Psych Chapter 11

what are the 5 factors of the five factor model?

1. openness to experience, 2. conscientiousness, 3. extroversion, 4. agreeableness, 5. and neuroticism

In the early years of his career, Freud worked with Josef Breuer, a Viennese physician. --During this time, Freud became intrigued by the story of one of Breuer's patients, Bertha Pappenheim, who was referred to by the pseudonym ______. (Launer, 2005). --Anna O. had been caring for her dying father when she began to experience symptoms such as partial paralysis, headaches, blurred vision, amnesia, and hallucinations -- In Freud's day, these symptoms were commonly referred to as hysteria. --Anna O. turned to Breuer for help. He spent 2 years (1880-1882) treating Anna O. and discovered that allowing her to talk about her experiences seemed to bring some relief of her symptoms. --Anna O. called his treatment the "talking cure" --Despite the fact that Freud never met Anna O., her story served as the basis for the 1895 book, Studies on Hysteria, which he co-authored with Breuer. --Based on Breuer's description of Anna O.'s treatment, Freud concluded that hysteria was the result of sexual abuse in childhood and that these traumatic experiences had been hidden from consciousness. --Breuer disagreed with Freud, which soon ended their work together. However, Freud continued to work to refine talk therapy and build his theory on personality.

Anna O

______, a strict behaviorist, believed that environment was solely responsible for all behavior, including the enduring, consistent behavior patterns studied by personality theorists.

B. F. Skinner

_____ refers to anything that we do that may be rewarded or punished.

Behavior

_____ are those that make up our personalities (such as loyal, kind, agreeable, friendly, sneaky, wild, and grouchy).

Central traits

______ refer to all characteristics previously learned, including beliefs, expectations, and personality characteristics.

Cognitive processes

0-1 Trust vs. mistrust Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met

Erikson Stage 1

1-3 Autonomy vs. shame/doubt Sense of independence in many tasks develops

Erikson Stage 2

3-6 Initiative vs. guilt Take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped

Erikson Stage 3

7-11 Industry vs. inferiority Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not

Erikson Stage 4

12-18 Identity vs. confusion Experiment with and develop identity and roles

Erikson Stage 5

19-29 Intimacy vs. isolation Establish intimacy and relationships with others

Erikson Stage 6

30-64 Generativity vs. stagnation Contribute to society and be part of a family

Erikson Stage 7

65- Integrity vs. despair Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions

Erikson Stage 8

_______ relative to personality development looks at personality traits that are universal, as well as differences across individuals. ---In this view, adaptive differences have evolved and then provide a survival and reproductive advantage. --Individual differences are important from an evolutionary viewpoint for several reasons. --Certain individual differences, and the heritability of these characteristics, have been well documented. -- David Buss has identified several theories to explore this relationship between personality traits and evolution, such as life-history theory, which looks at how people expend their time and energy (such as on bodily growth and maintenance, reproduction, or parenting). --Another example is costly signaling theory, which examines the honesty and deception in the signals people send one another about their quality as a mate or friend

Evolutionary psychology

According to the ______, people high on the trait of extroversion are sociable and outgoing, and readily connect with others, whereas people high on the trait of introversion have a higher need to be alone, engage in solitary behaviors, and limit their interactions with others. --In the neuroticism/stability dimension, people high on neuroticism tend to be anxious; they tend to have an overactive sympathetic nervous system and, even with low stress, their bodies and emotional state tend to go into a flight-or-fight reaction. --In contrast, people high on stability tend to need more stimulation to activate their flight-or-fight reaction and are considered more emotionally stable. --Based on these two dimensions, the Eysencks' theory divides people into four quadrants. These quadrants are sometimes compared with the four temperaments described by the Greeks: melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic, and sanguine --Later, the Eysencks added a third dimension: psychoticism versus superego control -- In this dimension, people who are high on psychoticism tend to be independent thinkers, cold, nonconformists, impulsive, antisocial, and hostile, whereas people who are high on superego control tend to have high impulse control—they are more altruistic, empathetic, cooperative, and conventional

Eysencks theory

While Cattell's 16 factors may be too broad, the Eysenck's two-factor system has been criticized for being too narrow. --Another personality theory, called the ____, effectively hits a middle ground, with its five factors referred to as the Big Five personality factors. --It is the most popular theory in personality psychology today and the most accurate approximation of the basic personality dimensions --The five factors are openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism -- A helpful way to remember the factors is by using the mnemonic OCEAN.

Five Factor Model

In 1780, ______, a German physician, proposed that the distances between bumps on the skull reveal a person's personality traits, character, and mental abilities --According to Gall, measuring these distances revealed the sizes of the brain areas underneath, providing information that could be used to determine whether a person was friendly, prideful, murderous, kind, good with languages, and so on. --Initially, phrenology was very popular; however, it was soon discredited for lack of empirical support and has long been relegated to the status of pseudoscience

Franz Gall

(H) Honesty-humility : Sincerity, modesty, faithfulness (E) Emotionality : Sentimentality, anxiety, sensitivity (X) Extraversion : Sociability, talkativeness, boldness (A) Agreeableness :Patience, tolerance, gentleness (C) Conscientiousness : Organization, thoroughness, precision (O) Openness: Creativity, inquisitiveness, innovativeness

HEXACO - description

Another model of personality traits is the _____ --HEXACO is an acronym for six broad traits: honesty-humility, emotionality, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience

HEXACO model

_____ refers to the proportion of difference among people that is attributed to genetics. --Some of the traits that the study reported as having more than a 0.50 heritability ratio include leadership, obedience to authority, a sense of well-being, alienation, resistance to stress, and fearfulness. ---The implication is that some aspects of our personalities are largely controlled by genetics; however, it's important to point out that traits are not determined by a single gene, but by a combination of many genes, as well as by epigenetic factors that control whether the genes are expressed. --Other research that has examined the link between personality and other factors has identified and studied Type A and Type B personalities, which you will learn more about in the chapter on Stress, Health, and Lifestyle.

