that weaken the relationship between self efficacy and performance: high task complexity and field settings (less of a relationship in field settings than in lab settings)
Equity Theory
Adams general idea: how hard a person is willing to work is determined by what is fair and just source of motivation: tension to reduce inequity this theory is socially oriented
organizational applications of goal setting theory - management by objectives (MBO)
COMPONENTS: goal specificity and timelines, participation (supervisors and employees set goals); implementation (translate goals into action); performance appraisal and feedback RESEARCH: meta-analysis found 97% of 23 studies found positive results & productivity increase of 39%; management support is very important POTENTIAL PROBLEMS W MBO: goals might be too easy; increased stress due to too many or too difficult goals; short-term thinking; ignoring non-goal areas; dishonesty and cheating
greenberg 2006 justice/injustice
METHOD: examined insomnia as a reaction to underpayment inequity & assesses if exposure to interactionally fair supervision improves insomnia HYPOTHESES: underpayment inequity will lead to higher level of insomnia but employees whose supervisors are trained in interactional justice will have less insomnia METHODOLOGY: independent variables: pay and interactional justice training; dependent variable: insomnia (measures at 4 data collection points - before change, after change, after interactional justice training, after 6-month hiatus) RESULTS: hypotheses were supported; sleep improvement persisted for 6 months after training
intro to equity theory
a cognitive theory of motivation - emphasizes the effects of thoughts, expectations, and judgements; is what i get for my work fair compared to others?
research on self fulfilling prophecy
a lot of research has been conducted on the pygmalion effect; less research has been conducted in organizational settings than educational settings
2 behavioral and 2 cognitive ways to cope with underpayment inequity
change own inputs (don't work as hard or work harder), change own outcomes (ask for a raise), change the comparison other (compare self to unemployed person instead of coworker), distort views of others inputs/outcomes (well, my coworker does work really hard, so maybe she deserved the raise over me)
behavioral ways to reduce inequity
change own inputs (work harder or less hard); change own outcomes (ask for a raise); persuade comparison other to change his or her inputs (tell person getting paid more than you to work harder); withdrawal (quit); steal from company
self efficacious individuals
direction: select tasks in which they feel confident or highly self efficacious, avoid tasks in which they don't feel high self efficacy; intensity: persist longer in the face of failure; goal setting: set more challenging goals, are more committed to difficult goals
cognitive ways to reduce inequity
distort view of one's own inputs/outcomes; distort views of others inputs/outcomes (my coworker does work hard, maybe she deserved the promotion over me); change the comparison other (from colleague who is paid more to someone unemployed) *these methods are less risky than behavioral options but may be less effective*
types of justice
distributive, procedural, interactional
weaknesses of equity theory
does a better job of explaining past behavior than predicting future behavior; don't know who comparison other is; weak research support for overpayment; focuses on distributive justice but ignores other types; declining interest among io psychologists
solutions to potential MBO problems
easy goals: motivate by goals but reward by performance; stress: ensure ability and opportunity and adjust goal difficulty; short-term thinking: increase time span of goals (set long-term goals); ignoring non-goals: make comprehensive goals (focus on quality AND quantity); dishonesty/cheating: set goals for ethics
strengths of equity theory
emphasizes the social component of motivation, which none of the other theories have; emphasizes the importance of fair compensation; some research support, especially for underpayment
individual differences in equity sensitivity
equity sensitives will prefer an equal input/outcome ratio to comparison others; benevolent prefer a lower input/outcome ratio to comparison others (givers/altruists); entitleds prefer a higher input/outcome ratio to comparison others (takers)
greenberg 1990 (equity theory)
examined theft as a reaction to inequity among employees company reduced wages by 15% in 2 plants in the plant that provided an adequate explanation of the wage cuts, stealing increased slightly and there was less turnover (employees see situation as slightly unfair) while in the plant that did not provide an adequate explanation had a 2 fold increase in theft and more turnover (employees see situation as very unfair)
Latham and Baldes Study (1975) goal setting theory
field experiment of logging industry truck drivers - dependent variable: percent truck weight; independent variable: specific/difficult goal RESULTS: immediate improvement (from 58% to 70-90% of legal allowable weight); effects lasted for 7 years; company saved over $250,000 in 9 months CONCLUSION: goal setting is inexpensive and effective
important goal conditions
goal acceptance/commitment, specificity, difficulty, feedback
weaknesses of goal setting theory
goal setting works best when tasks are simple (effort is key determinant for easy tasks, ability and task strategies are key determinants for complex tasks); theory doesn't address a lot of the dynamics behind goal setting (why does it work? where do goals come from?); goal setting has a dark side and MBO has pitfalls (may encourage unethical behavior)
weaknesses of self efficacy theory
high self efficacy can lead to overconfidence and therefore lower performance in some cases
organizational issues of equity theory
implementation is difficult because we can't know who the individual is using as their comparison other; pay secrecy typically doesn't work and it hurts motivation bc people overestimate what their coworkers make and underestimate what their superiors make
combinations of justice
individuals are more likely to pursue litigation when all 3 forms of justice are low; if even one component is perceived to be high, the likelihood of a legal claim drops
process feedback
info on how one performed a task; informs what to change AND how to change; results in better performance for complex tasks; use for learning goals (focus is on improving competence)
elements of equity theory
inputs: anything of value a person brings to a job (hard worker, intelligent, MBA) outputs: benefits received from the job (promotion, pay, job security) *role of perceptions is in the eye of the beholder*
conclusions regarding participation in goal setting
key issue is whether goals are set, not how they are set; the average effect from employee participation is less than 1%, versus 16% for goal setting
feedback
knowledge of the results of one's actions - reveals whether or not efforts are on target, allows employees to adjust effort, persistence, and task strategies; feedback needs to be specific *goal setting and feedback work better together than either does separately*
self fulfilling theory cycle
management assumes the worst about employees, management treats employees with rigid control and little respect, employees respond negatively to treatment, employees become what the manager assumed about them
global model of performance in relation to self efficacy
self efficacy = motivational component; no amount of self efficacy will result in high performance when individuals lack either ability or the opportunity needed to succeed
where does inequity come from?
