psych post midterm
IQ: if infants just imitate goals, what will infants do in hands occupied condition? A. majority turn light on with head B. majoirity turn light on with hands C. majoirty fail to turn light on
B
social preferences for "like me" start early
- 3-5 year olds: explicit friendship preferences ex: introduce children to two people --> one speaks english and the other speaks spanish --> children prefer peopel that speak in same language with same accent - not just about understanding/communication
theory of mind: false beliefs. sally-anne task
- 4 and 5 year olds answer correctly --> sally will search where she left her ball - 3 year olds answer incorrectly --> sally will search where the ball really is
is the difficulty for children with autism about thinking about mental states? or about making inferences in general?
- 4 year olds pass the photo tasks and the belief task - children with autism pass the photo task - their problems are DOMAIN SPECIFIC: about thinking about mental states
punishment: spanking (physical punishment)
- 70% of US parents agreed that it is sometimes necessary to discipline a child with spanking - parents want to use spanking to reduce bad behavior in the future (increase good behavior) --> instill value system
how does IQ vary among SES
- for children in very low income families, the estimated genetic influence on IQ is close to 0 - "minimal expected environment": if conditions are very impoverished, children do not attain their genetic potential - ex: from very wealthy family with everything you need to succeed --> these children can reach genetic potential in terms of IQ --> terms of environment are smaller because they have everything they need
Is infant imitation "rational"? STUDY
- hands free condition: imitate by using their head - hands occupied condition: turn light on using head - imitate differently based on rationality of adults action
carrolls model for studying intelligence
- have people do a task, multiple kinds of tests - all of thse tests are related to intelligence - domain general actor - do well on one type of test are smart and should therefore do well on another test
biology: genetics and hormones
- higher fetal testosterone levels = more male typical play preferences in preschool - congenital adrenal hyperplasia: genetic females (XX) produce more androgens than typical - show more rough and tumble play, and interest in "boy" activities - higher (male like) spatial cognition test scores - these girls are not socialized differently
attachment basics
- infants need others to survive - lack of parenting relationships (neglect) is clearly bad - but what about other individual differences in parenting (punishment)
early theory of mind successes
- infants think about actions as driven by goals and desires - expect people to reach to objects they "want", even in new places
rational imitation: Puzzle Boxes Study
- kids are shown how to get toy out of box - experimenter does a series of actions (casually necessary or casually unnecessary) - children overimitate by performing the necessary and unnecessary actions - even when they can verbally report which actions are necessary vs "silly" - even when they are in a competition and thus under time pressure - age trajectory: tendency to imitate unnecessary actions increases with age - chimps also imitated --> but they began skipping the useless steps --> smarter than humans? no because kids view researcher as a grown up/instructor and the kids expect to be taught so they can learn
sex differences: girls
- less rough and tumblr play - better at other spatial abilities (location memory) - better at empathizing - less physical aggression
infants helping
- looks intentional - toddlers starting at 14 months of age help others in a wide variety of situations (earliest to be tested) - toddlers helping is not dependent on being rewarded - toddlers will even tke a cost in order to help - physical cost: will tranverse a difficult landscape to help - social costs: will leave a fun game to help
children early social preferences
- more complicated than just liking people who are "like me" 1. are humans predisposed to form social categories 2. if so what do infants and kids social categories look like 3. how can development ive us insight into adult state?
sex differences: boys
- more rough and tumble play - better at some spatial abilities (mental rotation) - better at systemizing - more physical aggression
a note of caution on IAT
- not clear that knowing about implicit bias actually reduces explicit action - not known if you can train people to have different levels of implicit bias
challenges to piaget and kohlberg: moral dumbfounding
- people stubbornly resist changing their initial moral judgement even when they have no supporting reasons to justify their opinion - similarly, people ar not rational when they make moral dwecisions in trolley problem - when asked whether tou would 1. Pull a lever to save 5 people (killing one): 77% Yes 2. Push a fat man to save 5 people (killing one): 35% Yes 3. Let a surgeon save 5 people by harvesting organs (killing one): 10% Yes
STUDY where infants expect people to reach to objects they "want" even in new places
- person reaches for the bear not the ball x3 then they switched locations. then the researcher started reaching toward the ball. - surprising for infants when they started reaching toward the ball - only works for people, not machines. they would think the claw would go to the same location
challenges to piaget and kohlberg: kids dont treat all rules equally
- piaget and kohlberg claim that kids see rules as prescriptions from authority figures that must be followed - so all rules should have equal status - but even younger children reason differently about moral rule violations than conventional rules violations ex: 3 and 4 year olds are asked to judge moral breaches and conventional breaches - moral = involve harm, conventional = social norms - moral breaches are more serious - moral breaches wrong even in the absence of a rule - not the same for conventional --> absence then its ok
comfort figure more than just pleasure...