Heritability

The concept of personality has been studied for at least 2,000 years, beginning with ______ in 370 BCE --Hippocrates theorized that personality traits and human behaviors are based on four separate temperaments associated with four fluids ("humors") of the body: choleric temperament (yellow bile from the liver), melancholic temperament (black bile from the kidneys), sanguine temperament (red blood from the heart), and phlegmatic temperament (white phlegm from the lungs) -- Centuries later, the influential Greek physician and philosopher Galen built on Hippocrates's theory, suggesting that both diseases and personality differences could be explained by imbalances in the humors and that each person exhibits one of the four temperaments. -- For example, the choleric person is passionate, ambitious, and bold; the melancholic person is reserved, anxious, and unhappy; the sanguine person is joyful, eager, and optimistic; and the phlegmatic person is calm, reliable, and thoughtful --Galen's theory was prevalent for over 1,000 years and continued to be popular through the Middle Ages.

Hippocrates

In the centuries after Galen, other researchers contributed to the development of his four primary temperament types, most prominently ______ (in the 18th century) and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (in the 19th century). --Kant agreed with Galen that everyone could be sorted into one of the four temperaments and that there was no overlap between the four categories --He developed a list of traits that could be used to describe the personality of a person from each of the four temperaments. --However, Wundt suggested that a better description of personality could be achieved using two major axes: emotional/nonemotional and changeable/unchangeable. --The first axis separated strong from weak emotions (the melancholic and choleric temperaments from the phlegmatic and sanguine). --The second axis divided the changeable temperaments (choleric and sanguine) from the unchangeable ones (melancholic and phlegmatic)

Immanuel Kant

_____ was one of the first women trained as a Freudian psychoanalyst. --During the Great Depression, Horney moved from Germany to the United States, and subsequently moved away from Freud's teachings. --Like Jung, Horney believed that each individual has the potential for self-realization and that the goal of psychoanalysis should be moving toward a healthy self rather than exploring early childhood patterns of dysfunction. --Horney also disagreed with the Freudian idea that girls have penis envy and are jealous of male biological features. --According to Horney, any jealousy is most likely culturally based, due to the greater privileges that men often have, meaning that the differences between men's and women's personalities are culturally based, not biologically based. --She further suggested that men have womb envy, because they cannot give birth.

Karen Horney

____ refers to the long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways. --Our personality is what makes us unique individuals. --Each person has an idiosyncratic pattern of enduring, long-term characteristics and a manner in which they interact with other individuals and the world around them. --Our personalities are thought to be long term, stable, and not easily changed. --The word personality comes from the Latin word persona. In the ancient world, a persona was a mask worn by an actor. --While we tend to think of a mask as being worn to conceal one's identity, the theatrical mask was originally used to either represent or project a specific personality trait of a character

Personality

1. Warmth L: Reserved, detached H: Outgoing, supportive 2. Intellect L: Concrete thinker H: Analytical 3. Emotional stability L: Moody, irritable H: Stable, calm 4. Aggressiveness L: Docile, submissive H: Controlling, dominant 5. Liveliness L: Somber, prudent H: Adventurous, spontaneous 6. Dutifulness L: Unreliable H: Conscientious 7. Social assertiveness L: Shy, restrained H: Uninhibited, bold 8. Sensitivity L: Tough-minded H: Sensitive, caring 9. Paranoia L: Trusting H: Suspicious 10. Abstractness L: Conventional H: Imaginative 11. Introversion L: Open, straightforward H: Private, shrewd 12. Anxiety L: Confident H: Apprehensive 13. Openmindedness L: Closeminded, traditional H: Curious, experimental 14. Independence L: Outgoing, social H: Self-sufficient 15. Perfectionism L: Disorganized, casual H: Organized, precise 16. Tension L: Relaxed H: Stressed

Personality Factors Measured by the 16PF Questionnaire

In an effort to make the list of traits more manageable, _____ narrowed down the list to about 171 traits. --However, saying that a trait is either present or absent does not accurately reflect a person's uniqueness, because all of our personalities are actually made up of the same traits; we differ only in the degree to which each trait is expressed. --Cattell identified 16 factors or dimensions of personality: warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance, liveliness, rule-consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity, vigilance, abstractedness, privateness, apprehension, openness to change, self-reliance, perfectionism, and tension -- He developed a personality assessment based on these 16 factors, called the 16PF. --Instead of a trait being present or absent, each dimension is scored over a continuum, from high to low. --For example, your level of warmth describes how warm, caring, and nice to others you are. --If you score low on this index, you tend to be more distant and cold. --A high score on this index signifies you are supportive and comforting.

Raymond Cattell

_____ are those that are not quite as obvious or as consistent as central traits. They are present under specific circumstances and include preferences and attitudes. --For example, one person gets angry when people try to tickle him; another can only sleep on the left side of the bed; and yet another always orders her salad dressing on the side. And you—although not normally an anxious person—feel nervous before making a speech in front of your English class.

