Psych Exam 2

there is a universal agreement for G v B-- and babies do this too- but now that we know they can provide opinions- understand diff minds and understand universal G v B (push vs help)-- ask more complex question Paper- the native language of social cognition

Done w French babies and American babies— asks whethere babies have preference for those who speak their native language — Baby would look at 2 ppl talking in either their native language (language around it) - vs language foreign to them Then 2 actors offer baby same gift- which does baby reach for?- data above French chose French and vise versa Alarming that 10 mo baby doesn't want to play w someone who doesn't sound like them

effects of psychotherapy - how well does it work?

Effects of various therapies on depression over time Diamond- prescribed medication PROZAC - that line lower than CBT- the drug seems to reduce more or faster depressive symptoms But look- by end lines diverge! End up same- so one not neck better than other BUT the best (drops quickly and ends at same pint)- combo therapy Another reason why— square- combo therapy — that one is best - one advantage about this way is that even tho drugs reduce the symptoms they also seem to cause more suicidal thoughts! Cog behavioral therapy protects u from those side effects ! **percentage of patients with a suicidal event by week went WAY up- much higher for the medication (prozac) and much lower for combo therapy- ofc lowest for just therapy bc no side effects of pill

Long term potentiation RETRIEVAL retrieval cue encoding specificity principle state dependent retrieval Principle of transfer- appropriate processing:

Long term potentiation: Known as LTP-process whereby communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further connections easier The potentiation occurs in several pathways in the hippocampus , can be induced rapidly, and can last for a long time Retrieval: bringing memories to mind Retrieval: process of bringing to mind info that has been previously encoded and stored — MOST important of all memory processes Retrieval cues One of best ways to retrieve info inside head is to encounter info outside of head that relates to it!! Retrieval cue: external info that is associated w stored info and helps bring it to mind Exp: ppl asked to remember lists of words- would name all ones they could rememebr then after the experimenter gave them clues about topics of the words and asked again and they could remember some more! show: info is sometimes available in memory even when it is momentarily inaccessible !— THEN retrieval clues help bring the inaccessible info to mind!! One kind of retrieval cue: hint Encoding specificity principle: says that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which info was initially encoded (external contexts often make for powerful retrieval cues) ex: divers learned some words in water and some on land — then when tested could remember the words best when tested on words learned in water in water bc enviro was serving as retrieval cue!— like alcoholics that feel urge to drink again in places they used to drink When retrieval clues are inner states not external contexts: State dependent retrieval Tendency for info to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval Studies show kids perform worse on test next day if were drunk night bf but would actually perform better if had 6 pack for breakfast vs cereal bc would be in same mental state!! This is bc: persons physiological or psychological state at the time of encoding is associated with the info that is encoded! This is bc: persons physiological or psychological state at the time of encoding is associated with the info that is encoded! Ex: being in a good mood affects patterns of electrical activity in parts of bring responsible for semantic encoding— so mood has direct unfluence on semantic coding!— if persons state at time of retrieval matches persons state at time of encoding, state itself serves as a retrieval cue!! Retrieval cues w semantic judgments and rhyme judgments— usually if person asked to remember word based on meaning vs rhyme — person who learned word based on semantic learns better but if next day person says what was word that rhymed w word u r trying to recall- that retrieval cue would match encoding context better of rhyme person than semantic person!! THIS IS: Principle of transfer- appropriate processing: idea that memory is more likely to be linked to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match If estrogen not basis of female sex drive then what is? 2 pieces of Evidence suggest testosterone This drives male sexuality When females given this their sexual drive increases second, men naturally have more testosterone than women and they generally have stronger sex drive

3 types of storage distinguished based on amount of time over which a memory is retained 1st

Sensory storage Sensory memory is a type of storage that holds sensory info for a few seconds or less Bc we have more than one sense, have more than one kind of sensory memory Iconic memory: fast decaying store of visual info— similar storage area serves as temporary warehouse for sounds Echoic memory: fast decaying store of auditory info When have difficulty understanding what someone has just said, find last couple of words playing in your"minds ear"— when do this you are accusing info in your echoic memory Both iconic and echoic— store for very brief amount of time- iconic decay in 1 s or less and echoic 5 s

deontology vs utilitarianism

deontology rules and obligations **dean big muscles- would kill introducer to protect family like superman Deontology states that an act that is not good morally can lead to something good, such as shooting the intruder (killing is wrong) to protect your family (protecting them is right). ... In our example, that means protecting your family is the rational thing to do—even if it is not the morally best thing to do. utilitarianism "the greatest good for the greatest number"

Capacity How much stuff to remember ? Can remember so many faces, names, songs etc why cant we remember 17 words on board?

this is bc use diff kinds of memory (Semantic procedural etc) to remember diff things and each kind of memory has diff capacity!! using diff kind of memory to remember faces vs remember words and they each have diff capacity Sensory memory - high capacity (but decays quickly) iconic memory test used to study this Memory test used to study this Flashes letters on screen- most people remember around 4 bf start having to guess Have them for just a second and then you lose them THEN he flashes letters, they go away- then shows arrow and supposed to say letters that were in that row — most ppl w this can get around 4 letters to **so test in general has about 16 random letters on screen - when flawed can remember about 4 random letters out of 4 rows THEN this time when flashes back after showing arrow is pointing to one specific row-- STILL can remember 4 from that specific row!! HIS IS SUPRISING: why is that strange? Fact that memory is 4 in both cases is interesting bc cue didn't appear till after things were gone- still able to get 4 letters- if cue had been diff row could have gotten those too and same w middle row so shows that any of those letters are actually available to you bc can probe any rows and could tell most letters in row but on other hand capacity of sensory memory seems like only 4 bc when asked to remember all- can only remember 4 so the capacity of sensory memory is actually HIGH just seems like low bc when asked to remember- it has decayed so quickly that only recall 4 but capacity is more than that- could prob do 4 from any row!! SO high capacity (but decays quickly) short term Shows digits on screen that will appear and dissapear- a little longer so we can study them 7 letters were fine, 9 ok 11 super hard — didn't really scale up proportionally— 11 was significantly harder than 11 ALSO!! remember key distinction bw short term and long term is that ST does not have consolidation -- so memories not going into storage as well SO ST memory decays w out rehearsal— can repeat phone number over and over **of keep rehearsing it can keep reintodrocing into your short term memory but not into storage bc no consolidation Position matters w short term!!: effects of primacy and recency- easier to remember first and last things exposed to and harder w things in middle did test and found 7+- 2 is capacity of short term memory— this as many things as we can hold Fairly low— can remember a lot in sensory but not in case w short ** so opp capacity of sensory!! 7+-2 what? No units Hard to really understand short term bc of this! No units- may be easier to remember some units vs others Shown 11 numbers, couldn't remember but then 4 words w 11 letters and we could remember why? Chunking Letters were arranged into chunks of meaning Combining small pieces of info into larger meaningful clusters So more meaningful thing sis 7+-2 Chunks!! Shows how 3 things harder than hundred Put 3 Chinese letters on board then put whole sentence on board Why one more diff than other? Meaning bc of process of chunking!!- easier to remember things if understand Long term memory capacity Essentially unknown— bc non one has every encountered anyone who remembers too many things- has hit a limit of memory Sevance- cases where people can remember so many things— not bc have huge brains but that brain organized a bit diff Longe term memory a lot bigger than imagine Shown thousands of objects over course of a couple hours- shown 25000 objects 3 seconds each and then showed 2 pics and asked if saw one or other ppl get a 93% of this 88% can remember same pic in diff configurations- mailbox w thing up vs down

theory of mind and tasks to test - their possible flaws and then tests to correct

Theory of Mind Asking whether a child can do theory of mind-can a child represent the theories of minds of other people We thought this craxy bc- Egocentricism They seem to be this way - it is impossible for them to understand that someone else mind is diff than theirs "Three mountains task"- for understanding whether they understand that they can know or see things others cant Going to ask kid- what can you see from your point of view- then switches positions and looks from adults point of view— can child realize that see diff things from diff views — she asks then can u tell me what I can see from this part— then he begins to just say again what he sees- just assumes everyone capable of seeing things he can see possible flaw in 3 mountain: what's in it for kids> why should he even try or care to get Q's right- no motivation nothing in it for kid SO need to make test where kid can benefit from understanding ppl have diff minds!! "Mean monkey Task" Mean monkey takes away things that you tel lhim you life- so can lie to mean monkey and tell him u like things u don't like- he can take those things and u can keep what u like both you and monkey choose- but he gets to choose first and he always chooses what you want ask kid which one he actually wants - monkey says ok I will take it- repeats exp many times— never figures out that monkey can be fooled! Gave him motivation now to figure out that monkey mind Dif than his and still doesn't get it Maybe now its bc child has learned not to lie- wishes he could lie to mean monkey but knows shouldn't lie "False Belief task" — most prominent task used in theory of mind literature!! "false-belief task. a type of task used in theory of mind studies in which children must infer that another person does not possess knowledge that they possess. For example, children shown that a candy box contains pennies rather than candy are asked what someone else would expect to find in the box." Asks can child understand that people can be wrong about things— if I know you are wrong about something then I know u are representing world in diff way than I am- knows u have diff mind Crayon box full of candles Ask them- bf I showed u candles what did u think was inside of box he says candles— then ask what do u think snoopy thinks is inside box— he will also say candles What I think and believe is what everyont things So again child fail to represent mind of other people!! Worry here about diff bw Performance vs competence — things you know but not able to represent them in certain contxt- like taking test at concert PROB w this one: crayon test involves a lot of things- knowing what crayon box is and what should be inside , memory, etc-- so could be disparity bw perf and competence SO easiest and used test: Paper Do 15 month old infants understand false beliefs Baby introduced to character- character really likes fruit- has eaten so much wants to save one slice for later - puts it in box— while fruit in box he gets blindfolded and cant see that fruit has moved boxes— baby has seen whole thing Data Baby looks for way longer when he goes to true location — the believed location is what he expected But when he goes to where really is, looks longer bc person shouldn't have known that SHOWS babies can understand that peoples minds can be different than theirs!! looking time WAY longer for true location (bc how supposed to know it was there?)

second assumption and is this true or not? and therefore what good analogy to think of when thinking of adder all

"Enhancement" users believe that stimulants such as Adderall will improve their focus and attention, even when such drugs have not been prescribed to them What have done is done no go test for all non adder all users and give some drug and give others no drug No drug- at 50 placebo- a bit above bc ppl believe its better Aderall 10mg and stronger dose both identical to placebo!!- no better at no go test for kids who don't need it taking it vs not taking it Metaanlaysis- studies that study other studies and compile into big study Findings Does AMP enhance go/no go? = no Stroop?= no Word recall= no Intelligence tests (SAT-M SAT-V) =no Long term memory= maybe (but maybe not and is so small effect) This maybe bc metanalysis let you look at publication bias- maybe all times researchers found adder all improved something, published it but maybe all times they didn't they didn't publish it- found evidence using stats to show that there are prob studies that asked whether aderall improved long term memory and saw a couple studies hidden so skewing results on maybe bc no's weren't published Think of adder all like glasses Glasses improve some peoples vision but if don't need glasses and wear glasses- not going to make your sight better- they just don't have deficit that a

assumption 1 for why ppl take adder all and is this right?

"Enhancement" users believe they are worse at studying, paying attention, focusing, than their peers Here is how this has been tested - task called sustained attention Sustained attention: the ability to stay focused on a specific task for an extended, continuous period of time and inhibiting distraction Studied through "Go/No-Go Task" Tell them about cue to respond— for ex say every time u see green square- go — if other color, don't go — maybe go is press space bar or clapping or something — this would go for half an hour — not so different than boring studying- like I have to keep going and pay attention answers: If ask people how good they are at studying and they say no- they don't perform any worse on this test than others !— comparable performance on the objective test between the 2 groups— Non-medical users don't even "need" the drug! They are objectively on the same footing at nonusers; they just believe they are worse (not so surprising; after all, they weren't prescribed it!)

generalized anxiety disorder phobic disorder specific phobia social phobia and preparedness theory