- serves as a safe base for exploration and learning - also look at these moms to learn (how to interact with novel objects) - go back to mom in between exploring new objects to be more calm - similar to what infants do in how they learn differently where there is a caregiver present
children want to appear fair StUDY
- situation where children have a choice between - creating an actually fair outcome - appearing fair to the experimenter, while advantageous themselves - majority of kids will take the xtra eraser , appearing fair to experimenter rather than actually being fair - reputation matters: people care about appearing fair to others, not only about the fair outcome
why did the kids ignore the researcher using her head instead of directly imitating like the puzzle box demonstratino?
- social aspect - kids are younger in the head example - framing of these problems - adult in the room or not
STUDY: mere exporure effect in infancy
- spontaneous looking in 3 month infants. 3 groups of participants. white israelis in israel, black ethiopians in ethiopia, black ethipian in israel. Shown white faces and black faces. Measured where infants looked
kohlberg's theory of moral judgment
- strongly influenced by piaget - also a stage theorist - cared more about justification (you say something was bad, why was it bad) than moral judgments (right/wrong) themselves
social categorization: familiarity
- we like people who we have regular contact with (familiar/comfortable) - increasing contact with "outgroup" members can attenuate social group conflict
children have gender schemas
- young children encode schema-consistent information from stories easier than inconsistent information - see two pictures of people cooking, one was a girl the other a boy, easier to remember when it was consistent with their idea of how the world works, they remember a girl cooking better
types of parenting: Baumrind Scales, two dimensions of parenting
1. acceptance/responsiveness: degree of support and sensitivity to child's needs 2. demandingness/control: degree of regulation and control over children
implications: gender guides learning
4 and 5 year olds use gender (but not race) to decide what to play with and what to wear
temperament: somewhat stable over time
4 month olds show stable reactions to novelty - inhibited: highly reactive and distressed - uninhibited: relaxed and calm - inhibited infants are more fearful as toddlers: avoid novelty - differences continue to be visible in 4 and 10 year olds - very few switch to the opposite extreme as adults
securely attached
65% of US - infant becomes distressed when mother leaves but readily soothed when she returns
cultural difference inAL and DL
advantageous inequity emerges more universially than disadvantagoeous inequity aversion - explicit teaching of nroms of fairness - types of typical social interctions children participate in - access to resources and how tey are typically distributed
differences in parenting are not only with the parents
also with the children themselves - some kids may ned more rules while others dont
are there differences in STEM aptitude?
by elementry school, children associate math with boys - this is before there are any differences in academic performance math - stereotypes measured with IAT: math/science and gender --> looks for how accurate and how quickly people respond to these tasks
earlier reactions to disadvantageous inequity
children (3-5) were paired and a researcher gave out stickers unequally between them (2 stickers vs 4) - measured emotional reactions to the inequality - children were upset when they got less than their partner but not when they got more - evidence for envy, but not necessarily fairness
socio-cultural differences in parenting
seems like authoritative parenting is clearly the best - but there are differences based on social and cultural background - authoritarian parenting is much more common in african american and asian american fmailies and in these cultures it actually leads to more positive outcomes
Fairness without envy or prosociality
children are fair even when they are not envious and when acting fairnly goes against proscoaility/generosity - children are not sharing equally simiply to avoid potentia; conflict between the two recipients - same effects when told - subjects dont know each other or knwo what the oter one gets
why do infants succeed at false beleif tasks while 3 year olds fail?
competence vs performance - babies seem to have the competence (can pass looking time test) - performance is hard on verbal tasks (children do not pass sally anne until 5) - maybe competence is there all along but performance develops?
parenting and temperament
connection between children's personalities and the type of parenting. but why - research on humans is correlational, so we cant know
Northern Germany attachment styles
culture stresses independence (discourage clingy behavior) - majority of insecure attachment is avoidant
Japan attachment styles
culture stresses interdependence - majority of insecure attachment is ambivalent (hard to comfort)
self discipline: delay in gradification
delay in gratification (4-5 year olds) predicts academic achievement (high school) - self control may matter more than IQ
is an equality preference about fairness?
