Psychology Chapters 1-9

agonist

A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's actions

antagonist

A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitters's action

neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

addiction

Compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences.

Norepinephrine

Helps control alertness and arousal. Undersupply can depress mood.

Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

psychology

The science of behavior and mental processes

enviroment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

NREM-3

minimal awareness

opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Sleep

periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

Psychoactive drug

A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Split brain

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

axon

A long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the neuron cell body to other neurons, or to muscles or glands.

hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

suprachiasmatic nucleus

A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness

cocaine

A powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant; produces temporary increased alertness and euphoria. Can cause cardiovascular stress, suspiciousness, depressive crash.

clinical psychologist

A psychologist treating emotionally troubled adolescents at a local mental health agency is most likely to be a

narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

nicotine

A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco. Can cause heart disease and cancer.

population

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

Central nervous system (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord

depressants

Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Acetylecholine

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory. Associated with Alzheimer's disease, Ach-producing neurons deteriorate

hallucinations

False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

Margaret Floy Washburn

Holds the distinction of being the first American woman to be awarded a Ph. D. in psychology. Best known for her experimental work in animal behavior.

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

latent content, or hidden meaning

In interpreting dreams, Freud was most interested in their

Caffeine

Increased alertness and wakefulness. Can cause anxiety, restlessness and insomnia in high doses. Uncomfortable withdrawl

Alcohol

Initial high followed by relaxation and disinhibition. Can cause depression, memory loss, organ damage, impaired reactions.

heredity

Passing of traits from parents to offspring

pariental lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head towards the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Heroin

Rush of euphoria, relief from pain. can cause depressed physiology and has agonizing withdrawal

cerebellum

The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

genes

The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein.

endocrine system

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

genome

The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes.

tolerance

The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.

withdrawal

The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.

Pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

selective attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft.

corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Phineas Gage

Vermont railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that changed his personality and behavior; his accident gave information on the brain and which parts are involved with emotional reasoning

unconscious; conscious

We register and react to stimuli outside of our awareness by means of ______ processing. When we devote deliberate attention to stimuli, we use _____ processing.

23 chromosomes

When the mother's egg and the father's sperm unite; each contributes

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid. Can cause risk of panic.

methamphetamine

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels. Can cause irritability, insomnia, hypertension, seizures.

mutation

a random error in gene replication that can lead to a change

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

operational definition

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Ecstasy (MDMA)

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition. Can cause dehydration, overheating, depressed mood, impaired cognitive and immune functioning.

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing bloodflow and therefore brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissue. show brain anatomy

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

alcohol use disorder

alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking

Substance use disorder

continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

identical (monosygotic) twins

develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment.

barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

Inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

NREM-1

fleeting images, hallucinations

Humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

GABA

major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal chord

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal chord to the muscles and glands

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

frontal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

REM

story-like dreams

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

thalamus

the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

Interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

THC

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations. Can cause impaired learning and memory, increased risk of psychological disorders, lung damage form smoke.

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions.

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

Peripheral Nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

amygdala

Two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion.

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Lesion

tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression. Some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression

structuralism

An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind.

informed consent

An ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

case study

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Sigmund Freud

Austrian neurologist known for his work on the unconscious mind. Had controversial ideas but overall highly influenced humanity's self understanding. Father of psychoanalysis.

Dopamine

Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. Oversupply linked to schizophrenia. Undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson's disease

limbic system

Neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

refractory period

The period of time during which a neuron cannot respond to another stimulus because the membrane is returning to its polarized state

Behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

SQ3R

A study method incorporating five steps Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review.

medulla

Base of brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

reflex

A simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. Oversupply with opiate drugs can suppress the body's natural endorphin supply

Wilhelm Wundt

(1832-1920) Set up the first psychological lab. Trained subjects in introspection. Eventually described his theory as structuralism.

William James and Mary Whiton Calkins

A legendary teacher-writer who authored an important 1890 psychology text. He mentored his partner, who became a pioneering memory researcher and the first women to be president of the American Psychological Association

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory.

correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

reticular formation

A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.

action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

dendrites

A neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

functionalism

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

basic research vs applied research

Basic research is conducted to advance our understanding of theory, while applied research (also called action research or experience-near research) is conducted to advance our knowledge of how theories, skills, and techniques can be used in terms of practical application.

B. F. Skinner

Behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons.

culture

Behaviors and belief systems that members of a long-standing social group share and pass along to successive generations.

Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner

Championed psychology as the scientific study of behavior. In a controversial study, these two showed that fear could be learned through "little Albert"

natural selection

Charles Darwin's theory that the features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are more likely than other features to be passed on to subsequent generations.

neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

Biological psychology

a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

electroencephalogram

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis