PSYCH 9-15
Given an example, relate adolescent behavior to changes in the limbic system and prefrontal cortex.
Adolescent behavior can be related to changes in the limbic system and prefrontal cortex. The limbic system, which is responsible for emotion and motivation, may drive impulsive and risky behavior in adolescents. The prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for executive function and decision-making, may be less developed and less effective in regulating behavior during adolescence. For example, an adolescent may engage in risky behavior such as substance use because their prefrontal cortex is not yet fully developed, and their limbic system is driving their desire for reward and novelty.
Differentiate adolescent egocentrism from early-childhood egocentrism.
Adolescent egocentrism is different from early-childhood egocentrism because it involves not only the belief that one's own thoughts and feelings are unique and important but also the belief that others are constantly thinking about and evaluating them. In early childhood, egocentrism is primarily limited to the belief that one's own perspective is the only one that exists.
State and/or identify evidence that high schools are attempting to ready adolescents for college.
Advanced coursework: Many high schools offer advanced coursework, such as Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) programs, Career exploration: High schools may offer career exploration programs or courses to help students identify potential career paths and develop the skills and knowledge needed for success in their chosen fields. Test preparation: High schools may provide test preparation services for college entrance exams, such as the SAT or ACT, to help students achieve their best possible scores. College partnerships: Some high schools partner with colleges and universities to provide students with opportunities for early admission, dual enrollment, or internships, which can help students gain valuable experience and prepare for college. Overall, high schools are making efforts to provide students with the skills and resources they need to succeed in college and beyond. State and/or identify evidence that high schools are attempting to ready adolescents for college.
Describe the physical and psychosocial changes in sexual responsiveness with age.
As adults age, changes in sexual responsiveness may occur, including decreased sexual desire and physical changes in sexual functioning. However, many older adults continue to have satisfying sexual lives.
State the benefits often correlated with marriage.
Benefits often correlated with marriage include better physical and mental health, greater wealth and financial stability, and longer life expectancy.
Discuss/identify reasons in favor of considering alternatives to college.
Career opportunities: There are many high-paying careers that do not require a college degree, such as skilled trades, entrepreneurship, and technical positions in fields like healthcare or information technology. Financial considerations: College can be expensive, and many students may not want to take on the debt that comes with student loans. Pursuing alternative paths, such as vocational or apprenticeship programs, may be more financially feasible for some students. Personal goals and interests: Not all students may be interested in pursuing a traditional college degree. Alternative paths can provide opportunities for students to pursue their passions and interests in non-academic fields. Work experience: Pursuing alternative paths can provide students with valuable work experience, which can be an asset when applying for jobs in the future.
Describe changes in cohabitation across the years, as well as benefits and risks found by research.
Changes in cohabitation across the years have included an increase in the number of couples living together before marriage and an increase in the number of older couples choosing to cohabit instead of remarrying. Research has found that cohabiting couples tend to have higher levels of relationship instability and lower levels of commitment than married couples. However, cohabitation can also offer benefits such as flexibility and the opportunity to test compatibility before marriage.
Describe/identify the trends in cigarette smoking in North America across time, income, and gender.
Cigarette smoking rates have declined over time in North America, particularly among women and those with higher incomes. However, smoking rates remain higher among those with lower incomes and education levels.
Define circadian rhythms and describe the phase delay.
Circadian rhythms are biological processes that follow a 24-hour cycle. Phase delay refers to the tendency for adolescents to have a delayed sleep-wake cycle, which can result in difficulty falling asleep at night and feeling tired during the day. This relates to why some high schools might adopt later start times to better align with adolescent sleep patterns.
Compare cognitive changes experienced by college students in the 1980s to those experienced in recent years.
Cognitive changes experienced by college students in recent years have included an increased focus on practical, job-related skills and a decreased emphasis on general education requirements.
Discriminate when college debt is/is not typically worth incurring.