disadvantageous inequity aversion: being upset at getting less than someone else advantageous inequity aversion: being upset at getting more than someone else - do they always appear together? no
is gender special?
disciplines where people think "innate brilliance" is needed to succeed have a lower proportion of African Americans
another test that can bias as science for men
draw a scientist test --> do they draw a woman or a male - trend where girls are beginning to draw women
defining fairness
early roots of understanding fairness -"equal work deserves equal pay"
theory of mind
everyday mind reading - foundations of social understanding: thinking about other people as having mental states
where do differences come from? between sexes
evolutionary approaches (nature) - sex differences arise from different evolutionary pressures faced by males vs females - ex: men are better at mental rotation and dead reckoning because these were skills needed for hunting across human evolution environmental/socialization approaches (nurture) - social learning theories: sex differences learned immersion within a culture, where there are different expectations and different sex roles - people have different experiences within their gender
STUDY: hands full
experimenter needs help opening a cabinet b/c hands are full of books. does infant help? - yes infant opens cabinet for him
explicit vs implicit preferences: race
explicit preferences for own race declines ---> adults show no explicit boas - children associate own race with good by 6 year s old - implicit bias stable
but do infants and young children infer mental states?
findings infer that infants learn from those around them, but do not require thinking about what other peoples mental states are - dont need to know WHY the person does the things on the box in order to copy - IF THEY HAD THEORY OF MIND THEY WOULD NEED TO KNOW WHY
even some of the earliest social interactions are contingent
from birth (just an hour old) infants engage in contingent imitation of simple facial gestures
gender constancy develops kohlberg's theory of gender
gender identity: 2 years (I am a boy vs I am a gril) gender stability: 3-4 years (ive always been and always will be a boy) gender constancy: 5-7 years (What people wear and do does not change their gender) - start to seek out same gender role-models
infants born ready to form relationships
general abilities - preference for human speech and faces - emit social signals that elicit responses from caregivers learn about specific individuals - inborn preference for mother's voice over other voices (ready to bon with the voice they have been hearing over gestation) - early acquired preference for mothers face over other faces
genes and environment both matter for
gense and enviornment
IQ heritability
heritability: the proportion of observed variability that can be explained by genetic inheritance - heritability for iq is 50% - still eaves 50% of the variation to be explained by envirnment - effects of shared environment (ex: children in the same family) - effects of nonshared environment - different experiences within the family - different experience/environmental factors outside the family
genetic contribution to IQ and nurture
identical twins > fraternal twins > unrelated children raised together - shared experience matters: fraternal twins > siblings
parenting and temperament: nature nurture
importance of nature and nurture - nature: babies of certain types of parents are more likely to have certain personality characteristics (DNA) - nurture: being raised with a temperament/personality - likely an interesting role of epigenetics (gene expression modification)
STUDY: can "mere exposure" to people from one group increase liking for members of that group?
in some cases yes study: familiarized adults to many photos of faces, preference for previously seen faces. even without conscious recognition - broad finding: works for chinese characters, words and objects (people like familiar things, not specific to social categories)
implications for academic success
incremental (growth) mindset buffers against effects of poverty on academic achievement
temperment
individual differences in emotion, motor behavior reactivity and self regulation (earliest measure of "personality" - people vary (from birth) in how emotional they are - earliest measures are pretty broad - general mood - reactivity to new things
attachment behaviors
infants attempt to maintain proximity to caregiver - bids for interaction (smiling, vocal) - distress calls when interaction is lacking (crying, screeching) - active proximity seeking (following mom, approaching)
equality condition
maybe is not about fairness at all adn they just want to throw it away - condition where they both did an equally good job,s houdk we give one to ned and one to kyle or throw away - said they should be given out equally
sex vs gender
sex: biological categorization - based on chromosomes/gene gender: social categorization as male or female - based on social and cultural distinctions and identifications
lack of social interaction is distressing for infants
still face paradigm: - mom stops interacting with infant socially --> present with a neutral face --> experimenter measures infant response --> infant reacts with negative emotions - infants have expectation that the people they are with are going to engage/actively interact with them
video about baby being dressed up as a girl then a boy to display socialization differences
