Psychology Leiden
A priori
knowledge built into human brain, not learned
Nativism
most basic forms of human knowledge and basic operating characteristics mind (providing foundation for human nature) are native to the human mind (inborn, not acquired previous experience like empiricism idea) must have basic ability store, combing, recalling, and sense information
Explaining behaviour
most researcher say most important goal. explaining patterns of behaviour. e.g. why certain prisoners are violent and others are not.
Similarity relations
must be used to understand analogy/relation between two concepts.
insight problems
problems that are specially designed to be unsolvable until one looks at them in a way that is different from the usual way
inductive reasoning in practice
psychologist use inductive reasoning to make guesses about workings human mind based on observation of multiple moments and conditions in which behaviour was seen. (from a given series of specifics to a generalization)
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge, without thinking about application if findings.
deontic reasoning
reasoning about what one may, should, or ought to do
inductive reasoning/hypothesis construction
reasoning from detailed facts to general principles. attempts to deduce/infer new principle from observation/facts (serving as clues), based on perceived analogies between seen phenomena and previous knowledge
Importance context in deductive reasoning
relying on real-world knowledge when thinking deductive can cause switch to inductive reasoning, since natural tendency to reason by comparison to previos knowledge. takes effort to not let influence our reasoning
applied research
research undertaken to solve a specific problem rather than enhance general knowledge.
sexual jealousy
set of emotions and behaviours resulting in a person believing his/her relationship with a sexual partner/potential sexual partner to be threatened by partner's involvement with another person.
Analogy
similarities in behaviour/function or relationship between entities/situations that are quite different from each other. (Similarity relations)
Physiological explanation (biopsychology)
studies the way hormones and drugs ct on brain to alter behaviour/experience.
Predictable world bias
tendency to engage in inductive reasoning even in situations where such reasoning is pointless because the relationship in question is completely random
availability bias
tendency to rely too heavily on information readily available to us, ignoring information that's less available.
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
design stance
the assumption that tools are designed for an intended function
Mental Chemistry
the formation of a new complex idea that is different from any of the simple ideas that comprise it
Reasoning
the mental activity of transforming/using information to reach conclusions (usa adaptive way) with present and future
Dualism (in religious terms)
the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities: a material body (part of natural world, thus can be studied scientifically), and the soul (supernatural entity acting on free will not natural law thus cannot be studied scientifically).
Natural selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
Relation system 1 and 2
the slow system is able to overwrite and control the fast system, but in routine activities fast system has more control.
Behavioural genetics
the study of how genes and the environment influence behaviour
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it 'I knew it all along"
Empricism
the view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the sensory experience, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment. (idea blank mind child)
limitations of dualism
theory sets strict limits on what can and can't be studied scientifically. Whole real of thoughts and subsequentially behaviour of bounds if product of wilful soul
incubation period
time off from solving problem to do something else. Assumed that during incubation period, person unconsciously reorganizing material related to problem while consciously doing and thinking about their things. Appears to facilitate insight, not deduction. All elementary concepts related unsolved problem remain primed & whilst not consciously thinking about problem new associations may be formed to solve problem (the "aha" moment)
evaluation research
using behavioural research methods to asses effect of social/institutional programme on behaviour
example of availability bias study
STUDY Brase (2003): participants asked to estimate percentage of people who die from series of various causes, most participants predicted higher in causes recently emphasised media like terrorism, murder and airplane crashes, and underestimate causes not heavily publicized like heart disease and traffic accidents. Conclusion, heavily publicized causes are more available to conscious recall.
Example Availability bias study
Tversky & Kahneman (1973): participants asked if letter d is more likely to occur in first position of word or third. Findings showed most people said first. Though actual answer is third, but this is much harder to think of word with d in third position than word beginning with d.
Dual process theory
Two distinct ways of solving problems: -System 1: (automatic, unconscious, fast, implicit and heuristic). intuitive thinking with little to no voluntary control providing fuzzy explanation. produces feelings & impressions -System 2: (effortful, conscious, analytic, explicit, controlled and slow) self deciding which aspect problem to attend to and deliberately solving problem while considering outcomes.