"generalized" = not (always) in response to a particular threat 6% of Americans (at some point in life) Def from DSM: chronic excessive worry accompanied by 3 or more of following symptoms: restlensses, fatigue, concentration problems, irritability, muscle tension, sleep disturbances generalized anxiety disorders associates w 3/6 symptoms and A-F!! A. Excessive anxiety and worry, occurring more days than not for at least 6 months, about a number of events and activities B.The individual finds it difficult to control the worry C.The anxiety and worry are associated with three more of the following six symptoms 1. Restlessness 2. Being easily fatigued 3. Difficulty concentrating 4. irritability 5. Muscle tension 6. Sleep disturbance (difficulty falling/staying asleep) **only diff symptom is the muscle tension and irritability!! this is an anxiety trait !!0-- when my muscles tense I get irritable!! D.The anxiety or worry or physical symptoms cause significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning E.The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., drug) F. The disturbance is not better explained by another disorder BOOK GAD- called generalized bc unrelenting worries are not focused on any particular threat- they are in fact often exaggerated and irrational Uncontrollable sense of worry produces a sense of loss of control that can erode self confidence , simple decisions become hard Both biological and psychological factors lead to it w mild to modest level of heritability Biological explanation Nuerotransmitter imbalances may play a role in the disorder Nature of the imbalance is not clear -drugs like prozac help some individuals but not all and in some cases can produce serious side ffects- so nature of imbalance really unclear!! Psychological explanation Focuses on anxiety provoking situations in explaining high levels of GAD Conditions especially prevalent in ppl who have low incomes, live in large cities —high levels of GAD in women compared to men could be related to stress bc women more likely to live in poverty, experience discrimination etc Research shows unpredictable traumatic experiences in childhood increase risk of developing GAD — so supports idea that stressful experiences play a role Risks of GAD also increase after experiencing a loss or situation associated w future danger BUT many people who might be expected to develop GAD donte—supports the diathesis- stress notion that personal vulnerability must also play a key role in this disorder! Anxiety disorders: when fear takes over Situation related anxiety is normal and adaptive - in case of pop quiz it reminds you to keep up w readings and pay attention Becomes maladaptive when: arises out of proportion to real threats and challenges - can undermine ability to function normally Anxiety disorder Pathological anxiety The class of mental disorder in whcih anxiety is the predominant feature Ppl normally exhibit more than one anxiety disorder at one time and there is significant comorbidity between anxiety and depression!! Anxiety disorders recognized in DMS-5 Phobic disorders, panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder Phobic disorder ex: Mary has claustrophobia- stems from when she was a kid and her brothers locked in her closets- now cant even get job where has to take elevator- Many people feel anxious about enclosed spaces but Marys are abnormal and dysfunctional bc they were disproportionate to any actual risk and impaired her ability to carry out normal life def: marked, persistent, excessive fear and avoidance of specific objects, activities, or situations Someone who has phobia recognizes it as irrational fear but cant help but let it get in way of their normal life Specific phobia Irrational fear of a particular object or situation that markedly interferes with an individuals ability to function 5 categories Animals Natural environments (ex heights, darkness, water) Situations (ex. bridges, elevators, tunnels) Blood injections and injury Other phobias, including choking or vomiting and in children loud noises or costumed characters Around 12% of ppl in US will develop a specific phobia in their life (rates slightly higher for women) Social phobia Irrational fear of being publicly humiliated or embarrassed Can be restricted to situations life public speaking, eating in public, urinating in public bathroom or generalized to vanity of social situations that involve being observed or interacting with unfamiliar people These people try to avoid situations where unknown people will try to evaluate them Can develop in childhood but typically comes out in adolescence and early adulthood - around 12% mena dn 14% women qualify for diagnosis of this in lifetime Why are phobias so common? High rates of both specific and social phobias- suggest predisposition to be fearful of certain objects and situations — indeed most of objects of pals fears can actually pose a real threat!— ex: falling from high building or bit by snake In regards of social situations- they have their own dangers, no one will bite you but could form impressions that affect prospects for jobs etc in future Preparedness theory Maintains that people are instinctively predisposed toward certain fears Supported by research in humans and monkeys which says that they can quickly be conditioned to have fear response to fearful stimuli like snakes but not neutral stimuli like flowers also- research on facial expression shows more people conditioned to fear angry faces then other types Phobias are particularly likely to form for objects that evolution has predisposed us to avoid! Idea also supported by heritability of phobias Fam studies of specific phobias show greater concordance for identical than fraternal twins!- so genetic component- makes sense evolutionaraly!! Also over 30% of first degree relieves of ppl w phobias have phobias Temperament may also play role in vulnerability to phobias Research shows kids who are extra shy are at increased risk for phobias Neurobiological factors may play a role Abnormalities in neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine are more common in individuals who report phobias Also ppl w phobias show high levels of activity in amygdala (linked to development of emotional associations) BUT although ppl w social phobia feel more distressed during tasks like giving speech they are actually no more physiologically aroused than others- suggests social phobia may be due to persons subjective experience of the situation rather than abnormal physiological stress response to such situations BUT this does not rule out role of enviro in influencing development of phobias John Watson demonstrated this Phobias can be classically conditioned (so obvi enviro plays role)— Little Albert experiment w loud sound and furry obj! Similar to how pain of a dog bite might create conditional association bw dogs and pain so will have phobia to all dogs BUT idea that phobias are learned from emotional experience with feared objects- not complete explanation for occurence of phobias Many ppl bitten by dogs but not all have phobias- studies have shown that ppl w and w out phobias have same tendency to recall the scary situation Its connection to learning tho provides useful model for therapy!!

The unknowns of cognitive enhancement article and medical use vs non medical use and danger and why have this conversation

# of Adderall or similar prescriptions nationwide — around 5 million The unknowns of cognitive enhancement article People take adder all bc thinks it will enhance their cognition in some way, make focus more etc Will discuss is this safe? Does this work? Disclaimer for here on out: Nothing here applies to clinical use. If you are prescribed any of these drugs, listen to your provider! Therapeutic vs non therapeutic use are so different that really don't have same effect on the 2 groups of people Medical use Prescribed by a healthcare professional for clinical symptoms of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity Non Medical use Used (or abused), often illegally, by people to whom the medication is not prescribed; e.g., addiction, recreation, or (perceived) enhancement Dangerous! For real. Drugs like these are contraindicated for many conditions and interactions you may not even be aware of, but that a professional would check for. (plus, it's illegal) Not every drug is appropriate for every person Good ex: stimulant ppl w high blood pressure are not prescribed stimulants bc would be horrible for them despite having cognitive need for it— but wouldn't know this if not prescribed medically Drug interactions- don't know this if not prescribed — if going to physician to be prescribed aderall they will ask you what other drugs you take Great fruit juice- a lot of ppl not allowed to drink grapefruit juice bc of certain drugs they are taking Why even have this conversation? Because psychology is the quest to understand interesting human behaviors, and this is one of them Altering consciousness pharmacologically is interesting thing you do to your mind Because you make decisions about substances that affect your mind, without knowing the science This is relevant to you- college stats 7 deadly sins!! 7% of college students take adder all for not press- and higher for Who? How many? Results from the 2013 National Survey on Drug use and health: summary of national findings and paper non medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: prevalence and correlates from a national survey they found # of American adults (that includes you) who use prescription stimulants for non-medical use: 1.4 million % of college students who use prescription stimulants for non medical use: 7% nationally Higher than 7% for but higher for schools with following properties: competitive admissions northeast US non-commuter school— higher for students who are male, white in fraternities Also even higher!! 20% among academics — paper Poll results: look who's doping

A confusion none of this means that any differences between males and female are good, moral, justified, excusable, or even fixed and Study Science faculties subtle gender biases favor male students Contentious Memo strikes Nerve inside google and out - and how this is diff than how we are looking at diff bw men and women?

(indeed, in many cases,"cultural" or "environmental" differences between males and females can be even more entrenched and harder to change!) Not always true if its a cultural thing its an easier thing to change than if genetic Just bc part of nature, not hard to change, just bc social, not easier (white supremcist both that way ) BUT- we do have certain societal expectations for boys vs girls, boys like pink, boys blue girls pretty men smart Video of girl walking on street— showing discrimination and harassment- spends few hours walking around - 10 hours of silent walking in Manhattan 100 people cat called her whole time Has to spend day deflecting attention from people Not asking for her ideas, interested in her as object that can be provided to them Science faculties subtle gender biases favor male students In study applications were sent to researchers who run labs and apps were identical and only diff was name at tope which was stereotypically male or female— PI's never saw them Findings: Did all faculty show this bias or just male faculty? No gender differences among faculty All faculty showed bias Shows so deeply engrained bias - rating of competence and starting salary higher for male v female even tho same app and women prof saying this too! Someone at google suggested men make better engineers than women do HOW THIS DIFF THAN WAY WE ARE CONSIDERING IT? We looked even at animals- level of scientific care in making decisions like this is not possible- cant test this in objective way **no good engineer test!

what to do about why we don't always make rational decisions?

1. Try not to make these mistakes to begin with Kahnemen says in his book- think slower! Cognitive reflection test (CRT) The cognitive reflection test (CRT) is a task designed to measure a person's tendency to override an incorrect "gut" response and engage in further reflection to find a correct answer Do we have ability to think slower- not jump to our first gut response based on all principles above and allow more reflection time System 1- quick decision executed quickly without reflection , system 2 requires conscious thought and effort he cognitive reflection test has three questions that each have an obvious but incorrect response given by system 1 The correct response requires the activation of system 2. For system 2 to be activated, a person must note that their first answer is incorrect, which requires reflection on their own cognition A bat and a ball cost $1.10.The bat costs a dollar more than the ball. How much does the ball cost? 5 cents! It takes 5 machines 5 minutes to make 5 widgets; how long will it take 100 machines to make 100 widgets? 5 min! Bc all first statement is saying is that it takes 5 min to make one widget and each machine is making 1 widget! In a lake, there is a patch of lily pads. Every day, the patch doubles in size. If it takes 48 days for the patch to cover the entire lake, how long would it take for the patch to cover half the lake? 47 days- bc if doubles every day- on 47th day will cover half then half doubled will be whole lake covered on 48th day! Scores on the CRT correlate with patience in general ...low temporal discounting (wanting or jumping to most immediate answer- answer that takes least amount of work) ..better alignment with expected value Exploit these biases to improve society! Nudge- book written (improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness) shows you how you can unconsciously make better decisions by designing your environment so it nudges you in the right direction every time temptation becomes greatest and thus build your own choice architecture in advance. A nudge is a subtle cue or context change that pushes you to make a certain decision without forcing you to. One of the most powerful nudges is the default. Why don't more people want to donate their organs? Around 21 americans die each day waiting for transplants - what is behind the reluctance to saving a life? GRAPH showing this is powerful countries like Germany, netherlands, UK etc have their system set up where to be an organ donor you have to opt in — so they are unconcousilu nudgeing you in wrong direction by saying by default you are not donor and you can opt in— bc this their% of organ donors is WAY lower— whereas opt out countries set at default and WAY higher!! Defaults save lives!! When states use nudges well, they can improve entire countries.

coffee as a cognitive enhancer

Coffee as cognitive enhancer Legal Not particularly dangerous(though you can overdose [and people have]; don't drink 10 Venti-sized cold brews in one hour) Maybe even healthy! go- no go for coffee Start doing worse again at certain point- there is a sweet spot maybe way decreased percent of errors from placebo to 1 mg of caffeine and then goes down again for 3 but if have 7-- maybe too much caffein- error goes back up-- become too fidgety ! Another test: for navy seals: effects of caffein, sleep loss and stress on cognitive performance and mood- like no go but a bit diff- either was something very faint image vs nothing at all- go is faint image Have to look at hit rate and false alarms for meaningful data A sweet spot- one strong cup "Enhancement with caffeine" It really does work! One cup is enough More than that doesn't help, and may even hurt (Much more than that could physically harm you)

depression

18% of Americans (at some point in life) Treated in just over 1/3 of cases But what is it?— more than just being sad def: a severely depressed mood and/or inability to experience pleasure that lasts 2 or more weeks and is accompanied by feelings of worthlessness, lethargy, and sleep and appetite disturbance you are: sad, don't want to do activities, diff in eating habits/weight, sleep probs , psychomotor, fatigue, loss of energy , worthlessness, cant decide or think every day, suicidal thoughts must have 5 (or more) of 9 symptoms during same 2 week period (especially if these symptoms represent a change from previous functioning): 1. Depressed mood most of the day (e.g., feels sad, empty, hopeless), as indicated by either subjective report or observations by others 2. Diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities most of the day, nearly every day 3. Significant weight loss when not dieting, or weight gain, or decrease or increase in appetite nearly every day 4.insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day 5. Psychomotor agitation nearly every day (pacing, toe tapping, etc; movements with "no purpose") 6. Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day 7. Feelings of worthlessness or inappropriate guilt nearly every day ("nobody cares about me","I'm just a burden to my friends and family", etc.) 8. Diminished ability to think, concentrate, or decide nearly every day 9. Recurrent thoughts of death (not just fear of dying), recurrent suicidal ideation without a specific plan, or a specific plan for committing suicide, or a suicide attempt BOOK Depressive and bipolar disorders: at the mercy of emotions Mood- relatively long lasting non specific emotional state — non specific meaning we may have no idea what is causing a particular mood Moods can become so intense that they are pulled or pushed into life threatening actions Mood disorders Mental disorders that have mood disturbance as their predominant feature and take 2 main forms Depression (also called unipolar depression ) Bipolar disorder (named bc ppl go from one end of emotional pole (extreme depression) to other end (extreme mania)) Depressive disorders Dysfunctional chronic and fall outside the range of socially or culturally expected responses Major depressive disorder (unipolar depression) Referred to simply as depression Dysthymia Related condition Same cognitive and bodily problems as in depression are present but they are less severe and last longer - persisting for at least 2 years When BOTH types occur= double depression Moderately depressed mood that persists for at least 2 years and is punctuated by periods of major depression Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) Some people experience recurrent depressive episodes in a seasonal pattern In most cases the episode begins in fall or winter and remits in spring- due to reduced levels of light over colder seasons! On avg major depression lasts about 12 weeks — BUT if don't get treated- around 80% of people will experience one recurrence Ppl w recurrent depression have more sever symptoms, higher rates of depression in their families, more suicide attempts, and higher rates of divorce Women higher rates- think bc socioeconomic causes or sex diff in hormones — estrogen, androgen and progesterone influence depression Some women expeirence Postpartum depression Depression following childbirth due to changing hormone imbalances Could also just be that higher rate of depression in women means that they have a greater willingness to seek help and so get diagnosed more often biological factors of depression- doesn't seem that heritable In 1950s Docs found that drugs that could increase levels of neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin could sometimes reduce depression suggests that depression may be caused by depletion of these neurotransmitters SEROTONIN= what depleted in depression!! THIS sparked revolution in pharmacological treatment of depression Led to widespread use of drugs like Prozac and Zoloft — increase availability of serotonin in brain!! BUT research has shown that reduced levels of these hormones can not be whole story ex: some studies have found increases in norepinephrine activity among depressed inidivudulas - COMPLETE COUNTER Often the antidepressant medications are NOT effective in decreasing depressive symptoms SO, biochem model is yet to be developed to account for all evidence Newer models have tried to understand depression using diathesis- stress framework Avalshalom Caspi and his colleagues (2003) found that stressful life events are much more likely to lead to depression among those w a certain genetic trait (vulnerability) related to the activity of neurotransmitter serotonin Nature and nurture interact to influence brain structure, function and chemistry in depression More research: has shown what parts of brain show abnormalities in depression Meta analysis of 24 brain imaging studies shows When viewing negative stimuli (words or images)people suffering from depression showed both increased activity in regions of brain associated w processing emotional info and decreased activity in areas associated w cognitive control (so no activity in part of brain that would allow them to control their emotions) Depression does not arise from single gene or brain region but likely from interactions of diff biological systems that each give rise to diff psychological traits seen in depression — likely many years bf fully understand biological cause! Psychological faxtors Negative outlook of ppl w depression ppl think begins in childhood w pattern of neg self thoughts Aaron t Beck Has theory that analyzes role of thought in depression His patients distorted perceptions of their experiences and embraces dysfunctional attitudes that promoted and maintained neg mood states! Cycle! Led him to develop Cognitive model of depression States that biases in how info is attended to , processed, and remembered lead to and maintain depression Leading from this: helplessness theory Theory of depression that emphasizes the role of peoples negative inferences about the causes of their experiences Its a part of the cognitive model of depression def: individuals who are prone to depression autonomatically attribute negative experiences to causes that are internal (their own fault), stable (unlikley to change), and global (widespread) Ex: kid who gets bad grade may think that it s a Sogn of his low intelligence and it will lead to failure in all future endeavors and it will never change Update to Becks model Suggests that due to common of genetic vulnerability and negative early life events, ppl w depression have developed a negative schema and the schema is charectorized by biases in Interpretations of info (tendency to interpret neutral info negatively ) Attention (troubke disengaging from negative info) Memory (better recall of neg info) ex: kid who does bad on test might interpret well intentioned comment from teacher as negative,negative, have trouble forgetting about the test score and the negative comment, and may have trouble forgetting the negative event in the future ALSO: parts of brain that do things above affected in those w depression Show abnormalities in parts of brain associated w attention, memory etc