strangers commented about the grils physical beauty and the boys occupational potential - boy baby had lots of moving and loud noises and baby girl was treated very gently - girl child was held close and boy child was held further with more space
STUDY: silent toy offering
native accent, foreign accent --> both offer identical toys --> who do infants approach --> appraoch native speaker. then do white vs balck person --> infants have no preference. shows that they attend to language, but not race
study: categorization by accent
not reduced by coalitional manipulation
social categories: "us" vs "them"
people are divided into distinct social groups ex: gender, race, religion cant always tell just by looking at someone - socail group membership influences socail interactions
meaningful or flawed? IQ tests
performance on IQ tests tends to be correlated with academic achievement - 2 big problems: IQ test are designed to predict performance and features other than "general intelligence" correlate as much with academic successes (self discipline, executive function)
long term correlates of parent styles
permissive: kids are impulsive, lack of self control, perform poor academically and have high rates of antisocial behavior disengaged: high rates of antisocial behavior, poor self image, internalize problems, and have poor academic and socail performance authoritative: kids are competent (academic and socially), popular with peers, in control of their own behavior and display, high levels of self esteem authoritarian: average levels of academic and social skills, low self confidence, highly likley to conform to social norms
challenges to piaget and kohlberg: kids and infants care about intentions
piaget: young kids value outcome over intetion - much younger children, even infants, seem to be able to reason about the importance of intentions = baby helps person who is clumsy, not teasing them.
gender influences hiring (STEM) STUDY
same CV for LA job, only wit different day - males are more likely to be hired - professors more willing to mentor males - males were offered starting salaries - both males and females (show did hiring) showed effects
STUDY: parenting and academic outcomes
they measured - parenting styles, grades, closeness between kids and parents - findings: Chinese parents were more authoritarian, same level of closeness, authoritative parenting related to academic success for european americans, but not chinese americasn
early theory of mind successes: what about when someone elses desires differ from the infants? Broccoli/goldfish study
to display how people think differently than they do - age difference! - by 6 months, infants encode other peoples actions as goal oriented - by 18 months, infants understand that other peoples desires or preferences may be different than their own - despite these successes there are some really interesting failures in reasoning about other peoples mental states
why do infants attempt to maintain proximity?
want to get things from caregiver? want a caregiver to provide safety when they are exploring?
use caregiver's expression to decide whether they should do something or not
want to learn from caregiver (observation/pedagogy)?
false beliefs
some mental states are harder to reason about than others
child/family goodness of fit
"As predicted, among the children displaying heightened biological sensitivity to context, high quality parent-child relationships forecast slower initial pubertal tempo and later pubertal timing, whereas lower quality parent-child relationships forecast the opposite pattern. No such effects emerged among less context sensitive children" - weeds vs orchids theory - weeds can survive anywhere - orchids need specific care, but flourish when treated well
early roots of understanding fairness: STUDY
- 15 month infants were shown a resource distribution event - distributer has a bowl of cookies to give out to two possible recipients --> gives out cookies with a screen blocking infants from seeing who gets what ---> infants see that the owl is empty/all cookies given out - 2 possible test events - equal: both recipients got the same number of cookies - not equal: one got 3 cookies and the other got 1 cookie - when do they look longer? - results: infants look sig longer at the unfair outcome - young infants expect equality - sociality of the event matters: not just about perceptual differences between events/liking symmetry. specific to social distributions of resources - infants also prefer those who share resources equally
socialization differences
- People interact with boys and girls differently, starting in infancy - First question people ask tends to be, "Is it a boy, or a girl?" - Gender reveal parties
early moral actions
- What about infants' own moral behavior? - Do infants act in prosocial/helpful ways towards other people?
IQ: what do you think are the most likely differences in attachment style cross culturally?
- across cultures babies tend to be securely attached - there are not different broad categories of attachment in other parts of the world - mostly everyone will all into the categories already established
attachment is species typical
- all babies are attached (except extreme deprivation) - attachment is functional - increased emotional security - supports exploration and learning - individual differences in nature across children
possible mechanisms for attachment
- associatino between caretaker and pleasure (Freud) - caretakers provide offspring emotional needs/physical comfort (Harlow) - evolutionary theories that attachment relatinoships are instinctive and promote survival (Bowlby)
is STEM special?