Secondary traits

Bandura (1977, 1995) has studied a number of cognitive and personal factors that affect learning and personality development, and most recently has focused on the concept of self-efficacy. -- ______ is our level of confidence in our own abilities, developed through our social experiences. -- Self-efficacy affects how we approach challenges and reach goals. --In observational learning, self-efficacy is a cognitive factor that affects which behaviors we choose to imitate as well as our success in performing those behaviors. -- People who have high self-efficacy believe that their goals are within reach, have a positive view of challenges seeing them as tasks to be mastered, develop a deep interest in and strong commitment to the activities in which they are involved, and quickly recover from setbacks. -- Conversely, people with low self-efficacy avoid challenging tasks because they doubt their ability to be successful, tend to focus on failure and negative outcomes, and lose confidence in their abilities if they experience setbacks. --Feelings of self-efficacy can be specific to certain situations. --For instance, a student might feel confident in her ability in English class but much less so in math class.

Self-efficacy

______ psychodynamic perspective of personality was the first comprehensive theory of personality, explaining a wide variety of both normal and abnormal behaviors. --According to Freud, unconscious drives influenced by sex and aggression, along with childhood sexuality, are the forces that influence our personality. --Freud attracted many followers who modified his ideas to create new theories about personality. --These theorists, referred to as neo-Freudians, generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but they reduced the emphasis on sex and focused more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality. --The perspective of personality proposed by Freud and his followers was the dominant theory of personality for the first half of the 20th century. --Other major theories then emerged, including the learning, humanistic, biological, evolutionary, trait, and cultural perspectives.

Sigmund Freud's

______ proposed that we demonstrate consistent behavior patterns because we have developed certain response tendencies --In other words, we learn to behave in particular ways. --We increase the behaviors that lead to positive consequences, and we decrease the behaviors that lead to negative consequences. --Skinner disagreed with Freud's idea that personality is fixed in childhood. --He argued that personality develops over our entire life, not only in the first few years. --Our responses can change as we come across new situations; therefore, we can expect more variability over time in personality than Freud would anticipate. --For example, consider a young woman, Greta, a risk taker. She drives fast and participates in dangerous sports such as hang gliding and kiteboarding. But after she gets married and has children, the system of reinforcements and punishments in her environment changes. Speeding and extreme sports are no longer reinforced, so she no longer engages in those behaviors. In fact, Greta now describes herself as a cautious person.

Skinner

Most contemporary psychologists believe temperament has a biological basis due to its appearance very early in our lives --As you learned when you studied lifespan development, ______ found that babies could be categorized into one of three temperaments: easy, difficult, or slow to warm up. --However, environmental factors (family interactions, for example) and maturation can affect the ways in which children's personalities are expressed

Thomas and Chess

_____ was a student of Julian Rotter and taught for years at Stanford, where he was a colleague of Albert Bandura. -- Mischel surveyed several decades of empirical psychological literature regarding trait prediction of behavior, and his conclusion shook the foundations of personality psychology. --Mischel found that the data did not support the central principle of the field—that a person's personality traits are consistent across situations. --His report triggered a decades-long period of self-examination, known as the person-situation debate, among personality psychologists. --Mischel suggested that perhaps we were looking for consistency in the wrong places. --He found that although behavior was inconsistent across different situations, it was much more consistent within situations—so that a person's behavior in one situation would likely be repeated in a similar one. --And as you will see next regarding his famous "marshmallow test," Mischel also found that behavior is consistent in equivalent situations across time.

Walter Mischel

After passing through the oral stage, children enter what Freud termed the _____ (1-3 years). --In this stage, children experience pleasure in their bowel and bladder movements, so it makes sense that the conflict in this stage is over toilet training. --During this stage of development, children work to master control of themselves. --Freud suggested that success at the anal stage depended on how parents handled toilet training. --Parents who offer praise and rewards encourage positive results and can help children feel competent. --Parents who are harsh in toilet training can cause a child to become so fearful of soiling that they over-control and become fixated at the anal stage, leading to the development of an anal-retentive personality. --The anal-retentive personality is stingy and stubborn, has a compulsive need for order and neatness, and might be considered a perfectionist. --If parents are too lenient in toilet training, the child may fail to develop sufficient self-control, become fixated at this stage, and develop an anal-expulsive personality. The anal-expulsive personality is messy, careless, disorganized, and prone to emotional outbursts.

anal stage

Carl Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and protégé of Freud, who later split off from Freud and developed his own theory, which he called _____. --The focus of analytical psychology is on working to balance opposing forces of conscious and unconscious thought, and experience within one's personality. --According to Jung, this work is a continuous learning process—mainly occurring in the second half of life—of becoming aware of unconscious elements and integrating them into consciousness.

analytical psychology

These ancestral memories, which Jung called _____, are represented by universal themes in various cultures, as expressed through literature, art, and dreams

archetypes

Psychologists who favor the _______ believe that inherited predispositions as well as physiological processes can be used to explain differences in our personalities

biological approach

Behaviorists do not believe in _______: --They do not see personality traits as inborn. --Instead, they view personality as significantly shaped by the reinforcements and consequences outside of the organism. --In other words, people behave in a consistent manner based on prior learning. -- B. F. Skinner, a strict behaviorist, believed that environment was solely responsible for all behavior, including the enduring, consistent behavior patterns studied by personality theorists.

biological determinism

One of Adler's major contributions to personality psychology was the idea that our ____ shapes our personality. -- He proposed that older siblings, who start out as the focus of their parents' attention but must share that attention once a new child joins the family, compensate by becoming overachievers. --The youngest children, according to Adler, may be spoiled, leaving the middle child with the opportunity to minimize the negative dynamics of the youngest and oldest children. -- Despite popular attention, research has not conclusively confirmed Adler's hypotheses about birth order.

birth order

A _______ is one that dominates your entire personality, and hence your life—such as Ebenezer Scrooge's greed and Mother Theresa's altruism. --Cardinal traits are not very common: Few people have personalities dominated by a single trait. Instead, our personalities typically are composed of multiple traits.