what is mental illness? and why this is tough- consider specific cases and biopsychosocial model

2 questions in one: How is mental illness characterized (the nature of mental illness- what has to be true about you in order for you to have mental illness) and how do we determine that someone is mentally ill? Suppose we were to consider specific cases Sleep disorders We all roughly have sense of how much sleep is appropriate for person Not too much, not too little If met someone who sleeps 14 hours day- may have sleep disorder— this pretty clear but what abt person who sleeps 10? - how do we define them? Eating Not too much, not too little Possible to eat so much food it is unhealthy for their body or too little unhealthy for you physically How do we tell diff bw person on severe diet bc have disordered eating vs strict diet for sports? Moods A range in response to your environment Supposed to be happy sometimes and sad sometimes but how do we know when gets to point of mental illness How it is defined — idea that not just one of these things is enough for mental illness- allowed to be deviant but if deviant and distressed and not functioning- then deviance may be result of clinical disorder 3 D's!! Distress For person or other people Dysfunction Impedes function in everyday life Deviance Behaviors or feelings are unusual (deviating from normal behavior) Biopsychosocial model Scientific approach to mental disorders that views them through a model that considers the biological, psychological, and social factors that combine to cause disorders This model offers treatment for some disorders and hope for others Defining mental disorders: what Is abnormal? Any extreme variation in your thoughts feelings or behaviors is NOT a mental disorder Ex: severe anxiety bf test or sadness after loss of loved one- not disorder but quick extreme change Persistent pattern of deviating from the norm NOT a mental disorder If this was true then most creative and visionary people would be considered disordered There is NOT a universal agreement on precise definition ! genwral agreement def: Mental disorder: persistant distrubance or dysfunction in behavior , thoughts, emotions, that causes significant distress or impairment -- this touches on all things- deviance in behavior or dysfunction not able to do it and this causes impairment and distress

encoding process 1 semantic encoding

3 types of encoding processes Semantic encoding Bc memories combo of old and new info- they depend as much on old info as they do the info coming in How we remember something then depends on how we think about it at the time— why poker players can remember numbers better than us- when see numbers think about the money at stake and their last line up of poker etc but when we see them we just see them as a list needed to memorize Study Participants presented w series of words and asked to make one of 3 types of judgments Semantic judgments: required particpants to think about the meaning of the words (is hat a type of clothing?) Rhyme judgments :required participants to think about the sounds of the words (does hat rhyme w cat? Visual judgments : required participants to think about the appearance of the words (is HAT written upper or lowercase) The type of judgment task influences how they thought act each word— bc diff old info combining w new and had powerful impact on their memories Ppl who made semantic judgments: had much better memory for words than those who thought art how word sounded or how it looked!!— makes sense bc easier to remember if has meaning behind it Results : Long term retention is greatly enhanced by semantic encoding - the process of relating new info in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory if you are able to compare experience to a FACT you already know in your brain- helps you remember it— in hat ewe already knew the fact that hat was a piece of clothing— so that connection helps us remember it! Where does semantic encoding take place? Associated w increased activity in lower left part of frontal lobe and inner part of left temporal lobe— ant of activity in these regions is directly related to if they remember the info later!!- more activity, more likely to remember -- so if encoding semantically your brain will be activated in lower left of frontal and if this activated- know that semantically ending so know memory will last longer!

Sample Size neglect

400 babies are born each day in a large hospital, and 40 babies are born each day in a small hospital. For any day in which more than 60% of the births at a hospital are girls, that hospital hands out free girl scout cookies. Which hospital will have more free cookie days? Sample size neglect Law of small numbers- smaller numbers of observations= greater chance of "weird" results ex: if flipping coin 4000 flips— going to be way more 50/50 on heads vs tails but percentages may not be this clear or correct if smaller size of pop (if only flipping 40 times- will have weird outliers) The underlying cause of Sample Size Neglect is that people often fail to understand that high levels of variance are more likely to occur in small samples.

conjunction fallacy

A rare disease called Arm, Leg, and Head Disease affects 1 of every 1000 JHU students. There is a 99.9% accurate test available; it produces a false positive only 0.1% of the time. This 99.9% accurate test says you have ALH. What is prob that you have ALH? Would think 99.9% BUT— not bc you have already tested pos so 1000 people tested (so 1 has ALH and 999 do not - based on percent) 1 person with ALH tests pos (true pos)— know this bc says affects 1 out of every 1000 1 person with ALH tests pos (false pos) know this bc .1% accuracy rate SO- 2 people getting a pos result and out of those 2 people 50% chance that you have it vs 50% chance it was false pos!! Pres. Daniels plays LeBron James in a one-on- one game of basketball.What are the odds that The first scoring play of the game is a layup by President Daniels The first scoring play of the game is a layup by President Daniels, but then King James takes over and crushes President Daniels MOST would prob say first scoring play of game is layup by Daniels but then King James crushes- BUT this one is an and statement and and you multiple individual prob of James scoring first* prob Lebrun takes over and wins AND prob of A and B cant be more than prob of A!! A and B seems more representative— seems more representative of a situation that may happen Conjunction Fallacy —The conjunction fallacy (also known as the Linda problem) is a formal fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that specific conditions are more probable than a single general one. Think adding a conjunction to a sentence makes sentence MORE specific- so adding all these ands 2 situation makes seem more spefici to sitution- may make it seem like should have better odds but actually wont — by tversky and kahneman too

difference bw male nd female and minimal parental investment theory ways that they tested sexual drive of men vs women to be true/partners

Answer: sex cells- female large one sperm small one, much less resource rich mostly genetic material Humans and other animals— this holds true On avg human men bigger and more aggressive Women large sex cell with genes, food, protective cover, etc. BUT smaller less strong less aggressive This is weird bc egg is way bigger!! Men small sex cell with genes and little else larger stronger more aggressive Minimal parental investment theory Ask yourself the question: what's the least amount of work you could do to create a child that has half your genes? Answer is diff for diff ppl — for those of us that get pregnant, answer is a huge investment, get pregnant, gestate for around 9 months, many resources but for men all have to do is have sex and then its done and mom will carry baby lion to term w half genes of male lion Females can reproduce only infrequently, and at great personal cost can usually find males without difficulty, and can even hold out for the 'best' males desire less sex and fewer sex partners? Is this true? Studies asked male and female college students how many sex partners in next month , 2 yrs and lifetime Women <1,1-2,4-5 Men 2,8,18 This shows but also women may be worried about being shamed and men feel supposed to want more sexual partner So better- look at what people actually do So better- look at what people actually do Psychologists recruited 2 attractive people They would go around and ask ppl to have sex— Would say I have been noticing you around campus would you go out w me To the boys- 50% of women would say yes and 50% men For would you come over to my appt tn? - 6% of women say yes 69% men Would you go to bed w me 0% women yes 75% yes Even better look at what gay men and women are doing Meta Analysis- gender diff in sexuality Learn: Gay men have more frequent sex than gay women do— this is what you would expect based on what bf Men masturbate more than women do "Both the Magisterium of the Church, in the course of a constant tradition, and the moral sense of the faithful have been in no doubt and have firmly maintained that masturbation is an intrinsically and gravely disordered action." Men, lifetime: 92% Women, lifetime: 58% Men consume more pornography than women do Monkeys pay for sexy pics- male monkeys use more of tokens given to them to look at monkey genitalia than girls do!! All confirming Males can mate with multiple females in a short period of time, with little cost must compete with other males who are trying to mate with multiple females fewer sex partners? small minimal parental investment desire more sex and more sex partners? Peacock male v female

anterograde amnesia vs retrograde amnesia

Anterograde amnesia Girl in 50 first dates Inability to form new memories— whats missing is process of consolidating **ante is bf so new- cant form from here on out- only remembers bf Can carry on convo, remember what you say— have some short term memory but can not consolidate them and turn them into longer term memories, solidifying and consolidating that memory— haven't lost storage bc still remember a lot from childhood but just cant make new memories **so has a bit sensory memory - can keep up w conversation but decays quickly- cant consolidate -- still has storage feature to process of memory bc still remembers lot from past but just cant move anything new into storage area!! cant consolidate it into storage area!! Anterograde amnesia- when hippocampus is damaged, inability to transfer new info from short term store into long term store retrograde Retrograde amnesi Inability to retrieve old memories, more rare, waking up and not knowing who you are, can recover from this also Fact you can recover from it shows that it is about ability to access them- if can recover them just means u can go access them now Retrograde amnesia- inability to retrieve info that was acquired before a particular date , usually the date of an injury or surgery **so one memory bf operation or accident vs other after **fact that HM had much worse anterograde than retrograde— suggest hippocampal region NOT site of long term memory hippocampal region NOT site of long term memory Research has shown diff aspects of memory— its sights, sounds, smells etc are stored in diff places in the cortex and hippocampal region acts as "index" that links together all of these otherwise separate bits so that we remember them as one memory! Overtime - the index may become less necessary Think about cook book analogy — hippocampal region is like a printed recipe— first time you make a pie you need the recipe to help retrieve all ingredients— but as make more and more pies don't really need recipe Hippocampal region: important as memory is first formed and becomes less important as memory ages Some people think that it stays involved for long time in memories that are very detailed of personal experience and less involves in general memories *** just like may need to rely on cook book longer if recalling a complicated recipe vs a simple one BUT notion of it as index helps us understand why HM int make new ones but can remember old ones— bc those already stored somewhere passed hippocampal function

Tech in general and Qs and themes

Bicycle for our minds- computer - what tech does for us mentally Lets you do things you couldn't have done bf, lets you go places wouldnt have bf Technology all around us Calculators let us do things that we couldn't do w machinery in our mind alone Calendars, store things we cant remember Alarm clock- hack world around us to do things that we wouldn't be able to do otherwise Coding- piece of technology to make other tech- you make recipe that makes other thing- extremely flexible, can use to make anything Typewriter Piece of paper can remember things for me - use notepad to remember things you couldn't on your own Questions and themes Does interacting with technology change how we think? Are machines as intelligent as humans? Are we smarter or are comp smarter? Technology- we forget about bits of technology we use and don't think of them as extra step in our cognition bc so easy we don't notice (some tech so integrated w u they feel like part of your mind)