Evolutionary explanation sexual jealousy
Using animal studies, studied behaviour appearing similar to human jealousy. Supports view jealousy function to promote long-term meting bonds as all animals which do form long-term mating bongs exhibited jealous like behaviour, behaving in way designed to drive off or discourage any individuals which would lure away mat
Example confirmation bias Study
Watson (1960) engaged participants in game with aim to discover the rule for sequencing numbers. In first trial, sequence of three numbers (e.g. 6 8 10) shown and participants asked to guess rule. In each subsequent trial each participant asked to test rule by proposing new sequence of three numbers to which experimenter would response yes or no depending on if sequence fit rule. Findings showed that participants overwhelmingly chose to generate sequences consistent with, rather than inconsistent with, their current hypothesis and quickly became confident hypothesis was correct even if it wasn't. (e.g. if hypothesis was that rule is even numbers increase by two then participant would on several trials propose sequences consistent with first trial and after getting yes on each trial confidently state their formed hypothesis, though not trying to propose other sequences that would contradict their initial hypothesis thus never releasing the correct response is any increasing sequence of numbers).
scientific reasoning
generating hypothesis on how something in world works and consequently systematically testing hypothesis.
Example Dual processing
in Stroop interference effect, subjects asked to identify colour of printed word and ignore the colour name, took more time to answer if word printed in colour other than its name.
condition
information in the mind which can be stored and activated by working brain. Includes thoughts, beliefs, and all forms of memory. Some info is conscious (aware and describable) other info is un-conscious but can still influence one's conscious experience and behaviour.
memory
information stored (short and long term) and mechanisms used for manipulating and storing information
application natural selection to psychology
characteristics and behaviour are studied by examining their function in aiding individuals to better survive and reproduce in local environment
Example of nativism
child learning language needs A priori knowledge of built in rules about what info to attend to, how to store and organize linguistic sounds heard in manner so that child can eventually make sense of sound, before A posteriori knowledge of learning specific words and grammar can be done.
Example cultural differences sexual jealousy
degree of jealousy may differ depending on: - tolerance towards extramarital affairs - gender difference in attitude towards sexual infidelity/disloyalty (one culture may result violent revenge whilst other culture would dishonour perpetrators causing him go jail)
describing behaviour
describing patterns of behaviour, though or emotions e.g. survey researchers conduct late studies or randomly selected respondents to determine what people think, feel, and do., Clinical psychology investigates prevalence rates disorders, and developmental psychology describes age-related changes behaviour
Developmental explanation sexual jealousy
description age-related changes jealousy corresponding age-related differences social relationships Early forms jealousy similar to forms of sexual jealousy: - Infants jealous when primary caregiver pays more attention another baby - Children middle school jealous same-sex best friend becomes best-friend someone else typically develops after first romantic attachment secure early attachment parent/friend, results in secure attachment romantic partner (less jealousy)
predicting behaviour
developing ways predict behaviour. for example: with test, must be administered, analyzed, and refined to meet certain statistical criteria. e.g. predicting employee performance from test and interview, forensic psychologist interested understanding variables that predict which criminals are likely to be dangerous if released,
genetic explanation sexual jealousy
difference individual's proneness to sexual jealousy. measure role of gene variation, research may use twin studies compared to same-sex fraternal twins, which would indicate much of varations among individuals in sexual jealousy is genetic related.
Metacognition
"Thinking about thinking" or the ability to evaluate a cognitive task to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task
example Analogy
"a man is to a woman. As a boy is to a_______?" a: mother B: dog c: girl. The answer would be girl.
Happy mind solving insight problems
(broad-and-built theory)neg emotions narrow one's focus of perception and though (lead people focus only on specific emotion-evoking objects and routine well-learned ways responding). Though helpful in some cases, like in emergencies when no time to trial and error test new ideas. Positive emotion(e.g. joy and curiosity), felt when no danger and biological needs met, increased creativity. Those new ideas are building blocks future development.
formal operational thought
(deductive reasoning is logical process best understood through math) In Piaget's theory, the fourth and final stage of cognitive development, characterized by more systematic logical thinking and by the ability to understand and systematically manipulate abstract concepts. rejected because humans natural inclination solve deductive problems by reflecting on real-world knowledge
Syllogism
(deductive reasoning) presents mayor and minor premises which must be combined to see if particular conclusion is true or false OR indeterminate
learning behavioural psychology
(directly and exclusively concerned with explaining behaviour through analysing prior learning
mental set
(established habit of perception or thought) a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
Series problems
(type of deductive reasoning) requires organising of items into series on basis of a set of comparison statements and then arrive to conclusion which wasn't contained in any single statement
Three fundamental ideas of psychology:
- (dualism. materialism, reflexes, and localisation) behaviour and mental experience have physical cause that can be studied scientifcally - (experience, empiricism, association by contiguity, nativism) way people behave, think and feel is modified over time by experience in their environment - (natural selection) body's machinery (producing behaviour) is a product of evolution by natural selection
Reflexology
- All human behaviour (even voluntary actions) occur through complex reflexes involving high parts of brain. -all human actions initiated by stimuli in environment which acts upon sensory receptors, initiating a chain of events in nervous system, that initiates muscle movements that creates action
other specialties
- Sensory psychology:study of basic abilities to see, hear, touch, taste, and smell environment - Perceptual psychology:study of how people and animals make sense of/interpret the inputs they receive through senses - psychology of motivation - personality psychology - abnormal psychology
Cultural explanation
- culture imdv. grew up can predict behaviour (dialect, values, attitudes, etc.) - researchers aim find consistencies in culture & characterise entire culture in typical way think feel act.
