Psychology Chapter 1.

Posititive Correlation

(0 to +1.00) Indicates a direct relationship, meaning that two things increase together or decrease together

Negative Correlation

(0 to -1.00)Indicates an inverse relationship: As one thing increases, the other decreases

a cluster of dots on a graph would be

(0.00) no correlation

Highest correlation is either

+1.00 or -1.00

What are the three categories of scientific attitude?

1. Curiosity 2. Skepticism 3. Humility

Humans cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense. Three phenomena illustrate this

1.) Hindsight Bias 2.) Overconfidence 3.)Perceive order in random events

What are the three methods of scientific attitude that drive us away from using our intuition?

1.) Humility 2.) Skeptiscm 3.)Curosity

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Weakness of Correlational Method

Cannot specify the cause or effect

What are examples of descriptive research?

Case studies, Naturalistic Observations, and Surveys

Why is accurate statistical understanding important ?

Casual estimates often misread reality and misinform Big, round, undocumented numbers warrant caution Teaching statistical reasoning is needed

careful style of forming and evaluating knowledge than simply using your intuition

Critical Thinking

examines assumptions, appraises the source , discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions

Critical Thinking

Which method describe behaviors, often by using case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations?

Descriptive Method

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Survey

Downsides: the wording makes a difference. Ex. How many of you use physical punishment? Or how many of you abuse your children?

Placebo Effect

Effect involves results caused by expectations alone

Perceive order in random events

Even in random, unrelated data people often find order, because random sequences often do not look random

manipulate, or vary, factors to discover their effects

Experimental Methods

researchers can focus on the possible effects of one or more factors in several ways.

Experiments

Regression toward the mean

Extreme events are not that common you have a higher chance for the average to happen. Ex. You call a person out and they start behaving better like average.

Cofounding Variable

Factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

Independent Variable

Factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Dependant Variable

Factor that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Psychological science

Focuses on seeking general principles that help explain many behaviors and less on particular behavior

Resulting principles

Help explain everyday behavior, not specific findings

I-Knew-it-all-along

Hindsight Bias

Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we could have predicted it

Hindsight Bias

What often leads us to overestimate of our intuition ?

Hindsight Bias, Overconfidence and our tendency to perceive patters in random eventrs

an awareness of our own vulnerability to error and openness to surprises and new perspectives

Humility

Observed difference is probably not due to chance variation between the samples.

In psychological research, proof beyond a reasonable doubt means that the odds of its occurrence by chance are less than 5 percent.

Gender and Pain tolerance

Independant : Gender Dependant : Pain tolerance

The less you sleep has an affect on your grades

Independant : Sleep Hours Dependant: Grades

What is the best measure is you have skewed data?

Median

Median

Middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Mode

Most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

observing and recording behaviour in naturally occuring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situaton

Naturalistic observation

Double-blind procedure: Eliminating bias

Neither those in the study nor those collecting the data know which group is receiving the treatment. Treatment's actual effects can be separated from potential placebo effect.

Weakness of Descriptive Method

No control and single cases may be misleading

The dependant vairable is your :

Outcome

This occurs in academic and social behavior.

Overconfidence

Correlation Coefficent

Provides a statistical measure of how closely two things vary together and how well one predicts the other

Illusory correlation

Refers to the perception of a relationship between two variables when only a minor or no relationship actually exists.May be fed by regression toward the mean

Regression toward the mean

Refers to the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Replication

When is an observed difference reliable?

Representative samples are better than biased samples. Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable, More cases are better than fewer

Weaknesses of Correlational Method

Sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize to other contexts; not ethical to manipulate certain variables

Normal curve (normal distribution):

Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes

Experiment purpose

Test theoretical principles, not recreation of exact everyday life behaviors

Postitive correlation

The more cigarettes you smoke the older you look

Illusory correlation

We see correlations that aren't really there. Ex. A batter thinks if he hits his foot twice he will hit the ball better. Ex. Thinking that all women's are bad drivers. We have the tendency to see only things that we predict

statistical significance.

When sample averages are reliable and difference between them is relatively large, the difference has

Disadvantages of Case Studies

You cant use it to generalize behaviour, its not an explanation of behavior, no variety

Naturalistic Behavior Disadvantages

You only observe behaviour dont provide explanation and you cant control or influence behaviours, can be revealing

Negative Correlation

Your grades are going down but you go to class everyday

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample group

Case Study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Case Study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles .

Correlation

a measure of how closely two factors vary together, or how well you can predict a change in one from observing a change in the other

Curiosity

a passion to explore and understand without misleading or being mislead

skepticism

a questioning or doubting attitude

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Correlation

an observation that two traits or attributes are related to each other

Correlation does not mean

causation

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions,appraises the source, dicerns hiddent values, evaluates evidence, and assessed conclusions

critical thinking

What does a good theory do ?

effectively organizes, leads to clear predictions, often stimulates research and may be replicated.

Critical Thinking

helps develop more effective and accurate ways to figure out what makes people do, think, and feel the things they do.

Involves awareness that mistakes are possible and willingness to be surprised

humility

an awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openess to suprises and new perspectives

humility

Testable prediction, often implied by a theory

hypotheses

Measures of central tendency

include a single score that represents a set of scores.

What is being manipulated the independant or dependant

independant

Descriptive Research

is a systematic, objective observation of people The goal is to provide a clear, accurate picture of people's behaviors, thoughts, and attributes

Experimental Methods

manipulate, or vary, factors to discover their effects

Mean

obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores; can be distorted by few atypical scores

Correlation indicates the possibility

of a cause-effect relationship, but does not prove it.

Carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

operational definition

What do you mean? How do you know?

skepticism

indicated the likelihood that a result will happen by chance but not about the importance of the results

statistical significance

Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?

test general theoretical principles.These general principles help explain everyday behaviors.

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

theory

Overconfidence

to think you know more than you do

naturalistic observations

watching and recording the natural behavior of many individuals