Eating disorders and obesity

Bulimia nervosa Eating disorder charectorized by eating followed by purging Ppl w this usually invest large ants of food in short time and then take laxative or induce vommiting They are caught in cycle: eat to was sadness but then concern about wight gain leads to negative emotions which then lead them to purge Anorexia nervosa Disorder caused by intense fear of being fat and severe restriction of food intake Ppl w this have huge body issues and tend to be perfectionists who see their severe control of eating as a triumph over impulse Ppl w anorexia actually have high levels of ghrelin in their blood!! WEIRD— suggests body trying desparetly to switch hunger on but that its call is being ignored or suppressed 40% of new cases are women vs men May have both cultural and biological causes Women w anorexia think thinness=beauty - avg model weight way smaller than avg women weight Most college girls say want to be thinner than they are and 1 in 5 girls says they feel embarrassed buying a candy bar Many researchers think there are biological and genetic causes Men have sharply increased risk of having illness if they have a female twin who has it!!- shows genetic — shows it may have something to do w prenatal exposure to female hormones obesity Americas most pervasive eating problem Avg women now 19 pounds heavier than they were in the 1970s! Proportion of overweight kids has doubled! In 2012- CO was only state to have obesity level lower than 20%!! defined: As having body mass index (BMI) of 30 or greater Huge medical costs w it and ppl w obesity tend to view themselves worse, depression Obese women earn about 7% less than regular counterparts! A lot of stigma is unfair— need to declare war on obesity not the obese! Causes Highly heritable and may have genetic component, explains why disproportionate ant of the weight gaines by Americans in last couple decades has been gained by those that were already overweight!!- if genetic then those overwieght already predisposed to continue vs those not genetically predisposed to be!! Some studies suggest obesogenic toxins in enviro can disrupt functioning of endocrine system and predispose obesity Some studies show It can be caused by "good bacteria" in the gut Whatever the cause: Obese ppl often leptin resistant: their brains do not respond to the chemical messenger that shuts hunger off and even leptin injections don't seem to help!! Causes above may all be trie but some more obvious We eat when anxious, when others are eating, when clock tells us to (ppl w amensia will eat second lunch right after an unfinished first one) why? Bc hundreds of thousands of years ago main food related problem facing our ancestors was starvation and we evolved 2 strategies to avoid it 1- evolved attraction to food that provides large amounts of energy per bite (calorically rich) 2- ability to store excess food energy and then live off of our reserves when food was scarce BUT problem is we don't live in that world anymore!! Now those foods are cheap and high caloric and processed and available whats worse: bad foods we eat tend to be high in saturated fat — this has paradoxical effect of making brain less sensitive to some of the chemical messengers that tell us to stop eating!! Way in which we resist weight loss When we gain weight we increase number of fat cells in our body — when lose weight we experience decrease in size of that fat cell but that fat cell is still there to stay!!— once our body has added a fat cell that fat cell is there to stay!!, becomes thinner when you diet but unlikely to die!! second, our bodies respond to dieting by decreasing our metabolism =rate at which energy is used by the body If body thinks we are living through a famine,famine, they find more efficient ways to turn food into fat Study where rats gained weight then lost then gained again and they gain weight faster each time and lose it slower second time— shows w each round of dieting bodies become increasingly efficient at converting food to fat!! Makes sense bc if body always used to getting suffiecnt amount of fat but then all of a sudden not getting enough, need to find ways to convert to fat quicker Bottom line: avoiding obesity is easier than overcoming it Ways to avoid- farther placement of worse food, study where every 7th Pringle was red, ate less bc giving them way of tracking how many they were eating , study showed ppl ate 22% less pasta on white plate vs red bc stark contrast allowed them to see exactly what eating

paper: illusion of explanatory depth

Comparing what ppl think they know vs what they know Shows toilet- rats your hand if know how toilet flushes - lever pulls up plug then water flows in - but why does that make water in toilet go down? This is ex used in study- toilets flushing is quite complicated Do you actually know how toilet flushes? Way more complicated - key we may have known but not realized Ciphen- when fill overcome hump and fill up ciphen pipe- gravity pulls water over edge and then contents go down - s shaped bend where magic happens Why do we sometimes feel we know things when we don't? Bc when we know how to use things- we think we understand them!! What paper did asked: How well do you understand how a toilet flushes? (1-7) Then OK, tell us how! How well do you understand how a toilet flushes? (1-7) Risk first question bf and after trying to explain how toilet flushes People rate their own understanding as lower the second time Why do we have the false impression in the first place? How is it that me asking you to explain how toilet fushes shows you you don't know? Why don't u have accurate self monitoring the whole time? We don't know what we (don't) know!!! Maybe knowledge we have about toilet is not something you can verbalize- maybe performance competence thing — bc task unnatural — ppl know how toilet works they just don't have words SO other study asked them to draw instead This study: asked to draw a bicycle Do you know how bike works? Yes. Show us— the 3 questions are draw frame pedals and chain Asks which way you think bicycle works?- the frame- shown 4 pictures - the Fram connected to top and back wheel - when asked where chain is- just back wheel connected to petals 40% make errors!!

consequences of retrieval

Consequences of Retrieval Human vs computer memory- opening a file on a computer does not have any affect on whether that file can be opened again in the future— but does for humans! Retrieval can improve subsequent memory Acto of retrieval can strengthen a retrieved memory— makes sense bc have to think about it again! BUT — retrieval from memory is not just like you are studying it again!! Retrieving info from memory has diff effects than studying it again!! Ex: ppl given stories and either studied them again or were given a test that required retrieving them — then all given a final recall test either 5 min, 2 days or 1 week later results: At 5 min delay- studying stories twice resulted in slightly higher recall BUT at 2 day and 1 week mark opp happened!! Study, test did way better at recalls: retrieval produced much higher levels of recall than did extra study exposure — this is important for memory in learning contexts!! Retrieval can impair subsequent memory Retrieval induced forgetting Is process by which retrieving an item from the long term memory imparts subsequent recall of related items Study Ppl learned word pairs- like category and item from that category (fruit, orange fruit- apple and tree- elm tree- birch ex) Then practiced recalling some of the items from a few of the studied categories by retrieving the target in response to a category cue and the initial letters of the target — for ex would be asked fruit or- and practicing recalling apple and in doing so they are suppressing memory of orange!! On final test: could recall apple, couldn't really recall stuff like elm from a category they didn't practive but recalled the worst, orange bc was in category that they practiced but suppressed it by recalling apple!! In real life — this is like when talking about memory and person tells u only some parts of the memory and then when go back to rmemenver whole memory- cant remember at all parts you omitted talking about when retrieving it! THIS effects eyewitness memory: bc when asked to recall specific parts of scene their ability to later recall related details that they were not asked about is impaired compared w witnesses who were not questioned at all initially- SO want initial interview to be as detailed as possible as to avoid issues w retrieval in subsequent interviews! Retrieval can change subsequent memory Act of retrieval can actually change what we remember from a scene Exp where ppl went to museeum and were asked to take pics then later were shown their own pics and some pics of exhibits they hadnt gone to— when tested days later mixed up pics of theirs w ones they hadn't gone to!

How does clinician decide that someone has clinical illness? comorbidty def

DSM- 5 Series of definitions about how to diagnosis and understand mental illness Controversial document- most ppl think its a good think it exists but disagreement as to what should be in it Embarrassing things about it In first edition Homosexuality:a sociopathic personality disturbance Bw second and 3rd edition Paper - on being sane in insane places Study where ppl went into mental hospital w receipt saying they should go in and see how treated- some behaviors interpreted as mental illness even tho acting normal but took long time for them to get out— shows something about treatment if anyone can get caught up in these places 1- 1952, 2-1968, 3-1980, 4- 1994, 5-2013 DSM def of mental illness "clinically significant disturbance in an individuals cognition, emotion, regulation or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological biological or developmental processes underlying mental functioning. Mental disorders are usually associated with significant distress or disability in social, occupational, or other important activities." Notice it is very individual- maybe should be family diagnosed not just individual This definition allows u to not allow someone who fasts bc of Ramadan to be diagnosed as mentally ill **bc that would just be deviance not distress!- need all 3 BOOK Psychiatric labels can have neg consequences - neg stereotypes and stigma ( ex you are weak or you are dangerous)— explains why 60% of ppl w disorder that can be treated do not seek treatment! Educating ppl about them does not dispel stigma (even docs have!)—study David Roshenhan and 6 associates reported to diff hospitals saying they heard voices (schizophrenia symptom)- each was admitted and then each promptly reported the symtpoms has stopped VUT— still staff was reluctant to identify these people as normal!- stigma sticking! Took avg of 19 days for them to secure release and even when released were labeled "schizophrenai in remission!" Labeling effects particularly disturbing bc Evidence says hospitalization is seldom necessary w people w mental disorders! Set of studies in Vermont Followed lives of patients said to be too dangerous to release and were kept in backs of wards for years — there release resulted in no harm to the community! Further studies have shown those w mental disorders no more likely to be violent than those w out Label also effects how people view themselves- may feel less worthy — this attitude will cause them to fail to work towards their own recovery! To help w this!!: clinicians have adopted important practice of applying labels to disorder not the person- example person w schizophrenia not as schizophrenic 1952- recognized the need to have a consensual diagnostic system for clinicians and researchers — American Psychiatric Association published first version of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) Classification system that describes the features used to diagnose each recognized mental disorder and indicates how the disorder can be distinguished from other similar problems DSM III and DSM IV— robed from vague descriptions of disorders to very detailed lists of symptoms (or diagnostic criteria) that had to be present in order for a disorder to be diagnosed! ex: in addition to just being sad for more than 2 weeks person w depression must have at least 5 /9 of the agreed upon symptoms of depression List of symptoms for each of more than 200 diagnosed disorders led to dramatic increase in reliability or consistency in diagnosis!NOW 2 clinicians interviewing same individual were much more likely to give same diagnosis based on requirements May 2013- American psych association released updated manual DSM-5 Describes 22 major categories containing more than 200 diff mental disorders In addition to the 22 categories it also includes conditions that may be included as formal disorders but for now- need more research!- showing expansion! ASLO! Section on cultural considerations in diagnosing mental disorders Can make revisions to this as we learn more! Studies in US say that 1/2 of Americans report experiencing at least 1 disorder in their life And most w mental disorder report comorbidity Refers to co-occurence of 2 or more disorders in a single individual

sex- very existence of it is mystery and what the body wants- explanation of needs

Data and what like to do and how often Says that avg time per day devoted to sex- 4 min yet everyone says its their favorite activity The very existence of sex is a mystery not every organism does it throw away half your genes!— weird from darwinian standpoint yet ...it obsesses us and consumes much of our lives Sex is special in that is biggest aspect of you that if you change it it really changes who you are What the body wants Abraham Maslow- attempted to try to organize the list of human urges (needs) in a meaningful way Said some needs like need to eat need to be satisfied bf others Made a hierarchy w most immediate needs on bottom and most deterrable on top Made rule: people are more likely to experience a need when the needs below it are met Makes sense!! If you are hungry or tired, less likely to seek intellectual friendship bc so hungry and tired He says needs that take prevalence are needs we share w other animals (our evolutionary instinct needs) Bc all animals need to survive and reproduce, all animals need to eat and mate! Hierarchy from bottom to top Physiological needs Safety and security needs Belongingness and love needs Esteem needs Need for self actualization

depth of processing and 2 other ways to increase capacity of memory these are ways to help w retrieval!! also stated above

Deeper you process info, better you remember it Shown words and asked questions about them Is it uppercase or lower? Does it rhyme w weight? Does it make sense w he met a __ in the street ? Goes from shallow to deep questions about it Proportion of recalled words is WAY higher when processed more deeply w last Q Method of Loci **makes sense its method of loci bc loci in geneitics- location!! Memory of place Simonides of Ceos- was at theater that collapsed and most died, after ppl hard to identify — but he could remember who was there bc could remember where people were sitting at it and then could identify ppl that were there Sometimes like Q on test where you remember spot in textbook where it was but not what it was THIS SHOWS memory a bit better for space than things!! Joshua Foer- wrote book Moonwalking with Einstein Looks at techniques ppl use to remember things showed can remember even crazy weird stories if imagining all the random people or objects in locations you can visualize!! shows remembering location Bette so can use to help you remember things!! Video of him tells technique: says imagine standing outside door of home, imagine door, visualize pack of overweight nudists on bikes coming towards front door and crash - then step inside and light shining down on cookie monster on horse walk past him and go into living room - Brittney dancing on coffee table Role of context Study: asked people to study words under water or on land and then tested them either water or land— ppl did better on tests in place where learned Ensure that learning context= recall context!!

sleeping 2 more hours as enhancement

Definitely Legal Can't overdose Healthy in every way Free, available, not addictive... Paper- sleep deprivation and vigilant attention Sleep Restriction- restrict peoples sleep then give them go no go test 4 hours a night for two weeks 6 hours a night for two weeks 8 hours a night for two weeks x axis- percent lapses is frequency of trials where you made mistake and then y axis is how long did those moments of losing your focus last — 8th condition may have lost focus but never lasted long 8 hour condition- good 6 hour much much worse- losing attention way longer and losing attention more 4 hours of sleep is a disaster The cumulative cost of addiotnal wakefulness: dose response effects on neurobehavioral functions and sleep physiology from chronic sleep restriction and total sleep deprivation paper Picture feeling of all nighter- day after Compare sleep restriction to sleep deprivation 4 hours a night for 1 weeks= one all nighter 6 house of sleep for 10 days= one all nighter This is a bit alarming ! We know we would not perform well on something if we only sleep this Long for last 10 days ANOTHER THING: you cant get better at this- cant adapt to little sleep: Claims that humans adapt to chronic sleep restriction within a few days ... are not supported by the present findings." Sleep deprived young drivers and risk for crash <6h vs. >6h per weeknight: 15% more run-off-road car crashes <6h vs. >6h per weekend night: 55% more run-off-road car crashes! The phantom menace of sleep deprived doctors - article — read for HW Researchers have shown 24 hours of being awake is equivalent in performance cost to Blood-Alcohol Level of 0.085%! If showed up to work drunk would get fired- but they are making you do thing that brings you to point Enhancement with sleep It really does work! Just 1 to 2 hrs more = massive improvement 100% safe, 100% legal! Could save your life, and the lives of others

encoding of survival related information

Encoding of survival related information Experiments done to look at this based on Darwins principle of natural selection: features of org that are more likely to allow them to survive and reproduce are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations SO memory mechanisms that help us to survive and reproduce should be preserved by natural selection! And our memory systems should be built in a way that allows us to remember especially well encoded info that is relevant to our survival! exp: In survival coding condition, group was told that they were going to be stranded in grasslands and would need to evade predators and get food— then they were told 3 random words and then asked them to rate how important those words would be to their survival In moving encoding condition- second group was asked to imagine they were moving to a new home and asked again to rate each item in how helpful it would be to set up home In pleasantness encoding condition - shown words and asked to rate pleasantness Findings: Remembered most in survival group Why? Bc survival encoding draws on elements of semantic, visual imagery, and organizational encoding — gives it advantage over other 3 Also encourages ppl to engage in planning which in turn benefits memory and may account for much of benefit of survival encoding Superior recall also observed for scenarios that require planning but not survival —memory built to support planning and related forms of thinking about future that enhance our chances of survival !