- based on the identity of being a scientist could be impacting who wants to be a scientist - disciples where people think "innate brilliance" is needed to succeed have a high proportion of men - not about STEM vs not STEM (philosophy has few women too) - if you need to be innately brilliant to be part of a field
STUDY: parent-talk at science museum
- boys get more explanations - no difference in: overall talks giving directions, initiations/questions
relevance: summary
- children attend to categories that are important in their society - labeling, functional use, and visual marking facilitate social category formation - but, are certain categories easier to think about than others?
how can we increase female interest?
- children play a game where they guess the contents of a cup based on smell - two conditions: assigned to the "be a scientist" or "do science" condition - girls in the "do science" condition were more interested - was about the activity of doing science itself - had no impact on boys willingness to play the sceince game --> wouldnt be harming anyone in changing from being a scientist to do science
implications: motivation STUDY
- children played a game and learned that another boy/girl/child did better than them - they played game again - identity of child who "Did better" influences performance - gender unidentified: do better - same gender: do worse - opposite gender: Do worse
type of praise infleunces childrens motivation
- children played a pretend drawing game with an experimenter - praised for theirwork - you are a good drawer (entity) - you did a good job (incremental) - then they do the task agin, and the kids ae told they made a mistake, how do they respond? - children who were given entity praise -felt more helpless - persisted less/didnt want to play game agin - didnt like their drawings
STUDY where children asked if they wanted to play a game
- conditions: game for people that try hard for game for people who are smart - boys are more likely than girls to think that their own gender are the ones to be brilliant (6 years old) - at 5 years old they are equal - girls have less interest in the smart game and more in try hard - boys have less interest in try hard game and more in the smart game
STUDY: dropped object
- experimenter has closepin and drops it and reaches out of need of it. does the infant pick it up and give it back> - yes, infant helps the experimenter. realized what need was and acted to help
explicit vs implicit preferences
- explicit: asked directed (who do you like?) - implicit: asked indirectly (IAT) - are people better/faster at categorizing "own group" with "good"?
skills needed to imitate (infants)
- figure out which people are relevant social partners - pay attention to those people --> follow their gaze (joint attention), babies figure this out at 9-12 months - learn from watching other people's actions (repeat action) - see people as rational and goal-oriented agents --> imitate goals, not just all actions
Harlow's monkeys (no longer ethical to do)
- raised infant monkeys apart from their mothers but provied them with 2 alternate mothers - wire mesh mother --> food but no comfort - cloth mother --> comfort but no food - conclusions: attachment is not driven by meeting the need for food or by associating the attachment figure with satiation - infants are driven to seek contact comfort - comfort figure more than just pleasure - harlow believed that attachment to the cloth mother was analogous to "love" between infant and parent
how do intelligence test work
- rely on very large samples - test a variety of tasks - compare individual performance to norms (by age) - main questions they can answer - general intelligence: is performance on each type of tasks correlated with performance on all the other tasks? --> intelligence being domain general - substyles of intelligence: is performance on each task correlated with some tasks, but not others (strongly related clusters of tasks) --> subtype of intelligence, or intelligence being domain specific
gardners model for studying intelligence
- theory of multiple intelligences, not general intelligence - ex: linguistic intelligence, logical-multidimensional intelligence, etc - can be high in some and lower in others
typical fairness study with children
- unequal work: children are asked to give out 10 resources between 2 people, but are told one worked harder - older children (7/8) give more resources to the harder worker - younger children (3-6) give out equal resources
autism and theory of mind
- used sally-anne false beleif task - typically developing 4 year olds - mental IQ matched sample with autism spectrum disorder (average age =12) - Mental iq matched sample with downs symdrome (averge age = 11 years old) - children with autism performed worse on sally-anne than typically developing children (specific to autism, not downs) - children with autism have a hard time with mental states
3 ideas about origins of social categorization
1) Familiarity 2) Relevance 3) Priorities
types of parenting. four possible patterns of parenting
1. authoritative: high acceptance and high demand. responsable demands, consistently enforced, sensitivity to child's needs 2. authoritarian: low acceptances and high demand. many rules/demands, few explanations and little sensitivity to childs needs 3. permissive: low demand, high acceptance, few rules/demands, allowed much freedom by indulgent parents 4. disengaged: low demand, low acceptance, few rules/demands, parents uninvolved, insensitive to child's needs
if theory of mind is there all along, what develops?