cardinal trait

The _____ is a universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us --These ancestral memories, which Jung called archetypes, are represented by universal themes in various cultures, as expressed through literature, art, and dreams --Jung said that these themes reflect common experiences of people the world over, such as facing death, becoming independent, and striving for mastery. --Jung (1964) believed that through biology, each person is handed down the same themes and that the same types of symbols—such as the hero, the maiden, the sage, and the trickster—are present in the folklore and fairy tales of every culture. --In Jung's view, the task of integrating these unconscious archetypal aspects of the self is part of the self-realization process in the second half of life. --With this orientation toward self-realization, Jung parted ways with Freud's belief that personality is determined solely by past events and anticipated the humanistic movement with its emphasis on self-actualization and orientation toward the future.

collective unconscious

Jung's split from Freud was based on two major disagreements. --First, Jung, like Adler and Erikson, did not accept that sexual drive was the primary motivator in a person's mental life. --Second, although Jung agreed with Freud's concept of a personal unconscious, he thought it to be incomplete. -- In addition to the personal unconscious, Jung focused on the ______

collective unconscious.

We experience _____ when our thoughts about our real self and ideal self are very similar—in other words, when our self-concept is accurate.

congruence

To explain the concept of conscious versus unconscious experience, Freud compared the mind to an iceberg -- He said that only about one-tenth of our mind is _____, and the rest of our mind is unconscious. --Our unconscious refers to that mental activity of which we are unaware and are unable to access. --According to Freud, unacceptable urges and desires are kept in our unconscious through a process called repression. --For example, we sometimes say things that we don't intend to say by unintentionally substituting another word for the one we meant. You've probably heard of a Freudian slip, the term used to describe this. --Freud suggested that slips of the tongue are actually sexual or aggressive urges, accidentally slipping out of our unconscious. --Speech errors such as this are quite common. --Seeing them as a reflection of unconscious desires, linguists today have found that slips of the tongue tend to occur when we are tired, nervous, or not at our optimal level of cognitive functioning

conscious

the ______ in which the behavior occurs refers to the environment or situation, which includes rewarding/punishing stimuli.

context

Freud believed that feelings of anxiety result from the ego's inability to mediate the conflict between the id and superego. --When this happens, Freud believed that the ego seeks to restore balance through various protective measures known as defense mechanisms --When certain events, feelings, or yearnings cause an individual anxiety, the individual wishes to reduce that anxiety. --To do that, the individual's unconscious mind uses ego ______, unconscious protective behaviors that aim to reduce anxiety. --The ego, usually conscious, resorts to unconscious strivings to protect the ego from being overwhelmed by anxiety. --When we use defense mechanisms, we are unaware that we are using them. --Further, they operate in various ways that distort reality. --According to Freud, we all use ego defense mechanisms.

defense mechanisms

refusing to accept real events because they are unpleasant

denial

transferring inappropriate urges or behaviors onto a more acceptable or less threatening target

displacement

Freud believed that personality develops during _____: Childhood experiences shape our personalities as well as our behavior as adults. --He asserted that we develop via a series of stages during childhood. --Each of us must pass through these childhood stages, and if we do not have the proper nurturing and parenting during a stage, we will be stuck, or fixated, in that stage, even as adults.

early childhood

In contrast to the instinctual id and the rule-based superego, the ____ is the rational part of our personality. --It's what Freud considered to be the self, and it is the part of our personality that is seen by others. --Its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the context of reality; thus, it operates on what Freud called the "reality principle." --The ego helps the id satisfy its desires in a realistic way.

ego

Jung also proposed two attitudes or approaches toward life: ______ --These ideas are considered Jung's most important contributions to the field of personality psychology, as almost all models of personality now include these concepts. --If you are an extrovert, then you are a person who is energized by being outgoing and socially oriented: You derive your energy from being around others. -- If you are an introvert, then you are a person who may be quiet and reserved, or you may be social, but your energy is derived from your inner psychic activity. --Jung believed a balance between extroversion and introversion best served the goal of self-realization.

extroversion and introversion

The final stage is the _____ (from puberty on). --In this stage, there is a sexual reawakening as the incestuous urges resurface. --The young person redirects these urges to other, more socially acceptable partners (who often resemble the other-sex parent). --People in this stage have mature sexual interests, which for Freud meant a strong desire for the opposite sex. --Individuals who successfully completed the previous stages, reaching the genital stage with no fixations, are said to be well-balanced, healthy adults. --While most of Freud's ideas have not found support in modern research, and several contemporary researchers rejected his premises, we cannot discount the contributions that Freud has made to the field of psychology. --It was Freud who pointed out that a large part of our mental life is influenced by the experiences of early childhood and takes place outside of our conscious awareness; his theories paved the way for others. --While Freud's focus on biological drives led him to emphasize the impact of sociocultural factors on personality development, his followers quickly realized that biology alone could not account for the diversity they encountered as the practice of psychoanalysis spread during the time of the Nazi Holocaust. --The antisemitism which was prevalent during this period of time may have led mainstream psychoanalysts to focus primarily on the universality of the psychological structures of the mind.

genital stage

As the "third force" in psychology, ______ is touted as a reaction both to the pessimistic determinism of psychoanalysis, with its emphasis on psychological disturbance, and to the behaviorists' view of humans passively reacting to the environment, which has been criticized as making people out to be personality-less robots. --It does not suggest that psychoanalytic, behaviorist, and other points of view are incorrect but argues that these perspectives do not recognize the depth and meaning of human experience, and fail to recognize the innate capacity for self-directed change and transforming personal experiences. --This perspective focuses on how healthy people develop. --One pioneering humanist, Abraham Maslow, studied people who he considered to be healthy, creative, and productive, including Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and others. --Maslow (1950, 1970) found that such people share similar characteristics, such as being open, creative, loving, spontaneous, compassionate, concerned for others, and accepting of themselves. --When you studied motivation, you learned about one of the best-known humanistic theories, Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, in which Maslow proposes that human beings have certain needs in common and that these needs must be met in a certain order. --The highest need is the need for self-actualization, which is the achievement of our fullest potential. --Maslow differentiated between needs that motivate us to fulfill something that is missing and needs that inspire us to grow. --He believed that many emotional and behavioral concerns arise as a result of failing to meet these hierarchical needs.