errors of value- endowment effect

Errors of value You can buy one near your house for $148, or you can go to DC to get the same exact stereo for just $48. Would you spend hour going to DC to save 100? Car that is available for 100 dollars less in DC? Would u make trek? mug is for sale at JHU book store- what is it worth?- how much would you pay for it The endowment effect is the finding that people are more likely to retain an object they own than acquire that same object when they do not own it. Shown graph and buying bar is way lower than selling bar- people expect more money if they are going to sell something than if they are going to buy that same thing- tendency to keep things you have Peoples maximum willingness to pay to acquire and object is typically lower than the least amount they are willing to accept to give up that same object when they own it — even if item was only obtained minutes ago ex: participants first given a chocolate bar were unwilling to trade it for mug and ones given mug first were unwilling to trade for coffee bar Not rational— not linear— asymptotic — quickly jumps either way - losses are felt more than gains!! -- remember asymptotic graph that drops and jumps quickly

what is memory and Qs of chapter

Future memories are present experiences Can do this in many scales and w diff types of content Re-expeienrce emotions from time of certain memories Shown around 15 words— candy, honey, taste were some of them- then asked If sweet was on list and a lot of ppl thought it was on — why? Often we think memory works like filing cabinet - we put them in there they stay in condtion and then we retrieve when we need- but more processing in mind Questions and themes How are memory systems organized? How much can we remember? Is memory reliable? When and when not? BOOK Memory: ability to store and retrieve info over time Changes experiences make in our brains and leave behind when they pass Why does memory serve us so well in some cases and trick us in others? Sometimes we remember things that don't happen other times wish we remembered something that did happen - when can we trust memory? Just one kind of memory?

Drugs, Performance and Enhancement Drugs affect mind by affecting brain- affecting neuron -- how this works and how to alter neural activities

Get to axon terminal and send signal to next neuron Neurotransmission- process that happens right at end We often say its like an electrical phenomom- but actually a chemical process- like spraying chemical rather than sparking Chem it sprays is neurotransmitters (ex dopamine, serotonin) Presynaptic neuron sends to postsynaptic Green dots- neurotransmitters contained in sacs called vesicles (in presynt) Receptors on post synap— they get it and tell receptor to do something Red moons are responsible for reuptake- after vesicles release neurotransmitter into synapse they don't just stay there forver- they are reusable — those proteins can gobble back up the neurotransmitters SO - how to alter— change one of processes above 1st way: Make more neurotransmitters- one of ways Parkinson's is treated- when have Parkinson's dopamine don't have enough to use in transmission so can take a dopamine precursor — so for Parkinson's: give the brain the dopamine precursor (L-DOPA_ In parkinsons really just cant make enough dopamine- in this case its like brain would love to make more dopamine but incapable of doing it — so need to add it in **brain incapable of making more- even tho may need it so give it more Can slow down reuptake Used for depression- longer they are in synapse- longer effect they can have — ppl w depression have lower levels of serotonin so slow it down Inhibit pre-synaptic neurons from re-absorbing serotonin (Serotonin-selective reuptake inhibitor, SSRI; e.g."Prozac") Good at managing depressive symptoms but might increase suicidal Release more neurotransmitters Say whatever you got— release it These are timulants- caffein is this too- encourages presynaptic neuron to release more neurotransmitters than it would otherwise ADHD Make synapses release more dopamine & norepinephrine (Stimulants such as amphetamine; e.g."Adderall")

Dissociability

Henry Molaison - patient HM (really just wanna go shop at H an M - but would feel dissociated from school) Patient HM Huge figure in history of memory Removed piece of his brain that was causing his seizures— removed huge chunk of temporal lobe, including hippocampus so has condition amnesia (inability to remember) He still knows how to do a lot of stuff- reason about world around him, speak, motor skills, perception BUT can not form nee explicit semantic memories — so amnesia not remembering everything just not able to remember specific things (still knows habits, skills etc- precedural) **in his videos he would tell the same story over and over again about what he used to be- didn't know he had already told story

our moral origins and more to numbers than just counting

How we think about morality Moral thoughts we have about eachother and world- what mechanisms made us into moral creatures we are SO so far we have shown that babies are born w innate cognitive functions like depth , object permanence, numbers etc -- so do we have innate cognitive abilities about morality? Aspects of cognitive development Babies understanding of depth, number, and object perception More to number than just counting Can you do addition and subtraction paper- addition and subtraction by human infants Baby is exposed to stimuli that behave in ways that are mathematically impossible- math equations that either make sense or don't make sense Shown 1 toy +2 toys— but then when screen comes down only one toy— stares at screen- stares longer at impossible and board w correct answer Then does subtraction- shown 2 toys, then wall then one toy taken away but when screen away still 2 toys — attention only attracted when subtraction is incorrect- Suggest has rudimentary sense of number at 6 mo old!! Can only do this up to 3 or 4 things objects, depth, number and geometry are all ways to look at world in verifiable way!- but we adults are also capable of thinking about things that we could never check!! We always try ti infer the mental states of people we know!!— this is uncheckable- we can never really know— remarkable ability we have and surprising if infants would be able to do this too- can infants understand nature of naother persons mind Can infant understand that other people Know things they don't know Have intentions moralisty- do they pass judgment, do they judge you for your thoughts

cause of mental disorder?

Just as diff bacteria, viruses etc cause diff physical illness, so a specifiable pattern of causes (or etiology) may exists for diff psychological disorders Medical model also says each category of mental disorder- likely to have common prognosis: Typical course over timed susceptibility to treatment and cure unfortunately: simple model is usually oversimplification bc not usually single cause that is internal to the person that suggest a single cure! To understand what factors may cause mental disorders: Take integrated biopsychosocial perspective Explains mental disorders as the result of interactions among biological, psychological and social factors— combo of all these things not just one virus or one bacteria like in physical! On biological side: focus on epigenetic and genetic influences , biochemical imbalances, abnormalities in brain structure and function Psychological side: focuses on maladaptive learning and coping, cognitive biases, dysfunctional attitudes and interpersonal problems Social factors: poor socialization, stressful life experiences, cultural and social inequities Complexity of causation shows!! Person can expeirence same psychological disorder: ex depression, for diff reasons !— AND can be multiple causes and if multiple causes, then may not be single cure! -- this shown in DSM can both have depression but have diff 5/9 symptoms

men vs women on intelligence

Literature shows Men are not more intelligent than women Huge and powerful study looked at 42 tests of cognitive ability average them all together — no difference! (there are some differences, but they are equal and opposite — they cancel out!) ALSO none of the tests are " the good engineer test" Some tests w no difference - men and women equally good at this take a cut-up object and reassemble it completing two-digit subtractions (e.g. 72 - 41 = ?) remembering some objects you just saw generating novel uses for familiar objects giving free definitions of words Some tests with differences— not case that on all 42 tests they perform same— for every test that shows gender diff always equal and pop diff in other direction!- diff don't map onto what ppl think men or women should be good or bad at look at two symbols and quickly say "same" or "different"— women draw a line through a field of dots without touching the dots— men determine whether one object is a rotated version of another—men look at a family tree, determine relationships between people—women **so women can quickly see diff bw 2 images on family tree and men can draw a line to rotate an object More variability? "more geniuses, more idiots" This is not the case— not more geniuses Article- No intrinsic gender differences in children earliest numerical abilities Used test of number of dots in babies **SO this also says we all start out roughly the same too - not like men pop out naturally smarter than us or vice versa -- did dot test on male and female babies- "counting the same" Article- culture, gender and math Have same mean and variance—- so not true for babies that more idiots and more geniuses Also countries where more democratic and legal equality have more equality in math ability— so saying if ever were such differences — you can blame culture!!

Another fear in google article: technology is too smart and will replace us

Maybe jobs we want but cant have now bc we think computers are better at them Best chest player played against computer- chest player one more games than comp but did lose one time to comp BUT then in another year played and he was crushed and NOW even best humans at chess will lose every time — all of that human power exceeded by comp This is big deal bc chess was thought of as really good human skill — so if they can beat us at chest are they smarter than us as whole? No: cant put box on shelf cant recognize pictures- don't have the perception - say wrong things about what is in pic So cant do easy thins but can do really really hard things- what is going on? Clue that things humans will be better than computers at for very long time "solved games" game where best moves in every position are known in deterministic way you can derive from formula - rules you can follow that make you best at tic tac toe , connect 4— there is a formula- always is optimal way to play game "unsolved games" - chess - no perfect formula - in order to be good have to be creative 'so once comp beat him at chess then maybe they really can do better than us at every game not just formula games- just recently best player lost in go — now just seems we are worse at comp than everyrhing BUT "freestyle chess" One person can consult computer about move he should do- can enter move into comp and see if good or bad, can ask comp what best move is- and other guy has same comp available to him whats interesting is that this game exists at all- if computers are so much better than us then this shouldn't be that interesting- both just ask comp and listen to comp everytime BUT actually best chess games are when human doesnt listen to computer every time!! Humans realize deep blue is better than me on average but some circumstances when I am better- on some circumstances I should trust deep blue and on others I should veto suggest human knows something comp doesn't know Humans + Computers are better than humans alone and computers alone! Like proofreading- may have friend who is better at proofreading than you but the two of u together will be better than just better friend- more opp to catch more things So not clear comp will take all of our jobs

representativeness reading availability heuristic vs representative confirmation bias affective error

Mckinley- man is hiking and all of a sudden has sharp heart pain- goes to Dartmouth gen hospital and Pat Croskerry is his doc His blood pressure and pulse were normal - when pressed on spot he felt no pain , no swelling Doc orders electrocardiogram, chest x ray and blood tests (measure cardiac enzymes)— all normal- doc tells him he is not worried - thinks may have strained muscle from exerting but nothing wrong w heart Next day- another doc says he came in again that morning w acute myocardial infarction — doc reports that he missed it not bc being negligent but bc thinking was overly influenced by how healthy he looked and absence of risk factors Croskerry Began as psychologist and was surprised as med student the little amount of attention paid to the "cognitive dimension" of clinical decision making —the process by which doctors interpret their patients' symptoms and weigh test results in order to arrive at a diagnosis and a plan of treatment. Was rarely taught about the mental logic they re- lied on to make a correct diagnosis and avoid mistakes. When became head of department kept lists of errors and grouped them into ones readily identifiable—and often preventable—errors in thinking. Docs often start diagnosing bf do any tests or start talking to patient! He wrote "Achieving Quality in Clinical Decision Making: Cognitive Strategies and De- tection of Bias," an article published in Academic Emergency Medicine, in 2002. has helped to promote an emerging field in medicine: the study of how doctors think. But research shows that most physicians already have in mind two or three possible diagnoses within minutes of meeting a patient, and that they tend to develop their hunches from very incomplete information. !! DOCS RELY ON HEURISTICS To make diagnoses, most doctors rely on shortcuts and rules of thumb—known in psychol- ogy as "heuristics." In the ER they have to do this to act quickly! The heart attack he misdiagnosed didn't show up on any of the tests bc it had developed enough yet to! The mistake that Croskerry made is called a "representativeness" error. Doc- tors make such errors when their think- ing is overly influenced by what is typi- cally true; !!! (just like how typically see digs on leash-why we think higher odds!-- typically healthy people are fine! - why we think fine! Fail to consider possibilities that contradict their mental templates of certain diseases Doc admits that he immediately noticed how fit patient was and : most fit men in their forties are unlikely to be suffering from heart disease. ALSO can misjudge when when their judgments about a patient are unconsciously influenced by the symp- toms and illnesses of patients they have just seen. x in Tuba City, Arizona, In a three-week period, dozens of people had come to his hospital suffering from viral pneumonia. One day women comes in having tourble breathing -had fever and was breathing rapidly A chest X-ray showed that Be- gaye's lungs did not have the white streaks typical of viral pneumonia, and her white- blood-cell count was not elevated, as would be expected if she had the illness. BUT blood test showed her blood was acidic- can happen when major infection he told her he thought she has subclinical pneumonia in early stages of infection- admitted her to hospital Few minutes later another doc comes in to say That's not a case of viral pneumonia," the doctor said. "She has aspirin toxicity." — she was an absolutely classic case od it to! Alter's misdiagnosis resulted from the use of a heuristic called "availability," the tendency to judge the likelihood of an event by the ease with which relevant examples come to mind. —he experiences most familiar to him can bias his assessment of the chances for success. !!!he had about Begaye's ill- ness, he had focussed on the symptoms that she shared with other patients he had seen: her fever, her rapid breathing, — focusing on things you know and not trying to put pieces together!! AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC The availability heuristic is when you make a judgment about something based on how available examples are in your mind. While availability has more to do with memory of specific instances, representativeness has more to do with memory of a prototype, stereotype or average. DIIFFF Psychologists call this kind of cognitive cherry-picking "confirmation bias": confirming what you expect to find by selectively accepting or ignoring information.) Sometimes, however, a doctor's impulse to protect a patient he likes or admires can adversely affect his judgment. EX: author treated man w bone cancer who like him loved to run There was an experimental treatment for this kind of sarcoma, involving a new chemo- therapy drug called Adriamycin. It was SUPER toxic—Still, doctors at U. C.L.A. had found that giving patients multiple doses of Adriamycin often shrank tumors, allowing them to surgi- cally remove the cancer without ampu- tating the affected limb It was his favorite pateint- would linger in room and try to distract him from pain of treatment The treatment called for a CAT scan after the third cycle of Adriamycin. If the cancer had shrunk sufficiently, the sur- gery would proceed. If NOT- then little to be done other than amputation- means it wasn't working One morning he gets a fever and they don't know exactly why — probes around and asks qs for a little then says- enough for today The NEXT day gets page :Brad Miller has no blood pres- sure," the resident told me when I re- turned the call. "His temperature is up to a hundred and four, and we're moving him to the I.C.U." —was in septic shock (bacteria in blood, can be fatal) He had an absecc- where infection was that sent him into shock on his butt but when inspecting day bf author didn't want to have to make him roll over and check his butt!!— bc he liked Brad, I hadn't wanted to add to his discomfort and had cut the examination short !! This tendency to make deci- sions based on what we wish were true is what Croskerry calls an "affective error."