College debt is typically worth incurring when it leads to a degree in a high-paying field, such as medicine or law, or when it is relatively low compared to expected future earnings. However, college debt can be burdensome when it is high relative to earnings potential or when it leads to financial hardship.
Describe college massification including the two primary forces driving it.
College massification refers to the trend of increasing numbers of individuals attending college. The two primary forces driving it are the demand for higher education in an increasingly complex economy and the increasing availability of financial aid.
Describe/identify examples of the common consequences of divorce.
Common consequences of divorce include financial stress, emotional distress, decreased well-being for children, and a higher likelihood of future relationship instability.
State/identify ways to compensate for age-related losses and factors that contribute to whether or not individuals use them.
Compensatory strategies are ways that older adults can adapt to age-related losses in cognitive and physical functioning. Examples of compensatory strategies include using technology to aid memory, delegating tasks, and using external aids, such as reading glasses or hearing aids. The likelihood of using compensatory strategies depends on factors such as age, health status, and education level.
Describe and/or identify an example of the role culture plays in personality.
Culture can play a significant role in shaping personality traits and behaviors. For example, collectivist cultures may value traits such as obedience, loyalty, and social harmony, while individualistic cultures may value traits such as independence, self-expression, and achievement. Cultural norms and expectations can also influence communication styles, social behaviors, and attitudes towards various aspects of life, such as work, family, and religion.
Describe/identify the pattern and consequences of drug use/abuse in adulthood.
Drug abuse and addiction are major problems that can occur in adulthood, leading to numerous physical, psychological, and social consequences.
State the age trends for drug use during adolescence and the three most commonly used drugs.
Drug use tends to increase during adolescence, with the highest rates occurring in late adolescence. The three most commonly used drugs among adolescents are alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco.
Describe factors that increase the risk of attachment issues for adopted children.
Early experiences of neglect, abuse, or separation from their birth parents Multiple placements in foster care or institutional care Lack of information about their biological families and their history Challenges in building a sense of identity and belonging in their adoptive family
Name and describe Erikson's stage of psychosocial development during adolescence.
Erikson's stage of psychosocial development during adolescence is identity versus role confusion. This stage involves adolescents' efforts to develop a coherent sense of self and a stable identity. Adolescents may explore different identities and roles before committing to a sense of self.
Name and describe Erikson's stage of psychosocial development during emerging adulthood.
Erikson's stage of psychosocial development during emerging adulthood is called intimacy versus isolation. This stage involves the challenge of forming close, meaningful relationships with others while maintaining a sense of personal identity.
Name and describe examples of adolescent egocentrism.
Examples of adolescent egocentrism include the belief that one's experiences are more intense and important than those of others, the belief that others are constantly thinking about and evaluating them, and the tendency to engage in risky behaviors to impress peers or prove oneself.
Identify examples of analytic, creative, and practical intelligence.
Examples of analytic intelligence include skills related to logic, analysis, and problem-solving. Creative intelligence involves the ability to generate novel ideas and think outside the box. Practical intelligence involves the ability to apply knowledge and skills to real-world situations.
Define/identify an example of executive function.
Executive function refers to a set of cognitive skills involved in planning, decision-making, and self-control. An example of executive function is the ability to resist the urge to eat a tempting snack in order to stick to a healthy eating plan.
Describe expert cognition and identify examples of it being intuitive, automatic, strategic, and flexible.
Expert cognition refers to the knowledge and skills of individuals who are experts in a particular domain. Expert cognition is often intuitive, automatic, strategic, and flexible. Examples of expert cognition might include a chess player who can quickly recognize and respond to patterns on the board, or a scientist who can use their expertise to develop creative solutions to complex problems.
State ways that exposure to diversity affects college students' learning.
Exposure to diversity can affect college students' learning by challenging their assumptions and broadening their perspectives. This can lead to increased critical thinking skills and the ability to work effectively with diverse groups.
Describe the relationship between exposure to sexually explicit media and adolescent sexual behavior, and different ways this relationship can be explained.