Cognitive explanation sexual jealousy
- define jealousy as set of beliefs (about behaviour of one's mate and competitors, vulnerability own relationship with mate, and appropriateness of possible ways to react) - method of studying: ask indv. Recall episodes own life and describe thoughts which went through mind, emotions felt and actions taken -
Research methods genetic explanation
- deliberately modifying animals genes to observe effect on behaviour. - asses degree to which individual's genetics similarities correlates to degree of similarity in the trait. Findings which show close genetic relatives are more similar in the trait. Behaviour than distant relatives contributes evidence to gene variations in the trait. - try and identify specific gene which contributed to a trait by comparing DNA (genetic material) of people differing in that trait.
Three purposes of research
- explaining: - describing - predicting
Developmental explanation
- how experiences at any given stage of development can influence behaviour at later stages.. - documents and describes typical age differences occurring in ways individuals feel, think, act, etc. - May describe consequence of changes that occur, from infancy to adulthood, for specific behaviour/mental capacity. - documenting at which stage age-related differences occur
Cultural explanation sexual jealousy
- look at cultural differences romantic and sexual attitudes/morals - Research would include comparing history to examine differences in wyas infidelity is understood and treated.
Learning explanation sexual jealousy
- sexual jealousy derived from past experience - ealous reaction proven to be affective In obtaining a certain rewards (e.g. successfully repelling competitor) may increase frequency with experience, and ineffective reactions may decrease - learning through experience may also be present when seeing what cues are potential signs of infidelity/disloyalty in their mates intensity of jealousy, manner in which expressed, and eviromental cues triggering jealousy can all be influenced by learning
history methodology psyshcology
Buddha & Aristotle: asked questions about causes of behaviour, thoughts and emotions (used own reason) James, Wundt, Watson (1875): birth scientific psychology. reaction time, used self as participants Mckeen Catell: methodology in educational curriculum, established importance methodology in psychology
Social explanation
Aim to explain behaviour in terms of conformity to social norms, obedience authority and/or fulfilling other's expectations (social pressure). Explanations are often phrased terms of indv. (un)conscious beliefs about potential social consequence of acting particular way (thus many explanations are also cognitive).
Neural explanation sexual jealousy Study 1
Aim:study the correlation between sexual jealousy and activation brain Sample:male college students Research method:usage Electroencephalogram (EEG) Findings:male college students induced to feel jealous showed greater activationLeft frontal cortex, measured with Electroencephalogram (EEG) Conclusion:pervious research showed activation left frontal cortex associated with approach motivation (specifically pleasurable activities) whereas the right frontal cortex is associated with withdraw-motivation (corresponding to avoidance of neg. stimuli). Thus researchers suggested at least initially primary motivational state in jealousy is one of approach, maybe aimed at preventing threatening liaison between target od one's jealousy and another person, or at re-establishing their primary relationship.
Evolutionary explanation
All basic biological machinery concerning behaviour and mental experience is product of evolutionbynatural selection. Method of explaining universal characteristics. .study why and how certain characteristic came about through process of evolution. some interested in route by which tendency evolved, others the evolutionary function of specific behaviour
Learning explanation
All forms of human behaviour and mental experiences are modifiable/changeable through learning (can be influenced by prior learning). Prior learning can effect emotions, drives, perception, thoughts, skill, and habits.
Neural explanation
All mental experiences and behaviour acts produced by nervous system, thus howthe neuro-system produces specific type of experience/behaviour studied, called Behavioural neuroscience. can study small groups or neutrons or large regions brain
association by contiguity
Aristotle's principle that if two environmental events (stimuli) occur at the same time or one right after the other (contiguously), those events will be linked together in the mind (e.g apple)
deduction reasoning
Attempt to derive logically the consequences that must be true if certain premises are accepted as true. Logical proof, assuming that the premises are really true. (general rule to specific examples)
example of functional fixedness Study
Barret et al. (2007): showed 12- and 18-month-old infants a box with a light display and a small hole on its side, and showed how experimented grasped round of spoon or novel spoon-like object and inserted object straight end into box turning light on. Then infants given opportunity to do same. with novel object, 60% grasped round end, successfully turning on light. With spoon, less than 25% grasped round end not turning on light. Conclusion, even one year olds had developed "spoon" category in mind and reluctant use spoon in nonconventional way.