Medical model and diagnosis disorder and disease def and criticisms of medical model

Medical model Earlier misconceptions of illness have been replaces by this model Says abnormal psychological experiences are conceptualized as illnesses that, like physical illnesses, have biological and environemntal causes, defined symptoms, and possible cures diagnosis Clinicians seek to determine nature of persons mental disorder by assessing signs (objectively observed indicators of a disorder) and symptoms (subjectively reported behaviors, thoughts, and emotions) disorder: refers to common set of signs and symptoms disease: known pathological process affecting the body Diagnosis; determination as to whetehr a disorder or disease is present **knowing that a disorder is present (diagnosed)does not necessarily mean that we know the underlying disease process in the body that gives rise to the signs and symptoms of the disorder!! Criticisms of the medical model Some psychologists argue it is inappropriate to use clients subjective reports rather than physical tests of pathology (as in other areas of medical diagnosis) to determine underlying illness Some say the model "medicalizes" or "pathologizes" normal human behavior ex: extreme sadness can be considered to be illness- major depressive disorder or extreme shyness- social anxiety disorder

consolidation and reconciliation and long term storage in relation to connections bw synapses of neurons

Memory consolidation Consolidation- idea that hippocampus becomes less important over time for maintaining memories closely related to this— process by which memories become stable in the brain Right after memory made, its in a fragile state but once consolidation has occured, goes into more stable state One type of consolidation operates over seconds or minutes If was in crash and cant recall what happened during crash but can recall other events normally, head injury probably prevented consolidation of short term memory into long term memory Other type occurs over much longer periods of time Likely involves transfer of info from hippocampus to more permanent storage sites in the cortex This why individuals w retrograde amnesia w hippocampal damage can recall memories from childhood normally but impaired recalling experiences that occurred just a few years prior to time they became amnesic bc hadn't yet transferred from hippocampus to long term storage site like childhood memories had!! How does it become consolidated ? Act of recalling into, thinking about it, talking about it contributes — gets a boost from sleep! Reconciliation Even seemingly consolidated memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, thus requiring them to be consolidated again— this process called reconciliation This shown in experiements w rats When they were cued to retrieve a memory that was acquired a day earlier, giving the animal a drug (or electric shock) that prevents initial consolidation will cause forgetting — this was surprising bc it was initially thought that when memories are consolidated drugs or shock that prevent initial consolidation no longer have any impact —BUT actually, each time they are retrieved they become vulnerable to disruption and have to be reconsolidated Could it be possible to eliminate painful memories by disrupting reconciliation? Research w trauma ppl has shown could be possible: When traumatic event was reactivated after administration of a drug that reduces anxiety, there was a subsequent reduction in traumatic symptoms!- disrupt the formation of that memory! Also other research w non traumatized ppl has shown that something like this can happen w out drugs by reactivating a fear memory (being shocked in presence of particular object) a day after the memory was acquired BUT adding non fearful info to the reactivated memory (re-presenting the memory w out shock) and do this a few min after when memory still vulnerable to reconsolidating — results in long lasting reduction of fear responses BUT if add non fearful info to reactivated memory 6 hours later did not have long lasting effect Disrupting reconsolidation can seemingly eliminate a conditioned fear memory in a part of the brain called : amygdala (plays role in emotional memory) Memory storage depends critically on spaces between neurons (synapse- space bw axon of one and dendrite of other) Act of sending a neurotransmitter across the synapse actually changes the synapse!— strengthens the connection bw 2 neurons — makes it easier for them to transmit to each other the next time! This explanation provides understanding of long term memory Research w Aplysia (tiny slug) Eric Kandel Researched the slug The slug is uncomplicated and has a very simple nervous system only has 20,000 neurons compared to humans have around 100 billion When shock its tail the slug immediately withdraws its gill and then if do it again a moment later it withdraws its tail even faster BUT if exp comes back an hour later and shocks again it withdraws as slowly as first time If exp shocks it over and over again it develops an "enduring memory" — this can last for days or weeks So research shows: long term storage involves the growth of new synaptic connections between neurons!!1 So, learning in Aplysia is based on changes involving the synapses for both short term storage (enhanced neurotransmitter release) and long term storage (growth of new synapses)!!!— so short term — just need the release of the neurotransmitters to make the connection then long term need those synapses to grow and create lasting connections **shows that memory produces physical change in nervous system!! In humans: the same synaptic strengthening is happening in the hippocampus

human sexual response cycle

Men and women may have diff levels of sexual drive but physiological responses during sex are similar Used to be in 1960s all research for this was based on pals accunts- obvi ppl don't always tell truth William Masters and Virginia Johnson Groundbreaking studies where measured physical responses of hundreds of volunteers as they masterbated or had sex in the lab Led to human sexual response cycle Refers to the stages of physiological arousal during sexual activity 4 phases Excitement phase Muscle tension and blood flow increases in and around sexual organs Heart and respiration rates increase Blood pressure rises Experience erect nipples and "sex flush" on skin of upper body and face Mans penis goes erect women vagina lubricated clitoris swollen plateau phase Heart rate and muscle tension increase further Mens urinary bladder closes to prevent mixing urine w semen Muscles at base of men penis begin steady rhythmic contraction Mans Cowper gland may secret lubricating flud Women outer vagina may swell and muscles tighten to reduce the diameter of the opening of the vagina Orgasm phase Breathing very rapid Pelvic muscles begin series of rhythmic contractions Both M and W experience contraction of the anus and lower pelvic muscles - women also experience uterine and vaginal contractions as well Men typically ejaculate 2-5 millimeters of semen 95% of men and 69% of women said had orgasm in last sexual encounter but around 15% of women never experience orgasm - less than half experience it from sex alone roughly half report having faked orgasm Frwuencey w whit women have orgasm has genetic component Resolution phase Muscles relax blood pressure drops body returns to resting state Most men and women experience refractory period where further stimulation does not produce excitement (why cant sex so many times in row)— typically longer for men than women

predictions from minimal paternal investment theory

More extreme asymmetry in competition and investment= More extreme asymmetry in physical and behavioral characteristics YEs! This is the case- male elephant seal much larger than female and males compete for heirome of female seals Little to no asymmetry in competition and investment= Little to no asymmetry in physical and behavioral characteristics This also true!- both mother and dad in penguins need both parents to survive- both have to make large parental investment so they look exactly same!! Reversed asymmetry in competition and investment= Reversed asymmetry in physical and behavioral characteristics Seahorses — like pipefish (in reading!!) Female passes eggs to male in his pouch, he carries them to term — so reverse Selective males and ardent females in pipefish and the behaviors reverse

10 mo baby shows morality diversity of choosing native over other- is this still in us? today- morality in general and moral diversity and human opinions on diff in views vs diff in moral views- study showing it

Most of thoughts that occupy creatures are self centerd, how do I get food shelter, pas son genes We seem to be only species that cares about other people- we care about people we have never met bf— ex when terrorist attacks happen we get sad Also we built society to respect that- if people harm others even tho they didn't do anything to us—we think they should be punished!! If you like one flavor and I like another- no one really cares- but now think about moral issues like hunting- we feel differently about hunting than ice cream flavors — I don't want to change your mind about ice cream flavor but I DO about hunting Moral diversity Suppose u show up and roommate has diff major, sexual orientation, ethnic background ,view on abortion Abortion feels diff than others- you think they are making an error bad for everyone STUDIES THAT TEST THIS Ask if you just met someone about to live w - ask them how uncomfortable they would feel about diff in opinion over diff issues People even disagree about what morality is even about? ex: we all agree burglary is a moral question All agree civilian casualty in war is moral Q- may disagree abt answer but all agree it is Q OTHERS- that some think are moral Qs and others think are not moral Q's EX: Greg Johnson (of Texas vs Johnson) EX: Greg Johnson (of Texas vs Johnson) He burned American flag- supreme court split 5-4 One of most liberal actually said it is not const pretected0 was against it Burning countries flag- huge dispute if even moral Q- some think just burning paper others think indent at stake, disrespecting nation etc others: giving finger to police officer- some think immoral some think just dumb or mean Some thing drugs immoral vs others just bad for you, eating animals , morally wrong to sleep w sister?

what's one thing wrong w DSM and what created- new approach to understanding mental disorders

New approach to understanding mental disorders: RDoC DSM is good- Thomas Insel director of NAtl institute of mental health says - for use as a dictionary - provides labels and current definitions BUT- biology never read that book- DSM not good for biopsycholigcal factors! SO, created Research Domain Criteria Project (RDoC) Based not on definitions like DSM but more basic biological cognitive and behavioral constructs that are believed to be the building blocks of mental disorders def: a new initiative that aims to guide the classification and understanding of mental disorders by revealing the basic processes that give rise to them Not intended to replace DSM just provide further revisions Researchers here focus on causes of abnormal behavior by biological factors like genes, cells, Brian circuits, psychological domains: learning , attention etc Goal: better understand what abnormalities cause disorders and classify disorders based on those underlying causes rather than on observed symptoms! -- become more medical w it THIS would bring mental disorders in line with study of other medical disorders!! ex: if you are experiencing chest pain, headache, fatigue— not experiencing 4 distinct disorders (chest pain disorder etc) rather we know all of these are symptoms of underlying diseases process- hypertension ! Ex for mental- rather than studying cocaine addiction as distinct disorder— understand what processes or bio things cause abnormalities in "responsiveness to reward" in general Ex- recent research shows variation in gene DRD2 codes for dopamine receptors — associated w abnormalities in connectivity bw parts of frontal lobe and striatum — understanding these processes will also help w more effective treatments! RDoC has overall emphasis on neuroscience! And on abnormalities in emotional and motivational systems , cognitive systems, language, stress and arousal

Paper- Social evaluation by preverbal infants - [ ] want to look at if now that can tell diff bw minds, can tell g v b?

Not only do they other ppl have minds- but they know good minds vs bad hill- red google guy tries to climb hill - blue square helps bump him up OR hello triangle comes from top and pushes him down Almost 100% of babies prefer helpful character - aversion to unhelpful character Takeaway Know good from bad Prefer good from bad So if we now inferences make judgments- can ask them if they have opinions about other things This case easy— we would agree w baby in this case

planning fallacy

Planning Fallacy —The planning fallacy, first proposed by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in 1979, is a phenomenon in which predictions about how much time will be needed to complete a future task display an optimism bias and underestimate the time needed. Paper on this 1- people underestimate their own but not others completion time 2- people focus on plan based scenarios rather than past experiences (so not learning from time when they needed more time to do something)— ppl focus on future scenarios when predicting completion time rather than thinking about past Chart shows what people thought best case scenario how much time they needed to do soemthing, worst case scenario and both of these were less than actual time needed to do it!! PLANNING FALLACY HAS AVAILABILITY BIAS IN IT!!!- its easy to imagine what it will be like to do the work and harder to imagine all the distractions!!

Ok or not ok game and emotion vs reason and the trolly problem

OK or not OK game Moral dilemmas -not whether we should do it or legaility- just moral or immoral Can there be victimless crimes? A woman is cleaning out her closet, and she finds her old American flag. She doesn't want the flag anymore, so she cuts it up into pieces and uses the rags to clean her bathroom. A woman was dying, and on her deathbed she asked her son to promise that he would visit her grave every week.The son loved his mother very much, so he promised to visit her grave every week. But after the mother died, the son didn't keep his promise, because he was very busy. A brother and sister like to kiss each other on the mouth.When nobody is around, they find a secret hiding place and kiss each other on the mouth, passionately. All these cases are Emotion vs reason OK ppl just thought not OK ppl were letting emotions get best of them but not OK would say no you are not seeing emotional truths **wanting to know whether people making decisions regarding morality based on emotion or reason- ok vs not ok trolly problem Used to explore distinction bw emotional and reason Train comes down track and will kill 5 ppl can turn it so only kills one- is this ok? What about pushing man off bridge to stop bridge and stop train Structurally similar - kill 1 to save 5 Suggests that if you look at pals Brin in brain scanner- emotional part of brain more active when considering - when driven by emotions- less rational

Diathesis- stress model

Observation that most disorders have both internal (biological and psycholigcal) and external (enviornmental) causes gave rise to this theory Suggests that person may be predisposed for a psychological disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress ( so may have gene for some disorder bu turned on or off based on environment) Diathesis : internal predisposition and the stress: external trigger Person who inherits a diatheses may never encounter a precipitating stress whereas someone w little predisposition genetically may come to suffer from it given the right pattern of stress! ex: most people were able to cope w events of 911- but for some who have predisposition to negative emotions- was harder for them to cope Brain scans: brain scans of people w and without disorders can give rise to unusually strong impression that psychological problems are internal and. Permanent, inevetibable and even untreatable — brain processes are important for knowing full story of psych disorders BUT are not only thing in story!