Exposure to sexually explicit media has been associated with earlier sexual initiation and increased sexual risk-taking. This relationship may be explained by increased desensitization to sexual content or by a tendency to seek out sexual experiences.
Differentiate extrinsic and intrinsic rewards of work, and describe how the value of each commonly shifts over the period of adulthood.
Extrinsic rewards of work are tangible rewards such as salary, benefits, and promotions, while intrinsic rewards are intangible rewards such as job satisfaction, personal fulfillment, and a sense of purpose. The value of each may shift over the course of adulthood, with intrinsic rewards becoming more important as people age.
Describe factors that contribute to the rise in depression during adolescence.
Factors that contribute to the rise in depression during adolescence include biological changes, stress, and negative life events. Adolescents may also experience difficulties with identity development and social relationships.
Define/identify an example of familism and common outcomes related to family conflict.
Familism refers to a cultural value that prioritizes the well-being and unity of the family. Family conflict can result from clashes between individual and familial goals and values. This conflict can have negative outcomes for adolescents, such as anxiety and depression.
Describe the likelihood and health of fertility during emerging adulthood.
Fertility during emerging adulthood is generally high, although it may decline slightly in the late twenties. Women are most fertile in their early twenties, while men remain fertile into their thirties.
Define "fictive kin" and provide reasons why people have them.
Fictive kin refers to individuals who are not biologically related but are considered as family members. People have fictive kin because they may feel a sense of connection and belonging with them, and they may provide emotional and social support that is similar to that provided by biological kin.
Compare and contrast the age-related differences in fluid and crystallized intelligence. Describe how one compensates for the other.
Fluid intelligence refers to the ability to solve novel problems and reason abstractly, while crystallized intelligence involves knowledge and skills gained through experience and education. Fluid intelligence tends to decline across adulthood, while crystallized intelligence tends to increase or remain stable. However, older adults may compensate for declines in fluid intelligence by relying on their greater accumulated knowledge and experience, or by using strategies to enhance their performance.
Identify an example of how a specific personality trait might affect a person's choice of jobs, mates, lifestyle, and neighborhood.
For example, someone who scores high in extraversion may be more likely to choose a job that involves working with people or requires public speaking, while someone who scores high in openness to experience may be more likely to choose a job that allows for creativity and exploration. Similarly, someone who scores high in agreeableness may be more likely to choose a mate who is kind and empathetic, while someone who scores high in conscientiousness may be more likely to choose a mate who is responsible and dependable. Personality traits can also influence a person's lifestyle and choice of neighborhood, such as someone who scores high in openness to experience may be more likely to live in a diverse and culturally rich community.
Describe advantages adoptive parents sometimes have over foster parents or stepparents.
Greater legal and social recognition of their parental status More control and stability in the family arrangement Greater access to resources and support for adoptive families
Describe intersectionality related to identity development and identify examples of how it might impact identity development.
Intersectionality refers to the ways in which different aspects of identity, such as race, gender, and sexuality, interact and intersect to shape an individual's experiences and opportunities. For example, an adolescent who is both a person of color and a member of the LGBTQ+ community may face unique challenges related to their identity.
Name and describe Erikson's most likely stages of psychosocial development during adulthood including typical ways that needs are met as well as consequences when they are not met.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood): During this stage, individuals seek to form intimate relationships with others, such as romantic partners and close friends. When needs are met, individuals develop strong relationships and a sense of connection with others. When needs are not met, individuals may experience feelings of loneliness and isolation. Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood): During this stage, individuals focus on contributing to society and leaving a positive legacy. When needs are met, individuals feel a sense of accomplishment and purpose in life
Discuss intimate partner abuse during emerging adulthood, explaining reasons why it is thought to be more common during this state.