Example insight problems 2
Candle problem: subjects given candle, book of matchers, and bocks of tackles, and asked attach candle to bulletin board in manner candle can be lit. Need to overcome functional fixednessand see tackle box as item which canbe used for more than holding tackles, and use was candle to make hold for candle in box.
Example content influencing deductive reasoning
Cosmides & Tooby (1992): participants shown set of cards (beer, coke, 16 yr. old, 25 yr. old). Participants asked to test rule: If a person is drinking alcohol, then he or she must be at least 21 years old." obvious answer is 16 and beer, which results showed most adults turned. Shows how by changing abstract task to show familiar relationship, difficult problem becomes easier. Also concluded its easier because form of social contract,
Example analogy in practice
Darwin thought of concept natural selection of mechanisms of evolution partly because he saw analogy between selective breeding plants and animals by humans, and the selective breeding occurring in nature. Since first type of selective breeding could modify plants and animals over generations, Darwin formed analogy that humans could too.
Hypothesis construction
Declarative sentences stating expected relationships between variables (at best educated guess) Ex. The higher (lower, greater, larger, etc.,) the _____, the higher (lower greater, larger, etc.,) the _____.
Genetic explanation
Genes are units of heridity providing codes for construcion entire body, thus also the brain. Differences in inherited genes can cause differences brain and thus mental experiences and behaviour.
Confirmation bias in diagnosis
Groopman (2007) states confirmation bias can join combine with availability bias to producing misdiagnosis in hospitals. Doc who instantly though of initial hypothesise for particular disease patient may have, may proceed to ask questions to confirm this hypothesise, overlooking evidence which may disconfirm it. Docs should thus receive training in inductive reasoning to overcome such biases.
Example analogy Experiment
Holyoak et al.(1984) conducted analogical reasoning with young children. Gave preschool and kindergarten children gumballs in bowl and asked children move gumballs to another, out of reach, bowl without getting of chair. Number of objects were available to children including scissors, aluminium cane, tape, string, and sheet of paper. Before experiment, story with genie facing similar problem heard by children where genie used magic staff to pull second bottle closer. Children then asked to think ways they could solve their problem. 1/2 could solve problem and remainder could with hint. Results showed how children are capable or reasoning. Yet when children given different analogy (genie rolling up carpet to use as tube to transfer jewels), children were much less successful. Conclusion, if individual familiar with one set of relations (using ruler to pull closer), the similarity with another relationship (using carpet) is not successful.
example of inductive reasoning
Hundreds of individuals of a species have been observed and all are photosynthetic; therefore, the species is photosynthetic.
Example effect of content & previous knowledge on deductive reasoning
In experiment students given problems like: all living things need water, roses need water, therefore roses are living things. All insects need oxygen, mice need oxygen, therefore, mice are insects. Structurally examples identical, in both conclusion not valid, but rather "indeterminate" is correct response as though roses may be living things, nowhere does it say they haveto be. Findings in experiment showed how only about 30% got first problem correct, but almost all got second problem correct. Students couldn't resist being influenced by real-world facts, though questions were logical problems. Knowledge of roses led them believe first problem logically valid, and knowledge insects led believe second problem wasn't logically valid. Thus content neither helps nor hinders.
A posteriori
Knowledge acquired through experience
Example reasoning study
Kuhn et al. (1988) presented sample of sixth and ninth grader students and adults with hypothetical information about relation between certain food and likelihood of catching cold. In first interview, subjects asked about beliefs in which food were associated with colds. Over several trials, subjects given series of food (e.g. chocolate, carrots, oranges, cereal), each associated with medical outcome, some foods always associates healthy outcome, others always associated catching cold, and some sometimes paired catching cold and sometimes not. At least one food-outcome pairing consistent with subjects initial belief on how heathy particular food was and one inconsistent Findings showed initial response usually based on prior beliefs, but as evidence increased most adults changed opinion to match evidence. Less likely to happen with adolescents who readily agreed with prior belief (chocolate has lots of sugar this is bad for you so causes cold), and reluctant to change views. Most were reluctant deviate opinion, but most participants able to provide evidenced answer when asked to do so.
functional fixedness
failure to see an object as having a function other than usual one; an impediment to problem solving
tabula rasa (blank slate)
Locke: man's condition at birth -- not born with identity predetermined, but rather shaped by experiences during life No disposition to make some types of learning easier or preferences to influence how they learn and develop. So No "human nature" other than ability to adapt one's behaviour to demands environment.