1. executive functioning - inhibition control - task/rule switching - 3 year olds are really bad at EF tasks and perfomrance on EF taks tends to be correlated with perofmrance on false beleif tasks - some evidece that biliguals are better at false beleif tasks (they have higher EF) 2. infant task has a lot fewer task demands - do not have to inhibit saying where the toy actually is - watch the possible outcomes and see which is more surprising rather than predicitive response
minimal group theory
1. minimal groups in childhood 2. jane elliot --> prejudice study -- divided class based on eye color --> discrimination 3. expectation about minimal groups STUDY - children think that group membership is relevant for how people behave - children were told about a harm that was either with a group or between groups - chidlren were asked whether harm was ok or not okay - asked question again saying there was no rule - rules only influenced between group harm rating, no rule - rules only influenced between group harm rating, no rule against hitting then its less bad
what makes a group relevant: group labels
1. minimal groups in childhood --> rebecca bigler --> divided class into blues and yellows --> found ingroup preferences emerge fastest when children are given a visual marker of group (t-shirt) and the groups were labeled
piagets theory of moral judgment
1. moral reasonism (under 7 years) - outcome matters - rules = rigidly accepted - punishment = chosen by authority figure 2. transitional period (8-10) - interactions with peers teach children that rules can be constructed and changed by the group 3. moral relativism (11+) - intentions matter - rules = product of social agreement - punishment = "fair" and "fits the crime"
kohlberg's stages of moral developemnt
1. preconventional level (stage 1 and 2) - rules should be followed because they are rules, avoid punishment 2. conventional level (stage 3 and 4) - you should do things so that people see you as "good" 3. postconventional/principled level (stage 5 and 6) - universal principles (ex: equal human rights) should be followed
do infants have internal working models about relationships? violation of expectations STUDY
12-16 month infants - already have developed attachment style - investigate infant responses to events with "good" or "bad" parental behavior - good --> parent approaches crying baby to comfort - bad --> parent moves further away from crying baby - do infants have expectations about how parents will act based on their own attachment status? - habituated to separation - then show either their mom returning (responsive) or staying away (unresponsive) - secure attachemnt looks longer at unresponsive caregiver - insecure attachemnt looks longer at responsible caregiver - CONCLUSION: different attachemnt style --> different expectationfor parentla behavior
insecurely attached- ambivalent
15% of US - infant is distressed when mother leaves and is not easily soothed upon her return - upset and stay upset (as if they are worried shes goign to leave again) -AKA anxious
insecurely attached-avoidant
20% of US - little overt distress when mother leaves and is likely to ignore mother when she returns - never gets upset
IQ: if infants just imitate what they see, what will infants do in hands occupied condition? A. majoirty will turn light on with head B. majoirty turn light on with hands C. majority fail to turn light on
A
IQ: what would the results for Ethiopians infants in Israel look like if this finding is based on early preference for their own race? A. they would look longer at black B. they would look longer at white C> they would look equally long
A
IQ: what would the results for ethiopian infants in Israel look like if this finding is based on mere exposure/familiarity? A. they would look longer at black B. they would look longer at white C. they would look equally long
A
IQ: what about implicit bias? A. implicit preferences follow the same trajectory and decerase B. implicit preferences start to lower in children and increase C. implicit preferences exist in childhood and remain stable
C
IQ: which of the following best describes how these models relate to domain general vs domain specific theories? A. both models are domain general B. Both models are domain specific C. Carroll's is domain specific, gardners is domain general D. Carolls is domain general, gardners is domain specific
D
does spanking work? STUDY
NO - spanking leads to less compliance and more aggression/antisocial behavior - spanking also really harms parent/child relationships - longitudinal studies --> related to more antisocial behavior and mental health problems as an adult - spanking also leads to mother negative outcomes: cognition - conclusion: use a different punishment... timeout?