Intimate partner abuse, also known as domestic violence, is unfortunately more common during emerging adulthood than any other time in the lifespan. This may be because emerging adulthood is a time of stress and transition, including changes in living arrangements, finances, and personal goals. Intimate partner abuse is characterized by a pattern of coercive and controlling behaviors by one partner towards the other, including physical, emotional, and sexual abuse.
Describe why most people prefer intuitive thinking, not analytic thought.
Intuitive thinking is faster, less effortful, and less stressful than analytic thought, which requires deliberate effort and attention. Intuitive thinking is also more automatic and emotional, which can be appealing because it can provide quick and satisfying answers to complex problems. However, intuitive thinking is also more prone to biases and errors, whereas analytic thought is more accurate and reliable.
State why it is difficult to draw conclusions about the effectiveness of sex education in schools.
It is difficult to draw conclusions about the effectiveness of sex education in schools due to variations in curricula, implementation, and evaluation methods.
Define/identify an example of "kinkeepers."
Kinkeepers are individuals who take on the role of maintaining family connections and facilitating communication among family members. They may be parents, grandparents, or other relatives who keep in touch with extended family members and organize family gatherings and events.
Describe and/or identify the disadvantages of college preparation and entry for students who later decide to enter the job market (instead of pursue college).
Lack of work experience: Students who pursue a traditional college degree may have limited work experience, which can be a disadvantage when applying for jobs. Debt burden: College graduates may have significant student loan debt, which can be a burden when trying to establish a career and save for the future. Mismatched skills: Some college graduates may find that the skills they learned in college do not match the requirements of their chosen career, which can make it difficult to find employment in their field.
Differentiate between life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited offenders.
Life-course-persistent offenders exhibit criminal behavior that persists from childhood into adulthood. Adolescence-limited offenders engage in criminal behavior only in adolensece.
Name, describe, and identify examples of Marcia's identity statuses.
Marcia's identity statuses include identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement. Identity diffusion is when individuals have not yet explored different identities or committed to a particular identity. Identity foreclosure is when individuals have committed to an identity without exploring other options. Identity moratorium is when individuals are actively exploring different identities without committing to one. Identity achievement is when individuals have explored different identities and have committed to one.
Discuss how marital happiness changes from the wedding to old age.
Marital happiness tends to decline after the wedding, with a significant decrease occurring in the early years of marriage. However, happiness tends to rebound as couples age and children leave the home, leading to increased satisfaction in later life.
Compare and contrast menopause and andropause.
Menopause and andropause are conditions that occur in women and men, respectively, and are characterized by a decline in reproductive hormones. Menopause is associated with physical symptoms such as hot flashes, mood changes, and vaginal dryness. While some negative aspects are associated with menopause, such as an increased risk of osteoporosis, menopause is also associated with some advantages, such as freedom from contraception and pregnancy concerns. Andropause, in contrast, is not a well-recognized medical condition, and its symptoms are still debated by researchers.
Discuss how moratorium might be experienced during emerging adulthood and be able to identify examples of it.
Moratorium during emerging adulthood is a period of exploration and experimentation, as individuals try out different roles and identities. Examples of moratorium might include taking a gap year to travel, trying out different jobs or majors, or exploring different romantic relationships.
Describe and/or identify examples of how adolescent brain function relates to both risks and benefits in adolescent choices/activities.
On the one hand, the heightened activity in the limbic system during adolescence can lead to increased creativity, passion, and motivation. Adolescents may be more willing to take risks, try new things, and explore their identities. On the other hand, the underdeveloped prefrontal cortex can lead to poor decision-making, impulsive behavior, and susceptibility to peer pressure. Adolescents may engage in risky behaviors such as substance abuse, reckless driving, or unprotected sex.
Describe factors that often protect adolescence-limited offenders from criminal behavior in adulthood.
