PSYCH Exam 4
prejudice
A negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority.
T or F? Women and men have equal levels of physical aggression when you don't consider gender role bias.
False
When meeting new people, we tend to make snap-judgments as the basis for impression formation, which is best explained by ______________.
Primary effects
retention
The proportion of material retained (remembered).
Shaping
The reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response.
Exchangeable Reinforcer
acquires value because you trade it for something else
self-fulfilling prophecy
an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.
door-in-the-face technique
asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment
Psychology has identified three major types of learning. Which type(s) of learning is/are most likely associated with solving a mathematical word problem? a- Classical conditioning b- Operant conditioning c- Social/observational learning
b- Operant conditioning c- Social/observational learning
The tendency for certain neutral stimuli to more easily (i.e., with fewer pairings) become conditional stimuli is termed ____________. a- Aversive therapy b- Biological preparedness c- Higher-order conditioning d- Taste aversion
b- biological preparedness
The experience of Kitty Genovese in the mid-1960s began over a half-century of research in what area? a- Obedience to authority b- Conformity c- Bystander effect d- Social socials and social scripts
c- Bystander effect
At a casino, one can find slot machines. Which schedule of reinforcement would most likely govern the payout of slot machines? a- Extinction b- CRF c- Intermittent d- Fixed ratio-1
c- Intermittent
ccording to the Fundamental Attribution Error, when making attributions about other people, we are more likely to make ______________ attributions, whereas when making attributions about ourselves, we are more likely to make ______________ attributions. a- Internal; internal b- External; external c- Internal; external d- External; internal
c- Internal; external
Which of the following best describes the Stanford Prison experiment? a- A few "bad apples" made things difficult. b- The "prison" was operational until the end of week two. c- Participants quickly fell into their roles as prisoners and prison guards. d- Zimbardo engaged the services of real guards from the local prison.
c- Participants quickly fell into their roles as prisoners and prison guards
According to Phillip Zimbardo, what type of attributions would he use to explain the behavior of participants in the Stanford Prison Experiment? a- Dispositional b- Internal c- Situational d- None of the above
c- Situational
stereotype
a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people
After which of the following events did Stanley Milgram find it important to examine the extent to which other persons would go due to the demands of an authority figure? a- The Vietnam War b- The Challenger explosion c- The Holocaust d- The Stanford Prison experiments
c- The Holocaust
Positive reinforcement is positive in the sense that ____________. (Select all that apply) a- Consequence stimulus is delivered in a positive manner b- It results in the addition of the behavior c- The behavior results in the addition of a positive stimulus d- The behavior is strengthened or increases in frequency
c- The behavior results in the addition of a positive stimulus d- The behavior is strengthened or increases in frequency
primary reinforcer
stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water
positive punishment
the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring
stereotype threat
the apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype
unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning
Baseline
A count of behaviors an observer makes before any steps are taken to try to change the behavior
Discrimination
Behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a group.
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
T or F? All forms of prejudice are learned.
True
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Thorndike and Skinner
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. Watson and Pavlov
Select all the components of Kelley's covariation model that are used to determine a person's attribution style. a- Consistency b- Distinctiveness c- Constancy d- Consensus e- Reliability
a- Consistency b- Distinctiveness d- Consensus
To avoid groupthink, what would you recommend to a potential leader? (Select all that apply) a- Encourage the expression of diverse opinions. b- Quickly make important decisions - debates lead to disaster and animosity. c- Beware of mind guards. d- Do not pressure people to make decisions. e- If voting use anonymous ballots. f- Some people's opinions are simply not worth hearing.
a- Encourage the expression of diverse opinions. c- Beware of mind guards. d- Do not pressure people to make decisions. eIf voting¸ use anonymous ballots.
Which of the following best illustrates the effects of biological constraints? a- not being able to train an animal to act in a way that disrupts its normal foraging b- Training an animal to do tricks it would not do in its normal habitat c- Biological preparedness d- Depriving an organism of food to make positive reinforcers more powerful
a- Not being able to train an animal to act in a way that disrupts its normal foraging more powerful
As a result of his famous experiments with cats, E. L. Thorndike developed the Law of Effect, which is most similar to which of the following? a- Positive reinforcement b- Negative reinforcement c- Positive punishment d- Social learning
a- Positive reinforcement c- Positive punishment
According to Kelley's covariation model, select the examples that are evidence of an internal attribution regarding Susan. a- Susan is the only one who is enjoying the party. b- Susan likes this party but usually hates all parties. c- Everyone thinks it's a great party. d- Susan has been having fun all night. e- Susan loves going to parties.
a- Susan is the only one who is enjoying the party. d- Susan has been having fun all night. e- Susan loves going to parties.
Which of the following is an example of groupthink? (Select all that apply) a- The Challenger explosion b- The attack on Pearl Harbor c- The terrorist attack on 9/11 d- The assassination of Abraham Lincoln
a- The Challenger explosion b- The attack on Pearl Harbor
Which of the following characteristics listed below increase the likelihood of a participant's conformity? a- Their gender (females) b- Everyone in the surrounding group responds unanimously c- Participants can easily escape the situation d- Individualistic cultures e- Collectivist cultures f- Not knowing how to behave g- Having another person disagree with the group
a- Their gender (females) b- Everyone in the surrounding group responds unanimously e- Collectivist cultures f- Not knowing how to behave
Which of the following statements about conformity is true? a- Conformity always leads to disaster. b- Few people conform to the actions of others. c- People in the Western cultures are more likely to conform than those in Eastern cultures. d- Animals, such as whales and chimpanzees, clearly demonstrate conformity.
d- Animals, such as whales and chimpanzees, clearly demonstrate conformity.
The period of the zygote ends at which point in prenatal development? a- When the developing organism moves into a head-down position in preparation for birth b- Approximately one week after fertilization c- When cephalocaudal development is complete d- Approximately two weeks after fertilization or when the blastocyst implants into the uterine wall
d- Approximately two weeks after fertilization or when the blastocyst implants into the uterine wall
A "reinforcer test," or contingency analysis, allows one to empirically determine which of the following? a- If there is a contingency between a response and a consequence b- If an antecedent tells us when to respond c- Whether the consequence is a primary or secondary reinforcer d- If the consequence functions as a reinforcer for the target behavior
d- If the consequence functions as a reinforcer for the target behavior
The psychologist becomes hoarse from his maniacal screaming and loses his voice. Eventually, the woman no longer trembles when the bell is rung. Which phenomenon best accounts for this? a- Stimulus discrimination b- Stimulus generalization c- Spontaneous recovery d- Extinction
d- extinction
After the occurrence of a response, a consequence is added. If the response occurs less often in the future, what is the operant process called? a- Negative reinforcement b- Positive reinforcement c- Negative punishment d- Extinction e- Positive punishment
e- positive punishment
Which of the five basic operant processes is viewed as the "operant process of last choice?" a- Negative reinforcement b- Positive reinforcement c- Negative punishment d- Extinction e- Positive punishment
e- positive punishment
social norms
expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior
attention
focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events
duration
how long a behavior lasts
Production
learner imitates response without trainers model
social/observational learning
learning by observing others. Bandura
Attitudes
people's evaluations of objects, of events, or of ideas
Motivation
reinforcement/feedback provided when response is correct
frequency
the number of times a response occurs during an observation
low balling
the persuader gets you to commit to an action then before you perform it the "cost increases"
mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
negative reinforcement
the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus
negative punishment
the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring
Intensity
the strength/magnitude of a response
diffusion of responsibility
the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
false consensus effect
the tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors
altruism
unselfish concern for the welfare of others