Mary Ainsworth Strange Situation Test
a tool for evaluating attachment relationships - scripted and meant to create stress in a social setting 1. new enviornment 2. adult stranger enters 3. parent exits 4. infant is alone with stranger 5. parent returns - measure infants responses to the separation and to the parents return
origin of social categorization: priorities
approach reflects evolutionary theories - evolutionary hypothesis: survival depended on the ability to distinguish ingroup from outgroup - some categories are more important (gender and age) - others are less important (race) - prediction: people might treat these types of categories (gender vs race) differently
do attachment styles endure?
attachment style is stable over time (9-18 months) - attahcment style predicts later outcomes - cognitive abilities, mental health, parenting skills - attachment style can change when life circumstances change - can vary across people
internal working models of attachment
attachment theory hypothesizes that early relationships create an "internal working model" of how infants think that interpersonal relationships will play out - argue that this internal working model provides information about how adult relationships will/should be
what about advantageous inequity? STUDY
better evidence of fairness of chidlren are endorsing fairness in cases where they get more task: children accept or reject offers that are either - equal - advantageous to self - disadvantageous to the self - which kinds of offers are children accepting/rejecting? - results: children are very unlikely to reject offers when it is equal. shows that they know what the task is doing and they want what they are offering - when child is choosing has one candy and the other one has four --> much more likely to reject when they are at disadvantage - more likely with age to reject offers when they are at a disadvantage - differentiation between countries for disadvantage - child that decides is at an advantage - the results are very different across the different countries. some countries rejection rate are really low for when they are at an advantage - some countries have pattern that is similar to the disadvantageous equity. rejection rates are still lower than when they are at disadvantage
asymmetry in race preference
black children in the US show lower levels of both explicit and implicit race preferences than while children
why?
can depend on how rural/urban a country is. need more information than just the country name - possibility is the norms of the culture, different cultures have different norms on fairness - how much access to resources that the children have
temperament and social adjustment
children who are more negative, impulsive and unregulated tend to have more behavioral problems as they get older - inhibited children are more likely to experience anxiety, depression and phobias - goodness of fit matters
individual differences in intelligence
class had focused on group level difference - individual differences: stable variation in a trait in a population - how and why do individual children differ from each other during development
sex differences are typically small example: systematic vs empathetic thinking
empathetic thinking about other people's thoughts, feelings, and the social world - systematic thinking: about processes and causation of objects/machines/systems, the physical world - can be measured by self report scales: autism quotient (AQ) - the differences between the averages of each sex is smaller than the range of differences within each sex - so it would be virtually impossible to predict a persons sex by knowing only their score on AQ
can changing the environment help the most at risk? STUDY
infants from low income families assigned to --> high quality infant intervention (0-3 years) or no infant intervention - half of each of these groups were later assigned to - school aged intervention - no school aged intervention - can ask: - do intervention improve cognitive outcomes? - does timing of intervention experience matter? - conclusion: school age intervention doesn't matter, if anything they are actually doing worse - intervention as an infant was really effective (positively) - STUDY: showed that infant intervention people are 4 times as likely to graduate from a 4 year college
how do kids figure out gender?
infants know that there are two genders, and match voice to appearance: cross modal categorization
familiarity preferences and social reasoning
infants prefer to look at familiar races, but how early preferences relate to later social reasoning about race? - familiarity cant be the only factor that leads forming social groups - quality of contact matters --> bad contact --> more neg feelings
can infants fail to form an attachment style? natural experiment
infants were adopted from the roman orphanages at different ages - looks like there are critical periods in attachment. infants need to be adopted by 8 months of age to be able to form a typical attachment relationship with parents - in particular they seek closeness with everyone, not just family
can infants fail to form an attachment style? roman orphanages
insights from cases of extreme deprivation - deprived of close contact with an adult, they only had shift workers - 1 caregiver per 12 infants - children not shown affection regularly - lack of caregiving in response to distress - no evidence of attachment to "favorite caregivers" socially withdrawn
two fold theories of intelligence
intelligence is fixed: entity view - you are smart or not smart - working hard indicates lack of intelligence intelligence as acquired: incremental view - intelligence is malleable - you get smarter by practicing/working hard folk theories do not correlate with intellectual ability, but they affect performance
why study individual differences
interventions and polocies - indentify individuals with potential - identify individuals who are at risk - provide support and opportunities to cope who could use them best understand development - what factors lead to better/worse outcomes? - how does genetic vs environmental variations shape abilities?
what makes a group relevant: language matters
introduce a group one of three types of langauge - generic, specific, no label - essentialism question: why does a new zarpie act in a certain way? - conclusion: children and adults are more likely to give essentialist responses (Say the property applies to all category members) after hearing generic langauge - not just labels: the specific label (this zarpie) did not have the same effect - stereotypes can be passed across generations by parents likelihood of using generic language
study: priorities in infants and children's socail categories?