One factor that can protect adolescence-limited offenders from criminal behavior in adulthood is the maturation of the prefrontal cortex, which is associated with improved impulse control and decision-making abilities. A Another factor that can protect adolescence-limited offenders from future criminal activity is the development of positive relationships with prosocial peers and adults. As they form positive relationships with individuals who model positive behavior and attitudes, they may be more likely to adopt those same behaviors and attitudes themselves. Additionally, participating in structured activities such as sports, clubs, or community service can also protect adolescence-limited offenders from criminal behavior in adulthood.
Name and describe the Big Five traits.
Openness to Experience: characterized by imagination, creativity, and willingness to try new things. Conscientiousness: characterized by organization, responsibility, and self-discipline. Extraversion: characterized by sociability, assertiveness, and emotional expressiveness. Agreeableness: characterized by cooperation, kindness, and empathy. Neuroticism: characterized by emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness.
Describe organ reserve and reasons why early declines in organ capacity usually go unnoticed during emerging adulthood.
Organ reserve refers to the extra capacity of organs beyond what is needed for normal functioning. Early declines in organ capacity usually go unnoticed during emerging adulthood because individuals still have a surplus of organ reserve. Factors that can maintain organ reserve include regular exercise, a healthy diet, and avoiding smoking and excessive alcohol consumption. Factors that can deplete organ reserve include chronic stress, substance abuse, and poor diet and exercise habits.
Describe overall health in emerging adulthood.
Overall health in emerging adulthood tends to be good, as individuals are still in their physical prime. However, emerging adults may engage in risky behaviors, such as drug use and unprotected sex, which can have negative effects on their health.
Discuss evidence of neuroplasticity in adulthood.
Overall intelligence tends to remain relatively stable across adulthood, with some decline occurring in later life. However, there are age-related differences in fluid intelligence, which is the ability to reason and solve novel problems, and crystallized intelligence, which is knowledge gained through experience and education. Older adults can compensate for declines in fluid intelligence through the use of crystallized intelligence and experience.
Describe/identify the typical pattern of overall intelligence across adulthood.
Overall intelligence tends to remain stable across adulthood, although some decline may be observed in later years.
State the trend for self-esteem/self-acceptance during adulthood.
Overall, self-esteem and self-acceptance tend to increase during adulthood, particularly in the early stages of adulthood. This may be due to increased self-awareness, greater life experience, and improved coping skills. However, self-esteem can also fluctuate in response to life events and stressors, and may decrease in later adulthood as a result of physical and cognitive decline.
Identify food and nonfood factors that impact the rate of overweight//obesity.
Overweight and obesity are major health concerns that can have significant direct and indirect consequences, including increased risk of chronic diseases such as diabetes and heart disease, reduced quality of life, and increased healthcare costs.
Describe the role of parent communication in sex education and the adolescent outcome of different communication styles.
Parent communication in sex education can impact adolescent outcomes related to sexual behavior. Open and honest communication can lead to more positive outcomes, such as increased contraceptive use and delayed sexual initiation. In contrast, restrictive or judgmental communication can have negative outcomes, such as increased sexual risk-taking.
Describe and/or identify examples of parental monitoring.
Parental monitoring involves parents keeping track of their adolescent's activities, whereabouts, and social interactions. This can include monitoring social media and phone use, setting curfews, and talking with their adolescent about their day.
Describe the ways in which personality traits change as people grow older, and how a person's environment and personality typically interact at different stages of life.
Personality traits tend to become more stable and consistent as people grow older, but they can still change in response to life experiences. Some studies have shown that people tend to become more conscientious and agreeable as they age, while also becoming less neurotic. However, personality changes can also be influenced by a person's environment and life circumstances. For example, a traumatic experience may cause someone to become more anxious and neurotic, while a positive life change, such as retirement, may cause someone to become more relaxed and agreeable.
Name and describe the characteristics of Piaget's stage of adolescent development.
Piaget's stage of adolescent development is called the formal operational stage, and it is characterized by the ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and engage in hypothetical and deductive reasoning. Adolescents in this stage are able to understand and solve complex problems, think about multiple perspectives, and generate hypotheses and theories.