humanism

The unconscious ____ contains our most primitive drives or urges, and is present from birth. It directs impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex. --Freud believed that the id operates on what he called the "pleasure principle," in which the id seeks immediate gratification. --Through social interactions with parents and others in a child's environment, the ego and superego develop to help control the id.

id

According to Freud, our personality develops from a conflict between two forces: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives versus our internal (socialized) control over these drives. --Our personality is the result of our efforts to balance these two competing forces. -- Freud suggested that we can understand this by imagining three interacting systems within our minds. He called them the ______

id, ego, and superego

Rogers further divided the self into two categories: the ideal self and the real self. --The ______ is the person that you would like to be; the ______ is the person you actually are. --Rogers focused on the idea that we need to achieve consistency between these two selves. --We experience congruence when our thoughts about our real self and ideal self are very similar—in other words, when our self-concept is accurate. --High congruence leads to a greater sense of self-worth and a healthy, productive life. --Parents can help their children achieve this by giving them unconditional positive regard, or unconditional love. --According to Rogers, "As persons are accepted and prized, they tend to develop a more caring attitude towards themselves" --Conversely, when there is a great discrepancy between our ideal and actual selves, we experience a state Rogers called incongruence, which can lead to maladjustment. --Both Rogers's and Maslow's theories focus on individual choices and do not believe that biology is deterministic.

ideal self real self

In the field of behavioral genetics, the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart—a well-known study of the genetic basis for personality—conducted research with twins from 1979 to 1999. --In studying 350 pairs of twins, including pairs of identical and fraternal twins reared together and apart, researchers found that _____, whether raised together or apart, have very similar personalities -- These findings suggest the heritability of some personality traits.

identical twins

Conversely, when there is a great discrepancy between our ideal and actual selves, we experience a state Rogers called _____, which can lead to maladjustment.

incongruence

Alfred Adler, a colleague of Freud's and the first president of the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society (Freud's inner circle of colleagues), was the first major theorist to break away from Freud -- He subsequently founded a school of psychology called ______ which focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority. Adler (1937, 1956) proposed the concept of the inferiority complex. --An inferiority complex refers to a person's feelings that they lack worth and don't measure up to the standards of others or of society. Adler's ideas about inferiority represent a major difference between his thinking and Freud's. --Freud believed that we are motivated by sexual and aggressive urges, but Adler (1930, 1961) believed that feelings of inferiority in childhood are what drive people to attempt to gain superiority and that this striving is the force behind all of our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. --Adler also believed in the importance of social connections, seeing childhood development emerging through social development rather than the sexual stages Freud outlined. --Adler noted the inter-relatedness of humanity and the need to work together for the betterment of all. --He said, "The happiness of mankind lies in working together, in living as if each individual had set himself the task of contributing to the common welfare" with the main goal of psychology being "to recognize the equal rights and equality of others"

individual psychology,

An _____ refers to a person's feelings that they lack worth and don't measure up to the standards of others or of society. Adler's ideas about inferiority represent a major difference between his thinking and Freud's.

inferiority complex

Following the phallic stage of psychosexual development is a period known as the _____ (6 years to puberty). --This period is not considered a stage, because sexual feelings are dormant as children focus on other pursuits, such as school, friendships, hobbies, and sports. --Children generally engage in activities with peers of the same sex, which serves to consolidate a child's gender-role identity.

latency period

David Buss has identified several theories to explore this relationship between personality traits and evolution, such as ______, which looks at how people expend their time and energy (such as on bodily growth and maintenance, reproduction, or parenting). -- Another example is ________, which examines the honesty and deception in the signals people send one another about their quality as a mate or friend

life-history theory costly signaling theory

Julian Rotter (1966) proposed the concept of locus of control, another cognitive factor that affects learning and personality development. -- Distinct from self-efficacy, which involves our belief in our own abilities, _____ refers to our beliefs about the power we have over our lives. --In Rotter's view, people possess either an internal or an external locus of control --Those of us with an internal locus of control ("internals") tend to believe that most of our outcomes are the direct result of our efforts. -- Those of us with an external locus of control ("externals") tend to believe that our outcomes are outside of our control. --Externals see their lives as being controlled by other people, luck, or chance. -- For example, say you didn't spend much time studying for your psychology test and went out to dinner with friends instead. --When you receive your test score, you see that you earned a D. --If you possess an internal locus of control, you would most likely admit that you failed because you didn't spend enough time studying and decide to study more for the next test. --On the other hand, if you possess an external locus of control, you might conclude that the test was too hard and not bother studying for the next test, because you figure you will fail it anyway. --Researchers have found that people with an internal locus of control perform better academically, achieve more in their careers, are more independent, are healthier, are better able to cope, and are less depressed than people who have an external locus of control

locus of control

Mischel designed a study to assess self-regulation in young children. --In the ______, Mischel and his colleagues placed a preschool child in a room with one marshmallow on the table. --The children were told they could either eat the marshmallow now, or wait until the researcher returned to the room, and then they could have two marshmallows --This was repeated with hundreds of preschoolers. --What Mischel and his team found was that young children differ in their degree of self-control. --Mischel and his colleagues continued to follow this group of preschoolers through high school, and what do you think they discovered? --The children who had more self-control in preschool (the ones who waited for the bigger reward) were more successful in high school. They had higher SAT scores, had positive peer relationships, and were less likely to have substance abuse issues; as adults, they also had more stable marriages --On the other hand, those children who had poor self-control in preschool (the ones who grabbed the one marshmallow) were not as successful in high school, and they were found to have academic and behavioral problems. --A more recent study using a larger and more representative sample found associations between early delay of gratification and measures of achievement in adolescence. --However, researchers also found that the associations were not as strong as those reported during Mischel's initial experiment and were quite sensitive to situational factors such as early measures of cognitive capacity, family background, and home environment. --This research suggests that consideration of situational factors is important to better understand behavior.

