Psychology Chapter 11

Carl Rogers

1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person

What biological factors make us more likely to be aggressive?

Aggression is a complex behavior resulting from the interaction of biology and experience. -biology influences our threshold for aggressive behaviors: genetic (inherited traits) biochemical (such as alcohol or excess testosterone in the bloodstream) and neural (activity in key brain areas).

What is altruism? When are we most--and least--likely to help?

Altruism is unselfish concern for the well-being of others. -We are most likely to help when we notice an incident, interpret it as an emergency, and assume responsibility for helping. Other factors, including, our mood and our similarity to the victim, also affect our willingness to help. -We are least likely to help of other bystanders are present (the bystander effect)

What is an attitude, and how do attitudes and actions effect each other?

Attitudes are feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in certain ways. Attitudes that are stable, specific, and easily recalled can affect our actions when other influences are minimal -actions also modify our attitudes, as in the foot-in-the-door phenomenon and role playing. -when our attitudes don't fit with our actions, cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we will reduce tension by changing our attitudes to match our actions.

What social processes fuel conflict? How can we transform feelings of prejudice and conflict into behaviors that promote peace?

Conflicts, perceived incompatibilities of actions, goals, or ideas between individuals and cultures, are often fed by distorted mirror-image perceptions--each party views itself as ethical and peaceful and the other as untrustworthy and evil-intentioned. Perceptions can be self-fulfilling prophecies. -peace can result when individuals or groups cooperate to achieve superordinate (shared) goals.

Karen Horney (HORN-eye)

Focused on child-caregiver relationshipOpposed to Freud's masculine bias (sexist nature of his theory)Envy privilege, not penis Natural feelings of dependency in children gives rise to helplessness and anxietyTrigger adult desires for love and security

How do social norms explain helping behavior?

Helping results from socialization, in which we are taught guidelines for expected behaviors in social situations, such as the reciprocity norm and the social-responsibility norm.

Carl Jung

Human Psyche:Ego (conscious mind)UnconsciousnessCollective Unconscious Archetypes exist in the collective unconsciousPersona - how we represent self to the worldAll the social masks we wearShadow - sex and life instinctsRepressed ideas, weakness, desires, instincts, and shortcomingsCan include the dark side of us - all the things that are unacceptable to society and to selfAnima or Animus - Anima = the feminine image in the male psyche; Animus = the masculine image in the female psycheThe true self, rather than the projected selfRepresents the primary source of communication with the collective unconsciousJung suggested that men and women should explore their opposite sex natureRigid cultural-based gender roles blocks psychological developmentSelf - the unified unconsciousness and consciousness of the individualThe center of personality

How can group interaction enable group polarization?

In group polarization, group discussion with like-minded others strengthens shared beliefs and attitudes.

What role does the internet play in group polarization?

Internet communication magnifies the effect of connecting like-minded people, for better and for worse. People find support, which strengthens their ideas, but also often isolation from those with different opinions. Separation plus conversation may thus lead to group polarization.

How does romantic love typically change as time passes?

Intimate love relationships start with passionate love--an intensely aroused state. -over time, the strong affection of companionate love may develop, especially if enhanced by an equitable relationship, intimate self-disclosure, and positive support.

What groups are frequent targets of prejudice?

Prejudice involves explicit and implicit negative attitudes toward people of a particular racial or ethnic group , gender identity, sexual orientation, or belief system. In the United States, frequently targeted groups include Black Americans, women, religious minorities, and gay, lesbian, and transgender people.

What are the three parts of prejudice? How do explicit and implicit prejudice differ?

Prejudice is an unfair, usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice's three components are negative feelings, beliefs (often stereotypes) and predispositions to action (discrimination). -Prejudice may be explicit (open) or it may be implicit--an unthinking kneejerk response, operating below conscious awareness. Implicit prejudice can cause discrimination even people do not consciously intend to discriminate.

Why do we befriend or fall in love with some people but not others?

Proximity (geological nearness) increases liking, in part because of the mere exposure effect. -physical attractiveness increases social opportunities and interests greatly increases liking, especially as relationships develop. We also like those who like us.