introduce children to other race native speaker and own race accented speaker. ask: who do you want to be friends with? - findings: children do prefer own race, but when contrasted with language and accent, language is prioritized over race
third party study of fairness
is it about envy or prosociality... or really fairness? - chldren asked to distribute resoruce between equally desrving recipients - theres an extra - results: mostkids destory the extra resource t oavoid inequity - shows that it is not about envy because kid is not involved - also not about proscoailtiy because if tey wnted to be nice they would have given it to someone
variation in attachment "style"
longitudinal and cross cultural studies fro attachment - uganda and US - how infants react differently to the same parental behaviors
temperament: thomas and Chess STUDY
longitudinal study - "easy/Non-reactive/uninhibited" babies (40%) - playful, regular biological function - not upset by novelty/new interactions - "difficult/reactive/ inhibited" babies (10%) - irregular routines - respond negatively or with fear to new situations -" slow to warm" babies (15%) - low activity level, withdrawn at first but eventually adapt to new situations
what about theory of mind: false belief test in infancy
looking time false belief study with 15 month old infants - familiarization: the experimenter puts the watermelon in the green box so she has a true belief that it is in the green box - true belief condition actor is present and watches watermelon move boxes. she now has a different true belief that the watermelon is in the yellow box - false belief condition: the actor is not present as the watermelon moves boxes. she now has a false belief that the watermelon is in the green box. - test trial: where will she reach? - results: infants seem to understand both true and false beleifs - look longer at the unexpected search location in both conditions - especially surprising because three year olds fail multiple versions of the false beleif task
prorities study: attention to race and gender
memory confusion paradigm - show college students a conversation with a lot of people (who differ in race and gender) - task: memory of who said what - findings: 1. more conscious within races than across races 2. more confusion within gender than across gender 3. supports categorization by race and gender
what about attachment cross culturally?
most infants securely attached - types of attachment are similar across cutlures, but there are differences in prevalence of each type
children are dependent on caregivers
rarely left alone --> often have physical contact - child as a (lone) scientist model is misleading - learning happens in a social and cultural network
historical moral development
rationalism: we can study morality by looking at childrens explicit reasonign and justification about moral situatinos - piaget and kohlberg both subscribed to this philosophy and created stage theories and moral development
priorities study: attention to race and gender vs coalition
same type of experiment as before, but add another dimension: coalition (marked by sports team) - do adults make errors based on race/gender or on coalition membership? - coalition manipulation reduces within-race errors (more attention is paid to coalition than race) - coalition manipulation does not reduce within gender errors (attention to gender as an important category remains)
social soothing for infants
skin to skin contact reduces pain in newborn infants - heel stick --> newborn blood test - skin to skin contact during heel stick lowers crying, grimacing, hear rate - stabalies heart rate and breathing in premature infants - newborn can be soothed with sucrose alone, by 4 months require sucrose + eye contact - cuddling can impact babies at the genetic level too (experiences can edit gene expressions)
origins of social categorization: relevance
some groups are more socially relevant than others - social distinctions that adults fine important are communicated/transmitted to children - in society where race is important, then this becomes important to the children - hypothesis: make a group seem important, people will care about it - minimal group theory
typical fairness with children
tell participants a short vignette where 1. two children do work 2. there is a certain reward/prize for the work 3. participants are asked to give out prizes conditions: - characters work equally - equal work: by age three children divide the resources equally
STUDY: parental gender expectations
what about when it is yor own child? does gender influence thinking about you child and his/her abilities? - "would your baby go down this slope?" until parents say no --> then test baby -- are parents overconfident or underconfident - parents of sons overestimated crawling abilities but parents f daughters underestimated crawling abilities - babies crawl down same average steepness, regardless of gender
Do Children really not "get" merit?
what happens when children are asked to divide resources and there is no way to give them out equally? - kids told story: two girls bake cookies --> work together --> one girl stops helping other and the other finishes - children given 2 cookies to give out to two characters, but one is a lot larger than the other - how did they give them out? - even young children can understand merit when they can overcome a preference for equality
alternatives to piaget: moral reasoning in infancy?
when do infants begin to be able to tell right from wrong - video where baby either chooses helpful character or not helpful character --> 80% choose helpful
Folk Theories of Intelligence and Failure
when faced with a challenge - incremental theorists can thrive because they see failure and challenge as learning opportunities ---> are more motivated - entity theorists see failure as indicating a lack of intelligence of ability so challenges are threatening - entity theorists underperform in challenging situations