marshmallow study

The Big Five personality factors each represent a range between two extremes. -- In reality, most of us tend to lie somewhere ____ along the continuum of each factor, rather than at polar ends. --It's important to note that the Big Five factors are relatively stable over our lifespan, with some tendency for the factors to increase or decrease slightly. --Researchers have found that conscientiousness increases through young adulthood into middle age, as we become better able to manage our personal relationships and careers -- Agreeableness also increases with age, peaking between 50 to 70 years -- Neuroticism and extroversion tend to decline slightly with age -- Additionally, The Big Five factors have been shown to exist across ethnicities, cultures, and ages, and may have substantial biological and genetic components

midway

Freud attracted many followers who modified his ideas to create new theories about personality. These theorists, referred to as ______, generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but deemphasized sex, focusing more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality. --Four notable neo-Freudians include Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, Carl Jung, and Karen Horney

neo-Freudians

The id and superego are in constant conflict, because the id wants instant gratification regardless of the consequences, but the superego tells us that we must behave in socially acceptable ways. --Thus, the ego's job is to find the middle ground. --It helps satisfy the id's desires in a rational way that will not lead us to feelings of guilt. --According to Freud, a person who has a strong ego, which can balance the demands of the id and the superego, has a healthy personality. --Freud maintained that imbalances in the system can lead to ____ (a tendency to experience negative emotions), anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviors. --For example, a person who is dominated by their id might be narcissistic and impulsive. --A person with a dominant superego might be controlled by feelings of guilt and deny themselves even socially acceptable pleasures; conversely, if the superego is weak or absent, a person might become a psychopath. --An overly dominant superego might be seen in an over-controlled individual whose rational grasp on reality is so strong that they are unaware of their emotional needs, or, in a neurotic who is overly defensive (overusing ego defense mechanisms).

neurosis

the learning approaches focus only on ______. --This illustrates one significant advantage of the learning approaches over psychodynamics: Because learning approaches involve observable, measurable phenomena, they can be scientifically tested.

observable behavior

Bandura's key contribution to learning theory was the idea that much learning is vicarious. --We learn by observing someone else's behavior and its consequences, which Bandura called _______. -- He felt that this type of learning also plays a part in the development of our personality. --Just as we learn individual behaviors, we learn new behavior patterns when we see them performed by other people or models. ---Drawing on the behaviorists' ideas about reinforcement, Bandura suggested that whether we choose to imitate a model's behavior depends on whether we see the model reinforced or punished. --Through observational learning, we come to learn what behaviors are acceptable and rewarded in our culture, and we also learn to inhibit deviant or socially unacceptable behaviors by seeing what behaviors are punished.

observational learning

Adler said, "The happiness of mankind lies in working together, in living as if each individual had set himself the task of contributing to the common welfare" with the main goal of psychology being "to recognize the equal rights and equality of others" --With these ideas, Adler identified three fundamental social tasks that all of us must experience: ______ --Rather than focus on sexual or aggressive motives for behavior as Freud did, Adler focused on social motives. --He also emphasized conscious rather than unconscious motivation, since he believed that the three fundamental social tasks are explicitly known and pursued. --That is not to say that Adler did not also believe in unconscious processes—he did—but he felt that conscious processes were more important.

occupational tasks (careers), societal tasks (friendship), and love tasks (finding an intimate partner for a long-term relationship).

In the _____ (birth to 1 year), pleasure is focused on the mouth. --Eating and the pleasure derived from sucking (nipples, pacifiers, and thumbs) play a large part in a baby's first year of life. --At around 1 year of age, babies are weaned from the bottle or breast, and this process can create conflict if not handled properly by caregivers. --According to Freud, an adult who smokes, drinks, overeats, or bites her nails is fixated in the oral stage of her psychosexual development; she may have been weaned too early or too late, resulting in these fixation tendencies, all of which seek to ease anxiety.

oral stage

Another concept proposed by Jung was the _____, which he referred to as a mask that we adopt. --According to Jung, we consciously create this persona; however, it is derived from both our conscious experiences and our collective unconscious. --What is the purpose of the persona? --Jung believed that it is a compromise between who we really are (our true self) and what society expects us to be. We hide those parts of ourselves that are not aligned with society's expectations.