Differentiate primary and secondary sex characteristics.
Primary sex characteristics refer to the reproductive organs, while secondary sex characteristics refer to physical features such as body hair, breast development, and voice changes.
Describe and/or identify the glands and hormones that trigger the onset of puberty, and the role of the HPA and HPG axes in that process.
Puberty is triggered by the release of hormones from the hypothalamus and pituitary glands. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis releases cortisol, while the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
Describe the benefits of regular exercise/physical activity in adulthood.
Regular exercise and physical activity have numerous health benefits for adults, including improved cardiovascular health, increased strength and flexibility, reduced risk of chronic disease, and improved mood and mental health.
Identify examples of religious, political, ethnic, and gender identity formation.
Religious, political, ethnic, and gender identity formation are all aspects of identity development. Adolescents may explore different beliefs and values related to religion, politics, ethnicity, and gender before committing to a particular identity.
Describe what research has found to be the advantage and the disadvantages of cohabitation.
Research has found advantages and disadvantages of cohabitation. Advantages include the opportunity to test compatibility and shared living expenses, while disadvantages include increased risk of relationship dissolution and difficulty establishing long-term commitment.
Describe the pattern and impact of risk-taking in emerging adulthood.
Risk-taking is common in emerging adulthood, as individuals seek out new experiences and push boundaries. However, risky behaviors such as drug use, unprotected sex, and reckless driving can have negative consequences for health and well-being.
Describe how same-sex marriages compare to other-sex marriages.
Same-sex marriages have been found to have similar levels of relationship quality and stability as other-sex marriages. However, legal and social barriers can still impact the experiences of same-sex couples.
Describe and be able to identify an example of how selection and facilitation relate to friendship and peer pressure during adolescence.
Selection refers to the process of choosing friends who share similar characteristics and interests. Facilitation refers to the role of friends in encouraging or discouraging certain behaviors. For example, friends may encourage or discourage substance use or risky sexual behavior.
Describe and/or identify examples of selective optimization with compensation.
Selective optimization with compensation is a theory that describes how individuals may adjust their goals and resources in response to age-related changes in physical and cognitive abilities. For example, an older person might prioritize social relationships and adjust their activities to compensate for declining mobility.
State the trend for self-esteem/confidence during puberty.
Self-esteem/confidence often declines during puberty, particularly for girls. This may be due to changes in appearance and social comparison.
Define senescence.
Senescence refers to the gradual, biological aging process that leads to a decline in physical and cognitive functions over time.
Differentiate intimate partner abuse and situational couple violence.
Situational couple violence, on the other hand, is characterized by occasional acts of physical aggression in a relationship, typically in response to an argument or conflict. While both types of violence are harmful, situational couple violence is less severe and less likely to result in injury than intimate partner abuse.
Discriminate suicidal ideation, parasuicide, and completed suicide, including which sex is more at risk for each.
Suicidal ideation refers to thoughts about suicide, while parasuicide refers to nonfatal self-harm behaviors, such as cutting or overdose. Completed suicide refers to death by suicide. Females are more at risk for suicidal ideation and parasuicide, while males are more likely to complete suicide.
Discuss various benefits and dangers of technology during adolescence.
Technology during adolescence can provide various benefits, such as increased access to information and social support. However, it can also pose dangers, such as cyberbullying, addiction, and exposure to inappropriate content.
State what the PISA measures and how US scores compare internationally.
The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is a global education assessment that measures the skills and knowledge of 15-year-old students in reading, mathematics, and science. The results are used to compare education systems across countries. According to the latest PISA results, the United States ranks in the middle of the pack internationally, behind countries like China, Singapore, and Canada.
Compare and contrast normal and pathological changes in the aging brain.
The aging brain undergoes both normal and pathological changes, such as a reduction in brain size and changes in neurotransmitter function. However, research has also shown that the aging brain can exhibit neuroplasticity, meaning that it can adapt and change in response to new experiences and learning.