social comparison (self vs other); as long as my outcomes are roughly equal to someone else's i'm content; my inputs/my outcomes = others inputs/others outcomes
specificity
specific goals include: what needs to be done, how much needs to be done, a performance period (deadline); specific goals produce higher level of output than general "do your best" goals *specificity in itself does not result in high performance*
goals must be SMART
specific, measurable, agreed-upon (acceptable to others in the organization and yourself), realistic, time-based (needs a deadline)
strengths of self efficacy theory
strong research support, easily and inexpensively applied in organizations
goal acceptance/commitment
the degree to which individuals accept goals and are determined to achieve them; most likely to occur when you perceive that goals are attainable, you make the goals public (tell people about them - forces accountability), the individual has an internal locus of control (believe outcomes are result of own abilities, but any outside force determining what is meant to be)
self fulfilling prophecy
the expectation of an event can cause it to happen; beliefs and expectations create reality; Sweeney's miracle; rats labeled as smart reported as performing better than those labeled as average
distributive justice
the focus of equity theory - is the outcome fair?; equity - distribute resources based on contribution, equality - everyone gets the same, need - distribute resources based on who needs more
difficulty
the most established finding on goal setting: people perform better for a specific, difficult goal than for a vague goal or no goal, unless goals are unrealistic or the individual has lower commitment for difficult goals
before goals can improve performance....
the person must have the ability to attain the goal; situational constraints must not prevent performance
why do goals motivate behavior?
they direct attention and focus, affect the intensity of effort and persistence, and facilitate the development of strategies (work harder vs work smarter)
consequences of inequity
underpayment inequity leads to feelings of anger; overpayment inequity leads to feelings of guilt (theory assumes that both under and overpayment are detrimental to motivation)
negative inequity
underpayment inequity; my inputs/outcomes is less than others inputs/outcomes
organizational applications of self efficacy theory
utilize the sources of self efficacy: structure assignments so that employees succeed at increasingly difficult tasks (training may increase self efficacy); provide role models/mentors; offer praise and encouragement; offer additional support for complex tasks *self efficacy interventions are inexpensive, easily administered, and highly effective*
two primary questions addressed by equity theory
where does perceived equity/inequity come from? what are the consequences of equity/inequity?
label and describe the 4 types of justice
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE: focuses on outcome satisfaction (everyone gets the same, resource distribution based on contribution and who needs more) PROCEDURAL JUSTICE: focuses on system satisfaction (are the procedures for distributing rewards fair? free from bias? do individuals have a voice in the process?) INTERACTIONAL JUSTICE: the appropriateness of the treatment one receives from authority figures - interpersonal: am I treated fairly and with politeness and dignity? informational: is the explanation I received fair? am i provides with complete and timely explanations about the course of action?