Abraham Maslow's

Self-Actualization: Fundamental Human NeedQualities of Self-Actualization 1) Self-actualized people embrace the unknown and the ambiguous.2) They accept themselves, together with all their flaws.3) They prioritize and enjoy the journey, not just the destination.4) While they are inherently unconventional, they do not seek to shock or disturb.5) They are motivated by growth, not by the satisfaction of needs.6) Self-actualized people have purpose.7) They are not troubled by the small things.8) Self-actualized people are grateful.9) They share deep relationships with a few, but also feel identification and affection towards the entire human race.10) Self-actualized people are humble.11) Self-actualized people resist enculturation.12) Despite all this, self-actualized people are not perfect.

What do experiments on conformity and obedience reveal about the power of social influence?

Solomon Asch and others found that we are most likely to conform to a group standard when we feel incompetent or insecure, our group has at least 3 people, everyone else agrees, we admire the group, we have already committed to another response, we know we are being observed, and our culture encourages respect for social standards. -we may conform to gain approval (normative social influence) or because we are willing to accept others' opinions as new information (informational social influence) -In Stanley Milgram's famous experiments, people usually obeyed the experimenter's orders even when they thought they were harming another person. Obedience was highest when the experimenter was nearby and was a legitimate authority figure supported by an important institution, the victim was not nearby, and there were no role models for defiance.

Alford Adler (Neo-Freudian)

Student of Freud -Emphasized culture and societySocial Interest: Human nature to adapt to the social environmentFinalism: Individuals are oriented towards goals that guide behavior - judged based on the usefulness of the goal and associated behaviorInferiority Complex

What are some social, emotional, and cognitive roots of prejudice? What are some ways to combat prejudice?

The social roots of prejudice include social inequalities and divisions. Favored social groups often justify their higher status with the just world phenomenon. -We tend to favor our own group (ingroup bias) as we divide ourselves into thus (the ingroup) and them (the outgroup) -We may use prejudice to protect our emotional well-being such as when focusing anger by blaming events on a scapegoat -the cognitive roots of prejudice from our natural ways of processing information: forming categories, remembering vivid cases, and believing that the world is just (and our group's way of doing things is the right way)

What do the social influence studies teach us about ourselves? How much power do we have as individuals?

These experiments demonstrate that strong social influences affect behavior -the power of the individual (personal control) and the power of the situation (Social control) interact. -A small minority consistently expressing its views may sway a group

How does the fundamental attribution error describe how we tend to explain others' behavior compared with with our own?

We may commit the fundamental attribution error (especially if we come from an individualist western culture) when explaining others' behavior, by underestimating the influence of the situation and overestimating the effects of personality. -when explaining our own behavior, we more often recognize the influence of the situation.

Routes to persuasion

central route and peripheral route

What psychological and social-cultural factors may trigger aggressive behavior?

frustration (frustration aggression principle), getting rewarded for aggression, seeing an aggressive role model, and poor self-control can all contribute to aggression. -media violence provides social scripts that children learn to follow. Viewing sexual violence contributes to greater aggression toward women. Violent video games can increase aggressive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

How can group interactions enable groupthink?

group think is driven by a desire for harmony within a decision-making group, causing its members to overlook important alternatives.

How does the presence of others influence our actions, via social facilitation, social loafing, and deindividuation?

in social facilitation, the presence of others arouses us, improving performances on easy tasks (but decreasing it on difficult ones) -social loafing is the tendency when participating in a group project to feel less responsible, we may experience deindividualization--loss of self-awareness and self-restraint.

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

Big Five Personality Traits

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

How do peripheral route persuasion and central route persuasion differ?

peripheral route persuasion uses incidental cues (such as celebrity endorsement) to try to produce fast but relatively thoughtless changes in attitudes. Central route persuasion offers evidence and arguments to influence interested people's thinking, and is more durable.

What are the three main focuses of social psychology?

social psychologists use scientific methods to study how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. They study the social influences that explain why the same person will act differently in different social situations.

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

social loafing

the tendency for people to put less effort into a simple task when working with others on that task

How can we share our views more effectively?

to persuade people with views that differ from your own, avoid yelling at, humiliating, or overloading them with too much complicated information. Instead, identify shared goals and relate your aim to their motives. It also helps to make your message vivid, repeat it, and try to engage others in restating it.