Psychology Chapter 7

Anterograde Amnesia

Loss of memory for events that occur after an accident. Anterograde amnesia may result from a surgical injury or from diseases, such as chronic alcoholism; is usually permanent

Retrieval Failure Theory-

Memories stored in LTM aren't forgotten; they're just momentarily inaccessible as a result of such things as interference, faulty cues, or emotional states

Repressed Memories

motivated forgetting, is the supposed coping mechanism anxiety- provoking thoughts are prevented from teaching consciousness

Retroactive interference

new info leads to forgetting old material; new information interferes with remembering old information; backward-acting interference

Traumatic Brain Injury

occur when the skull makes a sudden collision with another object. The compression, twisting and distortion of the brain inside the skull all cause serious and sometimes permanent damage to the brain. The frontal and temporal lobes often take the heaviest hit because they directly impact against the bony ridges inside the skull. Traumatic brain injury is the leading cause of neurological disorders among Americans ages 15 to 25. Theses injuries most commonly result from car accidents, falls, blows, and gun shot wounds.

Proactive interference

old info leads to forgetting new material; old information interferes with remembering new information; forward-acting interference

Long-Term memory

once information is transferred from STM, it is organized and integrated with other information in LTM. It remains there until we need to retrieve it. Then it is sent back to STM for our use; third stage of memory that stores information for long periods of time; capacity is virtually limitless, and its duration is relatively permanent

Implicit/nondeclarative memory

refers to unintentional learning or unconscious knowledge. It is memory without awareness. For a simple test of implicit memory, try telling someone how you tie your shoelaces—without demonstrating the actual behavior. Because your memory of this skill is unconscious and hard to describe in words ("to declare"), this type of memory is sometimes referred to as non-declarative.

Recall

retrieving a memory using a general cue

Recognition:

retrieving a memory using a specific cue

there two different types of interference

retroactive interference and proactive interference

Eyewitnesses

Eyewitness testimony is not very reliable, because people create memories in their heads and can cause innocent people to be sentenced to jail or even death

Improving Long-Term Memory

I tell my students that if they want the full benefits of their new understanding of long-term memory, they need to focus on three key strategies—organization, rehearsal, and retrieval.

Encoding Failure Theory

Our sensory memory certainly received the information and passed it along to STM, but during STM we probably decided there was no need to remember the precise details of the material, so we did not encode it and pass it on for storage in LTM

Retrograde Amnesia-

The person loses memory for events that occurred before the accident, yet has no trouble remembering things that happened afterward

Retrieval

There are basically two types of retrieval cues—specific and general. When you retrieve a memory using a specific cue, it is called recognition. You only have to identify the correct response, as in a multiple-choice exam. When you use a general cue, it is called recall. You must retrieve previously learned material, as in an essay exam.

chunking

To extend the capacity of STM, you can use chunking—grouping separate pieces of information into a single unit (or chunk).

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid images of circumstances associated with surprising or strongly emotional events; not very accurate, over time we tend to add details or forget details

False Memories

We hear stories or think we remember an event and we create false memories of our past

Retrieval Cue:

a clue or prompt that helps stimulate recall or retrieval of a stored piece of information from long-term memory

Decay Theory-

commonsense assumption that memory, like all biological processes, degrades with time. It is well documented that skills and memory are degraded if they are not used for a long period of time. But it also is important to point out that conclusive, experimental support for decay theory is difficult to obtain.

explicit/declarative memory

explicit memory refers to intentional learning or conscious knowledge. It is memory with awareness

types of long-term memory

explicit/declarative memory, implicit/nondeclarative memory

Sensory Memory

first memory stage that holds sensory information; relatively large capacity, but duration is only a few seconds; George Sperling experiment with flashing letters

auditory information

is held in sensory memory about the same length of time as visual information, one-quarter to one-half of a second, but a weaker "echo," or echoic memory, of this auditory information, can last up to 4 seconds.

semantic memory

is memory for general knowledge, rules, events, objective facts, and specific information. It is our internal mental dictionary or encyclopedia of stored knowledge

episodic memory

is somewhat like a mental diary. It records the major events (or episodes) that happen to us or take place in our presence. Some our episodic memories are short-lived, whereas others can last a lifetime.

purpose of sensory memory

is to retain a relatively exact image of each sensory experience just long enough to locate and focus on relevant bits of information and transfer tem to the next stage of memory

Organization

it is one of the most important elements in memory; To extend the capacity of short-term memory, we discussed how to organize the information into chunks. To successfully encode information for LTM, we need to organize material into hierarchies, which involves arranging a number of related items into a few broad categories that are further divided and subdivided.

Elaborative Rehearsal:

linking new information to previously stored material (also known as deeper levels of processing)

Amnesia

loss of memory as a result of brain injury or trauma

Hierarchy

make information more understandable and memorable

short term memory

second memory stage that temporarily stores sensory information and decides whether to send it on to long-term memory (LTM); capacity limited to five to nine items and duration is about 30 seconds.

Explicit/declarative memory can be further subdivided into two parts

semantic memory and episodic memory

Short-Term memory as a "working memory"

so far it sounds as if short-term memory is just a passive, temporary "holding area." Most current researchers now realize that active processing of information also occurs in STM—the term working memory. Today, we think we think of STM as a three-part working memory

Rehearsal

storage in LTM requires deeper levels of processing, called elaborative rehearsal. With this type of rehearsal, we think deeply about new information and tie it into previously stored memories.

Interference Theory

suggests that forgetting is caused by one memory competing with, or trying to replace, another memory

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

the feeling that at any second, a word or event you are trying to remember will pop out from the "tip of your tongue." A retrieval failure that involves a sensation of knowing that specific information is stored in long-term memory but of being temporarily unable to retrieve it.

iconic memory

the visual icon (or image) lasts about one-half of a second

Central Executive

this "executive" supervises and coordinates the other two components, as well as material retrieved from LTM. When you mentally combine the verbal food orders (the phonological loop) and their spatial layout on the table (the visuospatial sketchpad), you are using your central executive.

Visuospatial sketchpad

this component is the visual workplace responsible for holding and manipulating visual images and spatial information. Imagine yourself as a food server who's taking multiple orders from three customers at a small table. Using your mind's visuospatial "sketchpad," you can mentally visualize how to fit all the plates of food on their table.

Phonological rehearsal loop:

this part involves holding and manipulating verbal information. This is why the component is called a phonological rehearsal loop. You rehearse the order until you reach the kitchen and pass it along to the chef.

Motivated Forgetting Theory-

we forget for a reason, which leads inhibition of retrieval (Freud); people obviously try to inhibit unpleasant or anxiety-producing thoughts or feelings. According to Freudian theory, when they do this consciously, telling themselves not to worry about an upcoming final exam, it is called suppression. When they do it unconsciously, it is called repression. Sigmund Frued claimed that people repressed painful memories to avoid anxiety.

In addition to procedural motor skills and classically conditioned responses, implicit/nondeclarative memory also includes priming

where a prior exposure to a stimulus facilitates or inhibits the processing of new information. Such priming effects may occur even when we do not consciously remember being exposed to the prime.

maintenance rehearsal

you can extend the duration of your STM by doing this; repeating information over and over to maintain it in short-term memory (STM)