Availability bias in diagnosis
Negative effects availability bias includes misdiagnosis in hospitals. Doc. Who just treated several cases of particular disease/ or recently read about disease, more likely to perceive particular disease in new patient showing some expected symptom. If doc fails to ask questions to rule out other possibilities, may result in misdiagnosis and mistreatme
cognitive approach psychotherapy sexual jealousy
Psychotherapist, using cognitive methods to treat pathological jealousy, aim to help client change thought patterns so they will no longer misperceive every instance of attention mate pays to someone else as threat to relationship and focuses on structive rather than destructive ways of reacting to actual threats.
Example Analogy Test
Raven's progressive Matrices test: used psychologist to measure fluid intelligence. Shows physical patterns not words so knowledge meaning not essential. Task is to examine three patterns each of top rows to figure out rule relating to first two patterns. Once rule figured out, correct answer chosen, in this case number 8
Example insight problem
Robertson (2001) mutilated checkerboard problem: subjects presented standard checkboard with two squares at opposite corner of board removed, and given 31 dominos. Tasked to answer: Is it possible or impossible to set the 31 dominos on the board in such a way that they fully cover all 62 of the remaining squares of the checkerboard? Answer is its impossible to cover all squares as board has two more black squares than red ones, so no matter how dominoes placed, always will be two black squared in covered. Made easier with bread and butter as unusualness of pattern caused subjects pay more attention, leading to problem solved quicker.
Example Predictable world bias study
STUDY Stanovich & West (2003, 2008) participants asked role dice 6 sides (4 red, 3 green) and predict which colour would come up, obvious strategy would be to maximizeand consistently predict red as probability of getting red is higher. Yet participants tended to guess red 2/3 of the time and green 1/3 of the time as if they could predict which one would be red and which green (which in reality is impossible).
Neural explanation sexual jealousy Study 2
Sample:macaque monkeys Research method:Animal study, neuroimaging with PET Methodology:researchers made male monkeys jealous by exposing them to a female which had previously been courted/payed attention to another male. During this experience, the researchers measured the monkey's brain activity using a technique called positron emission tomography (PET) Findings:a preliminary mapping of specific brain areas that become especially active when experiencing sexual jealousy in male macaque monkeys Further research:next step may include aiming to increase and decrease jealousy behaviour in monkeys through artificial activation or inactivating the certain area, or, using case studies, study people who through accidents suffered damage to same area brain to determine any deficits/unusual behaviour/changes in experiencing jealousy
Physiological explanation Sexual jealousy
Sample:macaque monkeys Research method:Animal study, neuroimaging with PET Methodology:researchers made male monkeys jealous by exposing them to a female which had previously been courted/payed attention to another male. During this experience, the researchers measured the monkey's brain activity using a technique called positron emission tomography (PET) Findings:a preliminary mapping of specific brain areas that become especially active when experiencing sexual jealousy in male macaque monkeys Further research:next step may include aiming to increase and decrease jealousy behaviour in monkeys through artificial activation or inactivating the certain area, or, using case studies, study people who through accidents suffered damage to same area brain to determine any deficits/unusual behaviour/changes in experiencing jealousy
localisation
Specific part of brain serve specific function in production of mental experiences and behaviour
Confirmation bias in studies
Studies should aim at disconfirming held hypothesis to avoid confirmation bias. Never sure hypothesis is correct but can prove hypothesis is incorrect
Dualism (Descartes)
The idea that mind and body are separate but intertwined. animals don't have souls but any activity preformed humans that's no different from behaviour animals can occur without soul. only function soul is thought (which responses to sensory input and directs movement on muscles by acting on body in specific physical location)
Social explanation sexual jealousy
Would focus on norms/beliefs concerning romance, mating, jealousy surrounding jealous person and compare behaviour to average person to see if in boundary of what's considered socially "acceptable".
anchoring bias
a tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions/beliefs and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
cognitive explanation
aim to specify the types of mental information that underlie and enable the specific behaviour. Also interested in basic processes though which info is stored and organized in mind.
Materials (hobbes)
all human behaviour (including seemingly voluntary choices) can in theory be understood as physical processes in body. Conscious thought purely product brain's machinery thus subject to natural law. broke barriers on what can and can't be studied