How we "should decide" odds of gain and value of gain and Tworsky vs Kahneman

Odds of gain vs value of gain ex: you flip a coin and you get 18$ if you call it right- you pay 4$ to play the game odds of gain are 1/2 Value of gain: 18$ Expected value: (odds of gain) (value of gain)— expected value of $9 — if expected value is more than what you pay to play— you decide to play game! The expected value is the value we would get from winning * its probability! Expected value would change if you were rolling a die instead of flipping coin- bc now prob (odds of gain goes down so expected value goes down,- if expected value less than what pay to play in - not worth playing BUT — we do not decide based on expected value always !! - think lottery- you pay 1 dollar- you pick 6 #s and if you get all 6 righ- you win 1 mill dollars Odds: 1 in >18,000,000 Expected value : 1 mill/18 mill = around .05$ YET! We still play!! Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky The 2 are close colleageus and collaborate - both were psychologist in same university and Kahneman invited Tversky to give a talk in his seminar AND THEy had an argument as to whether people are good or not good as intuitive staticians - Daniel claims humans are not good Kahneman studied vision, while Tversky studied decision-makin Tversky thought choices were thought to be made more or less "correctly," as people incorporate new information and make good choices for themselves.—experiments seemed to demonstrate that ordinary people were close to being rational; they thought like "intuitive statisticians. Kahneman thinks judgments are more like sensory perceptions (and similarly prone to error), he went after Tversky hard, as people do in the best academic environments. Tversky almost never lost an argument, but he lost this one. So Daniel is right!! Led to period conversation bw the two There were two distinct themes: judgment and decision-making. Judgment is about estimating (or guessing) magnitudes and probabilities. Kahneman and Tversky showed that, in both of these domains, human beings hardly behave as if they were trained or intuitive statisticians. Rather, their judgments and decisions deviate in identifiable ways from idealized economic models. Most of the importance of Kahneman and Tversky's work lies in the claim that departures from perfect rationality can be anticipated and specified. In other words, errors are not only common but also predictable. they discovered principles we see that deviate from statistics we expect!! "heuristics" Cognitive shortcuts that (usually work) —any approach to problem solving or self-discovery that employs a practical method that is not guaranteed to be optimal, perfect or rational, but which is nevertheless sufficient for reaching an immediate, short-term goal.— can speed up process of finding satisfactory solution

third type of encoding - organizational encoding

Organizational encoding Servers remember orders by grouping or categorizing orders into hot drinks, cold etc — grouped the orders into sequence that matched out layout of kitchen , would first place drink orders, then cold food orders, then hot food Servers relied on organizational encoding :process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items Increase memory even better w subcategories- could make animal category and then bird sub one underneath it This activates upper surface of the left frontal lobe

Paper- Objective and Subjective cognitive enhancing effects of mixed amphetamine salts in healthy people So what is strongest finding for what add meds do to healthy people? and costs of enhancement- whats the harm?

Perceived attention is the strongest finding!! When asked- How did the drug influence your performance on the tests? 1 = "the drug impaired my performance extremely"; 25 = "the drug somewhat impaired my performance"; 50 = "the drug had no effect"; 75 = "the drug somewhat improved my performance"; 100 = "the drug improved my performance extremely." Even tho didnt actually improve- felt like they were being more productive Does AMP enhance "Feelings" of productivity?YES even when it doesn't enhance actual productivity Costs of "ehancemnt?" whats the harm Paper- when we enhance cognitions w adder all do we sacrifice creativity? Study Which one word unites these three words, by being able to appear before or after them? table manners round table table tennis Which one word unites these three words? fire department forest fire fire stone! However can get bf time expires demonstrates how creative Studies this and ppl who had need for aderall- aderall had little bit help in this test BUT in group that didn't need it it had negative effect on this test — will make you less creative if not prescribed! Conclusions you probably don't need it in the first place It probably doesn't actually enhance cognition (even if it makes you feel you are enhanced) It may even impair you It is dangerous and illegal

PTSD and hippocampus size

Post traumatic Stress disorder: Troubles after a trauma Psychological reactions to stress can lead to stress disorders — ex: person who lives through terrifying experience may develop post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Disorder characterized by chronic physiological arousal , recurrent unwanted thoughts or images of the trauma, and avoidance of things that call the dramatic event to mind Soldiers PTSD can even be so bad at times they have physical damage (paralysis or chronic fatigue) even tho didn't have any actual damage These are normal symptoms but in PTSD they just last much longer Not everyone who suffers traumatic event develops PTSD- suggest that ppl differ in their degree of sensitivity to trauma Brain imaging techniques Have discovered important neural correlates of PTSD Those who have it show heightened activity in amygdala (region associated w evaluating threatening info and fear conditioning) Decreased activity in medial prefrontal cortex (region important in extinction of fear— makes sense why cant let their fear go!) Smaller sized hippocampus (part of brain most linked w memory) BUT big Q is— does the stress cause factors above (kill nerve cells and make hippocampus smaller for ex) or do people have these factors and then this makes them predisposed to PTSD? Important study answered this! A group of combat men showed smaller sized hippocampus BUT so did their identical twins even tho the twins had never had any combat exposure —suggests they had a smaller hippocampus to begin with — so it was a predisposed condition that made them more suceptible to trauma when exposed later in life

Reproduction- the motivation for sex

Reproduction : the motivation for sex Food motivates us bc essential to our survival- sex motivates us bc essential to survival of our DNA!! Why desire for sex wired deep into our brain!! In some ways wiring scheme is simple: Glands secrete hormones that travel through the blood to the brain and stimulate sexual desire Hormone dihydroepiandosterone (DHEA) seems to be involved in initial onset of sexual desire Both boys and girls begin producing this slow acting hormone at age six— explains why usually experience first sexual interest age 10 even tho boys go through puberty later- this hormone release not due to period! Testosterone and estrogen Both males and females produce them but males more testosterone and femlaes more estrogen Reponsible for physical and psychological changes that charectorize puberty Are they responsible for sexual desire in adults? answer: YEs, in rats! The 2 increase sexual desire in male vs female by acting on diff parts of the hypothalamus — lesions to these areas decreases sexual desire and if add more of the hormones to these areas it increases BUT for humans- more confusing Females in most species have little or no interest in sex except for when their estrogen levels are high!— happens when they are ovulating!!( in "estrus" or in "heat" So, shows that estrogen regulates ovulation and sexual interest in females They can be interested in sex at any moment in menstrual cycle but levels of estrogen changed drastically throughout cycle — although the hormone changes drastically throughout cycle- studies show sexual desire doesn't change drastically! **depending on estrogen levels useddddd to correlate sexual arousal but now studies show women arousal remains pretty consistent as hormone levels fluctuate!!- SO So, somewhere in evolution women sexual desire became independent of their ovulation heory on why:independence was so it made it more difficult for males to know whether a female was in fertile phase of monthly cycle- bc back when they did know they would be w her while ovulating then leave and mate w other ppl so now not knowing he has no choice but to stay around all the time — for females trying to keep men at home to help in child rearing, sexual interest that is continuous and independent of fertility may be excellent strategy

2nd type of storage and trick to use w it and working memory

Short term storage and working memory Short term memory - holds nonsensory info for more than a few seconds but less than a minute Like if someone tells u phone number- can usually repeat it back but only for a few seconds Info can be held here for about 15-20 secs (shownn in study where ppl given string of consonants KKC ex and then had to count back from 100 for certain amnts of time and then recall What if we need memory for longer than 15-20 secs? We use a trick Rehearsal — process of keeping info in short term memory by mentally repeating it ex: if someone gives u phone number and cant put right into phone—keep repeating it in your head over and over and each time you repeat number you reenter It into your short term memory for another 20 secs!! Short term limited: In how long and how much info can hold— if put more numbers into memory, more fall out Short term memory can hold about 7 meaningful items at once To increase storage Group several letters into a single meaningful item Chunking involves combing small pieces of info into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short term memory Like waitresses chunking items into groups by organizational coding Researchers newly developed more dynamic model of limited capacity memory system : working memory : refers to active maintenance of info in short term storage ex: keeping in mind positions of pieces on checkerboard as you coordinate your next move The working memory includes here:the visual representation of the position of the pieces, mental manipulation of the possible moves, and awareness of the flow of info into and out of memory — all stored for limited time SO— the working memory acknowledges the limited nature of its kind of storage and activities commonly associated w it Plays an important role in lives— ppl who have probs w it not only cant remember strings of words but also have difficulty learning new words!— suggest link bw this part of the working memory and the ability to learn language! Central executive component of working memory: regions w in frontal lobe (important for controlling and manipulating info on a wide range of cognitive tasks) Can working memory skills be trained and can this training then enhance cognitive functioning? Studies done have shown that elementary school students trained on working memory tasks showed improvement on other working memory tasks when compared w untrained low memory task kids — evidence still true even when tested 6 months after training!! Not clear by research yet whether working memory training improves other cognitive tasks !!

hunger explained

Survival: the motivation for food hunger; internal state that is driven by need to convert matter into energy What is hunger and where does it come from? At every moment body is sending signals to your brain about its current energy state If needs energy sends: orexigenic signal— tells brain to switch hunger on If body has sufficient energy: sends anorexigenic signal: tells brain to switch hunger off Ghrelin: hormone that is produced in the stomach and appears to be a signal that tells the brain to switch on hunger — so signal from stomach to brain to switch on hunger so that body feels hunger and knows to eat When people are injected w this they become intensely hungry and eat around 30% more than usual ***ghrelin also binds to neurons in the hippocampus and temporarily improves learning and memory—SO we can become a little bit better at locating food when body needs it most! Leptin: chemical secreted by fat cells — appears to be signal sent by brain to switch hunger off Like fat cells saying we have enough fat- stop eating Does this by making food less rewarding Ppl born w leptin deficiency have trouble controlling their appetites Girl reported 9 years old who weighed 200 pounds but after a few leptin injections- reduced her food intake by 845!! SOME think that chemicals that just turn hunger on or off is far too simple They argue there is no general state of :hunger Instead: they think there are many states of hunger each of which is a response to a unique nutritional deficit and each of which is switched on by unique chemical messengers!! Ex: rats who are deprived of proteins will seek protein while turning down fats and carbs— so shows must be a specific protein hunger separate from a carb hunger! Whether hunger one signal or many, primary receiver= hypothalamus Diff parts of hypothalamus receive diff signals Lateral hypothalamus Receives orexigenic signals and when it is destroyed animals sitting in cage full of food will starve themselves If cant receive signals of hunger, wont eat!! Ventromedial hypothalamus Receives anorexigenic signals — when it destroyed animals will gorge to point of sickeness and obesity Receiving no signals to tell them to stop— or place that receives these is not getting them and working right! These play an important role in turning hunger on and off

temporal discounting

Temporal discounting 10 dollars now vs 12 in 2 weeks, 10 dollars in 50 weeks vs 10 dollars in 52 weeks Temporal discounting (also known as delay discounting, time discounting) is the tendency of people to discount rewards as they approach a temporal horizon in the future or the past (i.e., become so distant in time that they cease to be valuable or to have additive effects). Present rewards are weighted more heavily than future ones— once rewards very distant in future— cease to be valuable —be explained by impulsivity and a tendency for immediate gratification (want the 10 dollar now and wont wait 2 weeks bc the 10 dollars could be received so soon!

The availability heuristic

The availability heuristic A dog on a leash comes to mind more easily than a pig on a leash SO its probably more likely Are there more words with r as first letter or r as third? Easier to think about ring, road, rope etc harder to think about bare, dirt, tire etc BUT actually more words w r in middle! ex: gun homicides vs gun suicides- we think that more gun homicides bc of availability— We think things happen more often that we can recall more instances of them happening-can lead to big mistakes when frequency and ease of recall diverge— just bc gun homicides get more media recall than suicide

paper - is google making us stoopid

To begin- should be a but skeptical of fact that tech will ruin our minds This has been issue for years and it hasn't ruined our mind— ppl worried about newspapers and had same concerns as we do know about phones - but now we think newspaper great way to spend morn Was true w printing press and books- if any person has access to any books then whole generation of children will be lost in fantasy land and stay home— but now ppl don't think that Evidence is mixed regarding this Q 1 way tech can make us stopped Explanatory depth and offloading- similar to this paper: how the internet inflates estimates of internal knowledge If have access to a lot of info maybe you think you know more about everything What do: show u Qs and say how well could u answwr this w out using outside sources?— Why more hurricane in august and septemeber? Why so many peanut allergies? Why cant you drink alc on antibiotics? First rate ability Then given Q and one group gets to answer by using google and other group is just given an article- not choosing it among others- just given same one that searchers would have found Then asked questions again Idea is that ppl who used sears engines — does your self perceiviability to answer questions change based on whether you recently accessed internet Ppl who accused internet ended up thinking they could answer more When u search zipper answer you think you know more about gluten bc you had experience of realizing how accessible info is on internet To ensure this study — Asked wanna beT?—How much of your pay would you wager on a trivia contest against another subject?— people who used internet are more willing to bet they know what gluten is so this really is true

Criticisms of DSM

Too categorical Diagnosis by checklist (When you need 5 of 9 or 3 of 6— someone who loses sleep and gains a lot vs loses sleep and loses a lot- are they really the same??)