persona

Freud's third stage of psychosexual development is the _____ (3-6 years), corresponding to the age when children become aware of their bodies and recognize the differences between boys and girls. ---The erogenous zone in this stage is the genitals. --Conflict arises when the child feels a desire for the opposite-sex parent, and jealousy and hatred toward the same-sex parent. --For boys, this is called the Oedipus complex, involving a boy's desire for his mother and his urge to replace his father who is seen as a rival for the mother's attention. --At the same time, the boy is afraid his father will punish him for his feelings, so he experiences castration anxiety. --The Oedipus complex is successfully resolved when the boy begins to identify with his father as an indirect way to have the mother. --Failure to resolve the Oedipus complex may result in fixation and development of a personality that might be described as vain and overly ambitious. --Girls experience a comparable conflict in the phallic stage—the Electra complex. --The Electra complex, while often attributed to Freud, was actually proposed by Freud's protégé, Carl Jung --A girl desires the attention of her father and wishes to take her mother's place. --Jung also said that girls are angry with the mother for not providing them with a penis—which he termed penis envy. --While Freud initially embraced the Electra complex as a parallel to the Oedipus complex, he later rejected it, yet it remains as a cornerstone of Freudian theory, thanks in part to academics in the field

phallic stage

In ____, a person refuses to acknowledge her own unconscious feelings and instead sees those feelings in someone else. -- Other defense mechanisms include rationalization, displacement, and sublimation.

projection

attributing unacceptable desires to others

projection

In each _______, the child's pleasure-seeking urges, coming from the id, are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone. --The stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital --Given that sex was a taboo topic, Freud assumed that negative emotional states (neuroses) stemmed from suppression of unconscious sexual and aggressive urges. --For Freud, his own recollections and interpretations of patients' experiences and dreams were sufficient proof that psychosexual stages were universal events in early childhood.

psychosexual stage of development

As an art school dropout with an uncertain future, young Erik Erikson met Freud's daughter, Anna Freud, while he was tutoring the children of an American couple undergoing psychoanalysis in Vienna. --It was Anna Freud who encouraged Erikson to study psychoanalysis. --Erikson received his diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute in 1933, and as Nazism spread across Europe, he fled the country and immigrated to the United States that same year. --As you learned when you studied lifespan development, Erikson later proposed a _______, suggesting that an individual's personality develops throughout the lifespan—a departure from Freud's view that personality is fixed in early life. --In his theory, Erikson emphasized the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development, in contrast to Freud's emphasis on sex. --Erikson identified eight stages, each of which represents a conflict or developmental task --The development of a healthy personality and a sense of competence depend on the successful completion of each task.

psychosocial theory of development

justifying behavior by substituting acceptable reasons for less-acceptable real reasons

rationalization

Another defense mechanism is _____, in which someone expresses feelings, thoughts, and behaviors opposite to their inclinations. --In the above example, Joe made fun of a gay peer while himself being attracted to males.

reaction formation

reducing anxiety by adopting beliefs contrary to your own beliefs

reaction formation

Research suggests that there are two dimensions of our temperament that are important parts of our adult personality—_______ --Reactivity refers to how we respond to new or challenging environmental stimuli; --self-regulation refers to our ability to control that response --For example, one person may immediately respond to new stimuli with a high level of anxiety, while another barely notices it.

reactivity and self-regulation

In contrast to Skinner's idea that the environment alone determines behavior, Bandura proposed the concept of ______, in which cognitive processes, behavior, and context all interact, each factor influencing and being influenced by the others simultaneously -- Cognitive processes refer to all characteristics previously learned, including beliefs, expectations, and personality characteristics. --Behavior refers to anything that we do that may be rewarded or punished. --Finally, the context in which the behavior occurs refers to the environment or situation, which includes rewarding/punishing stimuli.

reciprocal determinism

We can see the principles of _____ at work in observational learning. --For example, personal factors determine which behaviors in the environment a person chooses to imitate, and those environmental events in turn are processed cognitively according to other personal factors. --One person may experience receiving attention as reinforcing, and that person may be more inclined to imitate behaviors such as boasting when a model has been reinforced. --For others, boasting may be viewed negatively, despite the attention that might result—or receiving heightened attention may be perceived as being scrutinized. --In either case, the person may be less likely to imitate those behaviors even though the reasons for not doing so would be different.

reciprocal determinism

In ____, an individual acts much younger than their age. --For example, a four-year-old child who resents the arrival of a newborn sibling may act like a baby and revert to drinking out of a bottle.

regression

returning to coping strategies for less mature stages of development

regression

Similarly, in the human psyche, if a memory is too overwhelming to deal with, it might be _____ and thus removed from conscious awareness --This repressed memory might cause symptoms in other areas.

repressed

surpassing painful memories and thoughts

repression

unacceptable urges and desires are kept in our unconscious through a process called _____

repression

Another humanistic theorist was Carl Rogers. --One of Rogers's main ideas about personality regards _____, our thoughts and feelings about ourselves. How would you respond to the question, "Who am I?" --Your answer can show how you see yourself. --If your response is primarily positive, then you tend to feel good about who you are, and you see the world as a safe and positive place. --If your response is mainly negative, then you may feel unhappy with who you are. --Rogers further divided the self into two categories: the ideal self and the real self.

self-concept

Today, the debate is mostly resolved, and most psychologists consider both the situation and personal factors in understanding behavior. --For Mischel (1993), people are ______ --The children in the marshmallow test each processed, or interpreted, the rewards structure of that situation in their own way. --Mischel's approach to personality stresses the importance of both the situation and the way the person perceives the situation. --Instead of behavior being determined by the situation, people use cognitive processes to interpret the situation and then behave in accordance with that interpretation.

situation processors.