Describe the common pattern of academic achievement that often accompanies the transition to middle school. State and describe factors suggested to contribute to this shift.
The common pattern of academic achievement that often accompanies the transition to middle school is a decline in grades and test scores, particularly for students from low-income or minority backgrounds. This shift is often attributed to a variety of factors, including the greater academic demands of middle school, the more impersonal and competitive nature of
Identify the component of identity most likely to shift during emerging adulthood, describing reasons and patterns.
The component of identity most likely to shift during emerging adulthood is occupation, as individuals move from exploring different career paths to settling into a chosen profession.
Name and describe the developmental stage between adolescence and adulthood.
The developmental stage between adolescence and adulthood is called emerging adulthood, which typically spans from the late teens to the mid-to-late twenties. During this time, individuals are in a period of transition, exploring and experimenting with different life paths, relationships, and identities.
Describe the dual-process model of adolescent cognition and when each process is likely to be utilized.
The dual-process model of adolescent cognition proposes that adolescents use two different systems for decision-making: a rational system and an intuitive system. The rational system involves deliberate, analytical, and reflective thinking, while the intuitive system involves automatic, emotional, and impulsive thinking. Adolescents are more likely to use the rational system when they have time and motivation to think carefully about a decision and when the decision has significant consequences. They are more likely to use the intuitive system when they are emotionally aroused or distracted, when the decision is routine or habitual, or when they lack the necessary information or experience.
State the role of the environment and lifestyle factors in the aging process.
The environment and lifestyle factors, such as diet, exercise, stress, and exposure to toxins, can significantly impact the aging process. Positive lifestyle factors, such as engaging in regular exercise, eating a healthy diet, and avoiding smoking, can slow down the aging process and promote better health outcomes in old age.
Name and describe the fifth stage of cognitive development that has been proposed, comparing it to adolescent thinking.
The fifth stage of cognitive development that has been proposed is called postformal thought. This stage involves the ability to think more flexibly and critically than in adolescence, and to integrate emotion and logic. Postformal thinking involves recognizing the limitations of formal logic and being able to navigate complex, ambiguous situations.
State why the limbic system develops before the prefrontal cortex and how changes in the proportion of white matter vs. gray matter in the brain contribute to this.
The limbic system develops before the prefrontal cortex because it is responsible for basic survival functions such as emotion, motivation, and memory. Changes in the proportion of white matter vs. gray matter in the brain contribute to this by allowing for increased connectivity between brain regions and more efficient processing.
State the order of physical development during puberty and discuss reasons why knowing it is important.
The order of physical development during puberty is generally the growth spurt, followed by the development of secondary sex characteristics, and then the onset of menstruation or ejaculation. Knowing this order is important for understanding the typical sequence of physical changes and identifying potential issues if development deviates from the norm.
Describe the outcomes associated with parental monitoring and the circumstances in which these outcomes are most likely.
The outcomes associated with parental monitoring include lower rates of substance use, delinquency, and risky sexual behavior. These outcomes are most likely when parental monitoring is warm, supportive, and respectful of the adolescent's autonomy.
Describe the pattern of drug use during college, including the use of "cognition enhancing" drugs.
The pattern of drug use during college is generally higher than in the general population, with alcohol, marijuana, and prescription drugs being the most commonly used. "Cognition enhancing" drugs, such as Adderall, are also used by some college students to improve academic performance.
Describe the pattern of fertility (and infertility) across adulthood.
The pattern of fertility changes across adulthood, with a decline in fertility for women after age 35 and men after age 40. Infertility is the inability to conceive a child despite regular intercourse. Causes of infertility can include age, medical conditions, and lifestyle factors. Treatment options for infertility include medication, surgery, and assisted reproductive technologies such as in vitro fertilization (IVF).
Describe the pattern of friendship during adulthood.
The pattern of friendship during adulthood tends to involve a decrease in the quantity of friendships and an increase in the quality of friendships. Friendships also tend to become more selective and based on shared interests and values.
