Psychology Chapters 1-9
agonist
A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's actions
antagonist
A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitters's action
neuron
A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
addiction
Compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences.
Norepinephrine
Helps control alertness and arousal. Undersupply can depress mood.
Insomnia
Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.
debriefing
The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.
psychology
The science of behavior and mental processes
enviroment
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.
NREM-3
minimal awareness
opiates
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
Sleep
periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
Psychoactive drug
A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
DNA
A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.
Split brain
A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.
myelin sheath
A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
axon
A long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the neuron cell body to other neurons, or to muscles or glands.
hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
suprachiasmatic nucleus
A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
cocaine
A powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant; produces temporary increased alertness and euphoria. Can cause cardiovascular stress, suspiciousness, depressive crash.
clinical psychologist
A psychologist treating emotionally troubled adolescents at a local mental health agency is most likely to be a
narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
nicotine
A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco. Can cause heart disease and cancer.
population
All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
Central nervous system (CNS)
Consists of the brain and spinal cord
depressants
Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
stimulants
Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
Acetylecholine
Enables muscle action, learning, and memory. Associated with Alzheimer's disease, Ach-producing neurons deteriorate
hallucinations
False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.
Margaret Floy Washburn
Holds the distinction of being the first American woman to be awarded a Ph. D. in psychology. Best known for her experimental work in animal behavior.
experimental group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
control group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
latent content, or hidden meaning
In interpreting dreams, Freud was most interested in their
Caffeine
Increased alertness and wakefulness. Can cause anxiety, restlessness and insomnia in high doses. Uncomfortable withdrawl
Alcohol
Initial high followed by relaxation and disinhibition. Can cause depression, memory loss, organ damage, impaired reactions.
heredity
Passing of traits from parents to offspring
pariental lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head towards the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.
REM sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
Heroin
Rush of euphoria, relief from pain. can cause depressed physiology and has agonizing withdrawal
cerebellum
The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
genes
The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein.
endocrine system
The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
genome
The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes.
tolerance
The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.
withdrawal
The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.
Pituitary gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
selective attention
The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
cerebral cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
synapse
The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft.
corpus callosum
The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
Threshold
The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
Brainstem
The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.
dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
Phineas Gage
Vermont railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that changed his personality and behavior; his accident gave information on the brain and which parts are involved with emotional reasoning
unconscious; conscious
We register and react to stimuli outside of our awareness by means of ______ processing. When we devote deliberate attention to stimuli, we use _____ processing.
23 chromosomes
When the mother's egg and the father's sperm unite; each contributes
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
all-or-none response
a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.
reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
LSD
a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid. Can cause risk of panic.
methamphetamine
a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels. Can cause irritability, insomnia, hypertension, seizures.
mutation
a random error in gene replication that can lead to a change
experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
dream
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
night terrors
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
operational definition
a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
Correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
Ecstasy (MDMA)
a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition. Can cause dehydration, overheating, depressed mood, impaired cognitive and immune functioning.
fMRI (functional MRI)
a technique for revealing bloodflow and therefore brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissue. show brain anatomy
manifest content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream
latent content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream
alcohol use disorder
alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use
near-death experience
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
somatosensory cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking
Substance use disorder
continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk
identical (monosygotic) twins
develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
fraternal (dizygotic) twins
develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment.
barbiturates
drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment
amphetamines
drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment
Inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
NREM-1
fleeting images, hallucinations
Humanistic psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth
GABA
major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
sensory (afferent) neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal chord
motor (efferent) neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal chord to the muscles and glands
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
occipital lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.
frontal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.
temporal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.
hallucinogens
psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
REM
story-like dreams
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
Plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.
thalamus
the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
levels of analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
Interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
THC
the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations. Can cause impaired learning and memory, increased risk of psychological disorders, lung damage form smoke.
autonomic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
Dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.
Parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions.
alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
positive psychology
the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive
Peripheral Nervous system (PNS)
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
epigenetics
the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
hormones
Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
amygdala
Two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion.
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
Lesion
tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.
survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
Serotonin
Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression. Some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression
structuralism
An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind.
informed consent
An ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
case study
An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Sigmund Freud
Austrian neurologist known for his work on the unconscious mind. Had controversial ideas but overall highly influenced humanity's self understanding. Father of psychoanalysis.
Dopamine
Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. Oversupply linked to schizophrenia. Undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson's disease
limbic system
Neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.
interneurons
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
refractory period
The period of time during which a neuron cannot respond to another stimulus because the membrane is returning to its polarized state
Behaviorism
The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
SQ3R
A study method incorporating five steps Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review.
medulla
Base of brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
reflex
A simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.
endorphins
"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. Oversupply with opiate drugs can suppress the body's natural endorphin supply
Wilhelm Wundt
(1832-1920) Set up the first psychological lab. Trained subjects in introspection. Eventually described his theory as structuralism.
William James and Mary Whiton Calkins
A legendary teacher-writer who authored an important 1890 psychology text. He mentored his partner, who became a pioneering memory researcher and the first women to be president of the American Psychological Association
Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory.
correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
reticular formation
A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.
action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
dendrites
A neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
functionalism
A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.
basic research vs applied research
Basic research is conducted to advance our understanding of theory, while applied research (also called action research or experience-near research) is conducted to advance our knowledge of how theories, skills, and techniques can be used in terms of practical application.
B. F. Skinner
Behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons.
culture
Behaviors and belief systems that members of a long-standing social group share and pass along to successive generations.
Nerves
Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner
Championed psychology as the scientific study of behavior. In a controversial study, these two showed that fear could be learned through "little Albert"
natural selection
Charles Darwin's theory that the features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are more likely than other features to be passed on to subsequent generations.
neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
Biological psychology
a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
electroencephalogram
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