Pscyhotherapy- one form of treatment

Treating mental illness by psychological means A bunch of types of psychotherapy One type Cognitive behavioral therapy- Identify troubling conditions in one's life Become aware of your thoughts & emotions about these troubling conditions Identify and reshape negative thinking in these conditions , How it works Focus on specific situation- ask last time specific you felt tired and low Ask about thoughts when did this How did it make you feel Physical symptoms

encoding process 2 - visual imagery encoding

Visual imagery encoding Simonides- one of first to use when was bale to visualize everyone at din table bf ceiling fell and killed them Visual imagery encoding: process of storing new info by converting it into mental pictures Convert info you want to remember into a visual image and then store it in familiar location Ex: if wanted to remember to get popcorn chocolate and water from grocery store- imagine a pick w gallons of water on kitchen counter, chocolate on couch and popcorn in bathtub then when get to grocery store recall that saved image in your head Experiments have shown: this can substantially improve your memory exp: ppl who studied lists of words by creating visual images recalled twice as many as those who didn't Why does it work so well? Does some of same things semantic encoding does:when you create image you are relating old and new knowledge 2nd: when you use visual imagery to encode words and other verbal info you end up w 2 diff mental placeholders : a visual one and a verbal one — more ways to remember than just verbal Visual imagery encoding activates visual processing regions in the occipital lobe — suggests ppl actually enlist the visual system when forming memories based on mental images !!— maybe works better bc using memory part of brain and visual part of brain- more parts of brain working on it

There are some things we don't know and we KNOW we don't know them but some things we don't know yet we think we KNOW Why is this?

Walter Isacson book on Albert Einstein Dialogue bw einstein and eddison throughout history Eddison would ask in interview- what is speed of sound - his rule was if u odnt know this basic fact not competent Years later someone asks Einstein would u have passed itnerview- what is speed of sound He said Idk I don't burden my mind with such facts that I can easily find in a textbook Offloading When we let world do some of thinking for us as long as we know we can access that info and get it— as long as we know we can access calendar - don't have to remember whole to do list Instead of storing speed of sound in head- store instruction to getting answer- directions Might feel like you know it bc you know HOW to get it dont need perf pic of bike in head bc if ever really wanted to know could just look at bike- so don't need to store all of that

choice blindness experiment

We detect mismatches bw intention and outcome adjust our behavior in the face of error, and adapt to changing circumstances. — Q is is this always the case? Article investigates relationship bw intention, choice, and introspection Partic- ipants made choices between presented face pairs on the basis of attractiveness, while we covertly manipulated the relationship between choice and outcome that they experienced. They failed to notice mismatches bw their intended choice and the outcome they were presented with while nevertheless offering introspectively derived reasons for why they chose the way they did. We call this effect choice blindness. intentions and outcomes form tight loop This has been studied Intentions work :by way of forward models (5) that enable us to simulate the feedback from our choices and actions even before we execute them— we think about consequences to our actions even bf we do them! In natural world, mismatches bw intentions and outcomes are possible! To examine: created choice experiment Manipulated relationship between choice and outcome that our participants ex- perienced. Exp: We showed picture pairs of female faces to 120 participants (70 female) and asked them to choose which face in each pair they found most attractive. After some trials- were asked to verbally describe the reasons for choosing the way they did Unknown to the participants, on certain trials, a double-card ploy was used to covertly exchange one face for the other Thus, on these trials, the outcome of the choice became the opposite of what they in- tended. Each subject completed a sequence of 15 face pairs, three of which were manipulated (M). The M face pairs always appeared at the same position in the sequence, and for each of these pairs, participants were asked to state the reasons behind their choice. Verbal reports were also solicited for three trials of non- manipulated (NM) pairs (11). There was a very low level of concurrent detection! Tallying all forms of detection across all groups revealed that no more than 26% of all M trials were exposed. What exp indicates: the relation- ship between intentions and outcomes may sometimes be far looser than what current theo- rizing has suggested The faces from the low similarity set bore very little resemblance to eachother — so hard to imagine how choice bw them could be confused No matter how long had to make choice, 2s trail, 5s trial , unlimited:there was no difference in the actual distribution of choices among the pairs from fixed to free deliberation time Would suspect that reports for M vs NM (non manipulated trials) would differ bc NM- like situations stemming from everyday life, M- stems from a truly anomalous one (re- vealing the reasons behind a choice one manifestly did not make). Grouped them by empty reports, meaning: when participants were unable to present any reasons at all Length of statements and laughter with laughter being a potential marker of nervousness or distress). Did not differ bw NM and M In summary, when evaluating facial attract- iveness, participants may fail to notice a radical change to the outcome of their choice. !!! they have made a choice based on certain reasons but then face is switched from one they have chosen yet they fail to notice and still explain by giving the reasons for their original choice!— see above !! Called choice blindness can be used as an instrument to estimate the representational detail of the decisions that humans make Do not doubt that humans can form specific and prior intentions — but this is not something to be taken for granted in every day choices — so even tho had prior intentions of why they made a choice— now given card w diff face and still reporting on original decision—saying she looked happy even tho holding pic of sad face!! As a strongly counterintuitive finding, choice blindness warns of the dangers of aligning the technical concept of intention too closely with common sense A snapshot sequence of the choice procedure during a manipulation trial. (A) Partici- pants are shown two pictures of female faces and asked to choose which one they find most at- tractive. Unknown to the partic- ipants, a second card depicting the opposite face is concealed behind the visible alternatives. (B) Participants indicate their choice by pointing at the face they prefer the most. (C) The experimenter flips down the pictures and slides the hidden picture over to the participants, covering the previously shown picture with the sleeve of his moving arm. (D) Participants pick up the picture and are immediately asked to explain why they chose the way they did. !!!!!— so providing reason as confidently for a picture they didn't actually choose- in fact it is opp one!!

what is clinical psychology and its 2 breakdowns and who is vs who is not a clinical psychologist

What is clinical psychology In some ways it is a bit unclear - essentially about everything- about how various processes can go wrong and all processes can go wrong- so this is pretty much about everything about you For this reason- clinical psychology is kind of its own field Treatment of mental illness Research about mental illness and its treatment These 2 factors make them what it is- can distinguish bw them but they are pretty related Who is not a clinical psychologist? NOT a psychiatrist (bc no research), not social worker (more related to social problems based on your environemnt- your stress usually more related to enviro- help w food cards, housing etc ), not school psychologist, neurologist (trained for school setting in particualr), counselor (see ppl w less severe symptoms, ppl w out diagnosis), psychiatric nurse (provides day to day care to patients in psychiatric setting) Not all terms above are legally regulated but clinical psychologist is!! Would be illegal to call yourself it if actually only nurse Who is clinical psychologist Has doctoral degree (phD or PsyD) Licensed to practice Qualifie to asses, treat, and study mental illness Not medical doctors so cant prescribe drugs

How we remember? diff processes in stages of memory encoding vs storage imp distinction

encoding- writing down a memory in your mind storage retrieval - getting the memory back consolidation: going from short term memory to long term memory like if go and type in computer on word then shut comp and open, will still be there but if comp dies and haven't saved, would lose it— bc didn't move into long term memory- didn't press file save— we can take short term memories and turn them into long term **so can encode store and retrieve short term memories but only for short period of time-- need to consolidate to go from short to long 3 key functions of memory Encoding - process of transforming what we perceive, think or feel into an enduring memory Storage- process of maintaining info in memory over time Retrieval- process of bringing to mind info that has been previously encoded and stored !!! Encoding - transforming perceptions into memory For a long time ppl have thought act memory as a recording device that makes exact copies of info coming in through our senses and stores those copies for later - INCORRECT Memories made by: Combining info we already have in our brain w new info that comes in through our senses Like cooking- starting w recipe and improvising along the way — add old info to new info mix and pops out memory Memories are constructed not recorded

3rd kind of storage and connection to HM man

first ex of long term storage Long term Storage Painter Franco Magnami gets ill- and begins to have the most vivid memories of places from his home- years later photograph goes and takes pics at those same places and paintings are almost identical! Many years intervened w visual perception and artistic reconciliation of his village— shows very detailed info can sometimes be stored for a very long time Long term memory -type of storage that holds info for hours,days, weeks or years Has no known capacity limits in contrast to sensory and short term!— think about all song lyrics we can remember! Can recall info from short term memory even If haven't thought about it for years —ppl can recall images of HS classmates at 50 yr reunion Role of hippocampus as Index HM (man) suffered from intractable epilepsy got anterograde amnesia- and semantic couldn't remember new facts but could practice procedural To stop his seizures docs removed part of his temporal lobes including hippocampus and some surrounding regions — After procedure he could converse easily and use and understand language, perform well on intelligence tests — but could not remember anything that happened to him after operation Could repeat phone number w no difficulty- showed short term memory in tact BUT after info left short term store, it was gone forever ex: would forget if he had eaten a meal, couldn't remember staff who helped him on daily basis

moral foundations theory

is a social psychological theory intended to explain the origins of and variation in human moral reasoning on the basis of innate, modular foundations. 5 principles and based on how ppl value certain ones- guides their moral decisions— ALL agree that these 5 things are what guide moral qs - answers but diff ppl value these diff things diff Idea that some basic properties as to what is immoral vs not and if moral Qs Harm fairness group loyalty authority purity HAPFG (HAPPY FaCKIN GIRL)_ to be a happy ****in girl understand these principles Liberals and democrats care more about harm and fairness than they do other things!!other 3 things repubs care more about!!— preferences correlates based on other ideas— but they ALL agree these ar emoral Q's care about all of these Ways to show this Can just ask what is view on this OR tO see where ppl stand in terms of which of 5 they favor-- aka if had dog what would u want personality to be like? Ask what kind of dog do you want- if had dog what personality "independent-minded and relates to its owner as a friend and equal" -group loyalty and authority Ask what kind of dog do you want- if had dog what personality "independent-minded and relates to its owner as a friend and equal" -group loyalty and authority "extremely loyal to its home and family, and doesn't warm up quickly to strangers" Answer above — other 3

base rate neglect

on is an opera buff who enjoys touring art museums when on vacation. Growing up, he loved listening to classical music and playing chess with friends and family. Which is more likely? - Ron plays trumpet in a major symphony orchestra - Ron is a farmer Trumpeters in major symphony orchestras: 300, farmers: 2000000 Rin is 6'7'' tall - which Is more likely? Ron starts for an NBA team Ron is a teacher NBA starters: 150 Teachers: 3200000 Base rate neglect -The base rate fallacy, also called base rate neglect or base rate bias, is a fallacy. If presented with related base rate information (i.e. generic, general information) and specific information (information pertaining only to a certain case), the mind tends to ignore the former and focus on the latter.[ Given base rate of something that happens but then also given specific info and mind will neglect the base rate and focus specific

representativeness heuristic

or ron as being in orchestra — The representitiveness heuristic the description seems more representative of a classical musician than a farmer-

What do we remember? Semantic memory vs episodic memory vs procedural memory important distinction: semantic memory vs procedural memory - shown in experiment

semantic: facts, ideas, concepts -- qs like who is prof of Hopkins, what is democracy -- Qs like what is an ant!!- semANTIC episodic memory: memory for an episode in your life experiences, events, first person knowledge( first person bc not common knowledge or facts like semantic, based on you)- travel back to experience in your life procedural memory memory for sequence of actions or commands skills, tasks, habits, how to issue commands to your body (based on procedural memory, know that should brush teeth every morning- issuing command to your body to do this because its a habit-- this type of memory is how we remember these habits **think the distinctions bw what we remember is imp to break down bc diff ways of memory can show diff impairments Remembering fact diff than remembering skill test: use pencil to trace star , cant leave lines— also are doing this in mirror, have to look through mirror at hand— hard at first but w practice could do HM- guy found who could not learn or remember new fact -- tested him w this test to see if w practice each day he could get better at this task even tho we know he won't remember having done the task before! Even tho he cant learn other new things, can he learn this procedure Graph of errors vs attempts— as he does thes day after day he gets better!! He is the guy who cant learn new things but really what he cant do is learn new facts, BUT he can learn new skills!— he can improve over time w out remembering ever having completed the task in the first place bc no short term facts but some other part of brain does remember it bc he does get better over time!!— cant form new episodic examples or semantic examples but can procedura **shows diff part of brain controls his procedural memory vs his semantic which is one messed up

memory in terms of time scale of memory

sensory memory: asked to look at colors of t shirts of people sitting in front of you then close eyes and quickly recall short term memory long term memory - ex will never forget your birthday

grief

the 9 distinct symptoms of each allow for distinction bw grief and depression for grief need 5 out of 9 of these 1. Depressed mood (sad, empty, hopeless) 2. Lack of interest or pleasure in most/all activities 3.Weight loss, or weight, gain, or altered appetite 4. Sleep too little or too much 5. Psychomotor symptoms 6. Fatigue or loss of energy 7. Feelings of worthlessness or inappropriate guilt 8.Diminished ability to think or concentrate 9.Thoughts of death or suicide, or a suicide attempt SO the 5 out of the 9 are relatively same but distinctions!! Grief also doesn't have the self (no feelings of guilt or self worthlessness) Tends to decrease over time (this diff than depression bc depression won't just go away w time ) Triggered by reminders of its cause, (might stop thinking abt dead person but then be reminded of them somehow!) reduced by support of friends and family (grief "makes sense" in a way that depression often does not) (the friends and family can help you and can make you feel better bc your grief is abt some distinct thing - it makes sense) Also dysfunctional grief "Complicated Grief" debilitating grief lasting longer than a year (and other symptoms)