State how the relationship between dose and health differ for tobacco and alcohol.
The relationship between dose and health differs for tobacco and alcohol. Tobacco use has a dose-dependent relationship with negative health outcomes, while moderate alcohol consumption has been associated with some health benefits, such as a reduced risk of heart disease.
Describe/identify an example of the relationship between emerging adults and their parents in terms of contact and support.
The relationship between emerging adults and their parents can vary widely, but in general, there tends to be a decrease in parent-child contact and support during this stage of life. Emerging adults may move away from their parents for work or school, and may be focused on establishing their own independent lives. However, many emerging adults still rely on their parents for emotional and financial support, especially during periods of transition or crisis. The level of contact and support between parents and emerging adults can depend on cultural values, financial resources, and individual family dynamics.
Define "sandwich generation" and describe the likelihood of a middle-aged adult experiencing it.
The sandwich generation refers to middle-aged adults who are responsible for caring for both their aging parents and their own children. It is likely that many middle-aged adults will experience this, as life expectancy increases and the age at which people have children also increases.
Define "social convoy" and "consequential strangers."
The social convoy refers to the group of people who provide support and guidance throughout an individual's life, including family members, friends, and other important people. Consequential strangers are individuals who are not part of the social convoy but still have a significant impact on an individual's life, such as coworkers or neighbors.
Name/describe/differentiate the three common adolescent eating disorders we discussed.
The three common adolescent eating disorders are anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder. Anorexia nervosa involves severe calorie restriction and distorted body image, bulimia nervosa involves cycles of binge-eating and purging, and binge-eating disorder involves frequent episodes of overeating without purging.
State and describe the three components of romantic love, identifying which is least common in early adulthood.
The three components of romantic love are passion, intimacy, and commitment. Intimacy is the least common in early adulthood, as individuals are still exploring their own identities and may not be ready to fully commit to a long-term relationship.
Describe the factors that influence the timing of pubertal changes. Identify evidence that supports each factor.
The timing of pubertal changes is influenced by genetic factors, environmental factors such as nutrition and stress, and social factors such as culture and family dynamics. Evidence supporting these factors includes studies of identical twins, animal studies, and cross-cultural research.
State the two primary dietary deficiencies in adolescence and common reasons for each.
The two primary dietary deficiencies in adolescence are iron and calcium. Common reasons for iron deficiency include poor diet and menstruation, while common reasons for calcium deficiency include low dairy intake and poor absorption.
Describe the unpredictable nature of an adult experiencing Erikson's stages.
The unpredictable nature of an adult experiencing Erikson's stages refers to the fact that not everyone will go through the stages at the same time or in the same order. Also, some people may never fully resolve certain stages or may revisit stages later in life. For example, a person may not fully resolve the intimacy versus isolation stage and continue to struggle with forming close relationships throughout adulthood.
Describe/identify an example of the usual relationship between adult children and their parents, including living arrangements and contact.
The usual relationship between adult children and their parents can vary widely depending on factors such as cultural background and individual circumstances. In general, however, adult children tend to have less frequent and less intense contact with their parents as they age and form their own families and careers. Many adult children also provide practical and emotional support to their aging parents, particularly as they face health challenges.
Describe factors that might make it difficult for foster children and foster parents to bond.
Trauma and attachment issues experienced by the foster child Difficulty in adjusting to a new family and environment Limited support and resources for the foster family Uncertainty about the length of the placement and the possibility of reunification with the birth family
Describe and/or identify examples of typical arguing between parents and adolescents.
Typical arguing between parents and adolescents may involve disagreements about rules and boundaries, responsibilities, and independence. Adolescents may push back against parental authority and seek greater autonomy.
Describe typical changes in body image during adolescence.
Typical changes in body image during adolescence include increased self-consciousness, concern with physical appearance, and comparison to peers. Body dissatisfaction and negative body image can lead to disordered eating and other psychological problems.