intro to goal setting theory
Ed Locke cognitive theory of motivation source of motivation: desire and intention to attain a goal goal: target for action
Schweitzer, Ordonez, & Duoma (2004) - the dark side of goal setting
PURPOSE: does goal setting motivate unethical behavior when people fall short of their goals? HYPOTHESES: 1. people with specific, unmet goals will be more likely to overstate their performance than people with "do you best" goals; 2. people with unmet reward goals will be more likely to overstate their performance than people with unmet mere goals; 3. people who fail to reach their goals by a small margin will be more likely to falsely claim that they have reached their goals than people who fail to reach their goals by a large margin METHODOLOGY: students completed anagram task; independent variable: goal condition (do your best, mere goal (9 words), reward goal ($2 for each 9 word goal met); dependent variable: unethical behavior RESULTS: majority of participants didn't overstate productivity; goal setting alone increased tendency to overstate productivity; reward goal participants didn't take money they didn't claim to have earned; participants were more likely to overstate their productivity when they were close to their goal CONCLUSIONS: hypotheses 1 & 3 were supported but 2 wasn't; goal setting can be constructive, but it can also lead to unethical behavior; managers should be on lookout for unethical behavior w goal setting (especially when employees are very close to their goal)
mohammed & billings study (2002)
PURPOSE: examined the effects of self efficacy on threat/opportunity perceptions; draw causal link LAB STUDY: N= 277 undergrads, managerial diagnostic task, reading scenarios and diagnosing the situation HIGH SELF EFFICACY CONDITION: positive feedback (performance outcomes), told they performed better than MBAS (vicarious experience), told performed well on difficult task (verbal persuasion), told it was an exercise to calm them (physiological and emotional response) LOW SELF EFFICACY CONDITION: negative feedback, told they performed worse than other undergrads, told they performed poorly on an ordinary task, told it was a test RESULTS: self efficacy manipulation was effective (males reported greater self efficacy than females); high self efficacy participants were more likely to categorize situations as opportunities; this experiment required extensive debriefing
eden & zuk (1995) self fulfilling prophecy - sea sickness
PURPOSE: replicate the Galatea effect and self efficacy findings in an organizational context (sea sickness among cadets) HYPOTHESIS: raising self efficacy for coping with rough seas would reduce sea sickness and enhance performance METHODOLOGY: 25 cadets; independent variable: specific self efficacy; experimental group: verbal persuasion (based on your test results, you have the ability to overcome sea sickness), modeling of commander (shared his story of overcoming seasickness), film (u can overcome seasickness); control group: feedback/questions, routine procedures, film (research on sea sickness) RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: raising specific self efficacy reduced sea sickness and improved performance (confirmed Galatea effect) LIMITATIONS: small N (25); self report measures not always accurate (cadets could lie)
intro to self efficacy theory
albert bandura social cognitive/social learning theory source of motivation: belief that one can succeed on a task
Interational Justice
appropriateness of the treatment one receives from authority figures; 2 types: interpersonal - am I treated fairly and with politeness and dignity? informational - complete and timely explanations provided to employees about the course of action; is the explanation I received fair?
justice vs injustice
are justice and injustice opposite ends of a spectrum, or flip sides of a coin?; injustice experiences are stronger than justice experiences (we expect to be treated fairly so we don't get excited when we are, but when we are treated unfairly we get angry)
when employees perceive unfairness, they...
are more likely to steal, are more aggressive, have stronger turnover intentions, are more likely to engage in CWBs
when employees perceive fairness, they...
are more productive; are more likely to go beyond the call of duty (spills over to customers)
procedural justice
are the procedures for distributing rewards fair? are procedures free from bias? do individuals have a voice in the process? is there consistency across people and time?
organizational implications of goal setting theory
assign goals for new, inexperienced employees; set goals jointly with employees with moderate experience; let employees with a proven track record set their own goals
organizational justice interventions
avoid underpayment as much as possible (equal pay for equal work); give employees a voice in decision making, grievance/appeals process- provide someone higher up for employees to talk to other than their supervisor in case they are having an issue with their supervisor; treat employees with dignity and respect and provide adequate information to employees
characteristics of good feedback
be specific; give behavioral suggestions for change; direct attention towards performance, not the person (harsh, negative feedback can reduce goal striving and performance)
research support on participation in goal setting
mixed results - assigned goals can be just as motivating as participatively set goals if accepted bc they can communicate confidence in the employee, and in some cases an employee may be inexperienced or in a high-power distance culture (boss and employee very separated, employees have little-no say in what happens)
research support for equity theory
mixed support- stronger support for underpayment than overpayment; we don't know how long overpayment equity lasts for; studies show fewer runs scored and more losses by baseball teams with high pay differences; studies show increase in theft when employees have feelings of inequity
intro to organizational justice
more current and broader in scope than equity theory; perceptions of injustice are caused by more than social comparison
outcome feedback
most commonly used - info about performance outcomes; informs that a change needs to be made; results in better performance for simple tasks; use for performance goals (focus is on proving competence/performance)
strengths of goal setting theory
most popular theory of motivation in io psych; elegant and simple; well-supported by research; generalizable
pygmalion effect
occurs when a person's high expectations of a another person result in high performance for that person (the prophet is somebody else)
Galatea effect
occurs when high self expectations lead to high performance (you are your own prophet)
empirical support of goal setting theory
one of the most extensively studied topics in io psych; the most well-supported motivational theory in io psych; strong research support (over 1,000 studies over 40 years in 8+ countries)
self efficacy theory
ones belief about the likelihood of successfully completing a task or goal; is task-specific (creative efficacy, mathematics efficacy, decision making efficacy)
equity theory has evolved into _____________
organizational justice
positive inequity
overpayment inequity; my inputs/outcomes are more than others inputs/outcomes
meta-analytic results of goal setting studies
performance improves by 16% following goal setting interventions; 90% of conducted studies have found positive results for specific, difficult goals
what causes self efficacy? (in order from most to least powerful factors)
performance outcomes (personal experiences you've had in the past); vicarious experiences (observing others' performance); verbal persuasion (encouragement/discouragement received from others - must be credible to be believable); physiological and emotional reactions (sensation perceived from your body during performance)