Albert Bandura agreed with Skinner that personality develops through learning. --He disagreed, however, with Skinner's strict behaviorist approach to personality development, because he felt that thinking and reasoning are important components of learning. -- He presented a ______ of personality that emphasizes both learning and cognition as sources of individual differences in personality. -- In social-cognitive theory, the concepts of reciprocal determinism, observational learning, and self-efficacy all play a part in personality development.

social-cognitive theory

In ______, the concepts of reciprocal determinism, observational learning, and self-efficacy all play a part in personality development.

social-cognitive theory

In the Five Factor Model, each person has each factor, but they occur along a ____. --Openness to experience is characterized by imagination, feelings, actions, and ideas. --People who score high on this factor tend to be curious and have a wide range of interests. --Conscientiousness is characterized by competence, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, and achievement-striving (goal-directed behavior). --People who score high on this factor are hardworking and dependable. --Numerous studies have found a positive correlation between conscientiousness and academic success -- Extroversion is characterized by sociability, assertiveness, excitement-seeking, and emotional expression. --People who score high on this factor are usually described as outgoing and warm. --Not surprisingly, people who score high on both extroversion and openness are more likely to participate in adventure and risky sports due to their curious and excitement-seeking nature -- The fourth factor is agreeableness, which is the tendency to be pleasant, cooperative, trustworthy, and good-natured. --People who score low on agreeableness tend to be described as rude and uncooperative, yet one recent study reported that men who scored low on this factor actually earned more money than men who were considered more agreeable --The last of the Big Five factors is neuroticism, which is the tendency to experience negative emotions. --People high on neuroticism tend to experience emotional instability and are characterized as angry, impulsive, and hostile. --Watson and Clark found that people reporting high levels of neuroticism also tend to report feeling anxious and unhappy. --In contrast, people who score low in neuroticism tend to be calm and even-tempered.

spectrum

Redirecting unacceptable desires through socially acceptable channels

sublimation

The _____ develops as a child interacts with others, learning the social rules for right and wrong. --The superego acts as our conscience; it is our moral compass that tells us how we should behave. --It strives for perfection and judges our behavior, leading to feelings of pride or—when we fall short of the ideal—feelings of guilt.

superego

Psychologists Hans and Sybil Eysenck were personality theorists who focused on _____, the inborn, genetically based personality differences that you studied earlier in the chapter. --They believed personality is largely governed by biology. --The Eysencks viewed people as having two specific personality dimensions: extroversion/introversion and neuroticism/stability.

temperament

Trait theorists believe personality can be understood via the approach that all people have certain _____, or characteristic ways of behaving. --Do you tend to be sociable or shy? Passive or aggressive? Optimistic or pessimistic? Moody or even-tempered? --Early trait theorists tried to describe all human personality traits. --For example, one trait theorist, Gordon Allport found 4,500 words in the English language that could describe people. --He organized these personality traits into three categories: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. --A cardinal trait is one that dominates your entire personality, and hence your life—such as Ebenezer Scrooge's greed and Mother Theresa's altruism. --Cardinal traits are not very common: Few people have personalities dominated by a single trait. Instead, our personalities typically are composed of multiple traits. --Central traits are those that make up our personalities (such as loyal, kind, agreeable, friendly, sneaky, wild, and grouchy). --Secondary traits are those that are not quite as obvious or as consistent as central traits. They are present under specific circumstances and include preferences and attitudes. --For example, one person gets angry when people try to tickle him; another can only sleep on the left side of the bed; and yet another always orders her salad dressing on the side. And you—although not normally an anxious person—feel nervous before making a speech in front of your English class.

traits

Jung proposed that human responses to archetypes are similar to instinctual responses in animals. --One criticism of Jung is that there is no evidence that archetypes are biologically based or similar to animal instincts --Jung formulated his ideas about 100 years ago, and great advances have been made in the field of genetics since that time. --We've found that human babies are born with certain capacities, including the ability to acquire language. --However, we've also found that symbolic information (such as archetypes) is not encoded on the genome and that babies cannot decode symbolism, refuting the idea of a biological basis to archetypes. --Rather than being seen as purely biological, more recent research suggests that archetypes emerge directly from our experiences and are reflections of linguistic or cultural characteristics --Today, most Jungian scholars believe that the collective unconscious and archetypes are based on both innate and environmental influences, with the differences being in the role and degree of each

true - Jung

Horney's theories focused on the role of _____. --She suggested that normal growth can be blocked by basic anxiety stemming from needs not being met, such as childhood experiences of loneliness and/or isolation. --How do children learn to handle this anxiety? --Horney suggested three styles of coping 1. The first coping style, moving toward people, relies on affiliation and dependence. -- These children become dependent on their parents and other caregivers in an effort to receive attention and affection, which provides relief from anxiety --When these children grow up, they tend to use this same coping strategy to deal with relationships, expressing an intense need for love and acceptance 2. The second coping style, moving against people, relies on aggression and assertiveness. --Children with this coping style find that fighting is the best way to deal with an unhappy home situation, and they deal with their feelings of insecurity by bullying other children -- As adults, people with this coping style tend to lash out with hurtful comments and exploit others 3. The third coping style, moving away from people, centers on detachment and isolation. --These children handle their anxiety by withdrawing from the world. --They need privacy and tend to be self-sufficient. --When these children are adults, they continue to avoid such things as love and friendship, and they also tend to gravitate toward careers that require little interaction with others --Horney believed these three styles are ways in which people typically cope with day-to-day problems; however, the three coping styles can become neurotic strategies if they are used rigidly and compulsively, leading a person to become alienated from others.

unconscious anxiety

One of Mischel's most notable contributions to personality psychology was his ideas on self-regulation. --"Self-regulation is the process of identifying a goal or set of goals and, in pursuing these goals, using both internal (e.g., thoughts and affect) and external (e.g., responses of anything or anyone in the environment) feedback to maximize goal attainment" -- Self-regulation is also known as ______ --When we talk about will power, we tend to think of it as the ability to delay gratification. --For example, Bettina's teenage son made strawberry cupcakes, and they looked delicious. However, Bettina forfeited the pleasure of eating one, because she is training for a 5K race and wants to be fit and do well in the race. Would you be able to resist getting a small reward now in order to get a larger reward later? This is the question Mischel investigated in his now-classic marshmallow test.

will power