Psychology of Women Final Exam

Defining Abnormality

(1) Unusualness: Statistically rare -Hallucinations, Dissociation (2) Socially deviant: Breaking norms -Pedophilia, Antisocial behavior (3) Faulty perceptions: Skewed reality -Delusions, Paranoia (4) Personal Distress: Significantly upsetting -Sadness, Anxiety (5) Maladaptive: Disrupts functioning -Afraid to leave home (6) Dangerousness: To self or others -Suicidal/homicidal, lack of self-care

Why do women stay?

1. Hope that he will reform 2. Having no other place to go 3. Fear that there will be reprisals from the batterer 4. Concern about the children 5. Financial dependence

Sexual Harassment in the Workplace

1. Quid pro quo harassment: unwanted sexual advances or behavior made a condition of employment, retention or promotion 2. Hostile work environment: obscene remarks, demeaning jokes, suggestive comments about worker's sexuality or personal life; threatening or aggressive sexual materials From a psychological perspective, something is sexual harassment if it is offensive or detrimental to the person's well-being

Causes of Sexual Harassment

1. Sex-Role Spillover Theory: harassment occurs when a woman's gender is more salient than her role as a worker -Person is seen first as a sex object rather than a co-worker -Gender is most salient when women is in a token position -Gender is more salient when job has objectification built in to it 2. Sexual harassment = abuse of power 3. Sociocultural context of male dominance

Gender Bias in Treatment

1. Traditional gender roles might be fostered in treatment 2. Use of essentialist, gender-difference beliefs in working with clients 3. Sexist use of psychoanalytic concepts 4. Responding to women as sex objects, including seduction of female clients

Reasons why women do not leave an abusive relationship

1. Distorted Thoughts -Being controlled and hurt is traumatizing, and this leads to confusion, doubts, and even self-blame -Perpetrators harass and accuse victims, which wears them down and causes despair and guilt -For example, women shared: "I believed I deserved it," and, "I was ashamed, embarrassed, and blamed myself because I thought I triggered him." -Others minimized the abuse as a way to cope with it, saying: "because I didn't think that emotional and financial abuse was really abuse. Because words don't leave bruises,'' and, "Because I didn't know what my boyfriend did to me was rape." 2. Damaged Self-Worth -Related was the damage to the self that is the result of degrading treatment -Many women felt beaten down and of no value, saying: "He made me believe I was worthless and alone," and, "I felt I had done something wrong and I deserved it." 3. Fear -The threat of bodily and emotional harm is powerful, and abusers use this to control and keep women trapped -Female victims of violence are much more likely than male victims to be terrorized and traumatized -One said: "I was afraid of him...I knew he'd make leaving an ugly drawn out nightmare." -Attempting to leave an abuser is dangerous -One woman felt trapped because of her husband's "threats of hunting me down and harming all my loved ones including our kids while I watched and then killing me." 4. Wanting to be a Savior -Many described a desire to help, or love their partners with the hopes that they could change them: "I believed I could love the abuse out of him." -Others described internal values or commitments to the marriage or partner, with tweets like: "I thought I would be the strong one who would never leave him and show him loyalty. I would fix him and teach him love." -Others had pity and put their partner's needs above their own: "His father died, he became an alcoholic and said that God wouldn't want me to leave him because he needed me to make him better." 5. Children -These women also put their children first, sacrificing their own safety: "I was afraid if he wasn't beating me he would beat his kids. And I valued their lives more than my own." -And, "I stayed for 20 years while I protected our children, all while I was being abused." -Others mentioned staying to benefit the children: "I wanted my son to have a father." 6. Family Expectations and Experiences -Many posted descriptions of how past experiences with violence distorted their sense of self or of healthy relationships: "I watched beat my mom. Then I found someone just like dad," or, "Because raised by animals, you partner with wolves." -Some mentioned family and religious pressures: "My mother told me God would disown me if I broke my marriage." 7. Financial Constraints -Many referred to financial limitations, and these were often connected to caring for children: "I had no family, two young children, no money, and guilt because he had brain damage from a car accident." -Others were unable to keep jobs because of the abuser's control or their injuries, and others were used financially by their abuser: "[My] ex racked up thousands of debt in my name." 8. Isolation -A common tactic of manipulative partners is to separate their victim from family and friends -Sometimes this is physical, as one woman experienced: "I was literally trapped in the backwoods of WV, and he would use my little boy to keep me close." -Other times isolation is emotional, as one woman was told: "You can either have friends and family or you can have me."

Bulimia Nervosa

9:1 Female 1. Recurrent binge eating/purging episodes 2. Occurs at least 1X per week for 3 months 3. Excessive influence of weight on self-evaluation Complications: electrolyte imbalances, intestinal problems, dental problems

Anorexia Nervosa

9:1 female Diagnostic criteria: 1. Severe weight loss due to food restriction 2. Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming overweight 3. Some disturbance in the way the individual perceives their body weight or shape Types: 1. Restricting type 2. Binge eating/purging type Complications: -Damage to kidney, heart, liver, bones -Can be fatal

Human Trafficking

Acquisition of people by improper means such as force, fraud, or deception, with the aim of exploiting them 70% of human trafficking victims are girls or women Particularly vulnerable populations: Transgender and genderqueer individuals Migrants and refugees People with disabilities Members of religious minority groups 1. U.N. has recognized human trafficking for sexual exploitation as a global problem 2. In Southeast Asia alone, UNICEF estimates that 1 million children are trafficked into commercial sex work each year 3. Millions of women and children have been trafficked into the sex trade 4. Trafficking of women and children occurs in contexts of extreme poverty, gender inequality and limited choices for families

Child sexual abuse

Any erotic activity that arouses an adult and excites, shames, or confuses a child, whether or not the victim protests and whether or not genital contact is involved

Rape Prevention Efforts

Changing the culture Responsibility for preventing rape should not rest on potential victim Best way to prevent rape is for people NOT to attempt it Society would need to make a radical change in the way that it socializes boys Societal change will take time, so in the meantime there is an additional focus on: 1. Avoiding situations in which there is a high risk of rape 2. If rape is attempted, knowing self-defense strategies

CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE

Child sexual abuse includes the use, coercion, or forcing of a child to engage in sexual acts or imitate sexual acts Whereas a few decades ago it was considered unmentionable and rare, today adult victims freely and openly share their childhood experiences of victimization on blogs and television shows Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse -For many years, CSA was considered a rare and unusual occurrence -They may think the abuse is "normal," blame themselves for it, feel guilty about it, or worry that the perpetrator will be punished Impact on the Victim -Research evidence clearly demonstrates that CSA can have serious consequences for victims, both in the short run and in the long run -Nonetheless, every person's experience is unique and complex, and CSA of any degree or severity has the potential to cause great harm Feminist Analysis -Feminists make several points about child sexual abuse -Third, feminists want to alert the public to the frequency of CSA and the psychological damage it can do to girls and women

Depression

Cognitive, somatic, and affective components Ratio = 2:1 women Gender differences in suicide attempts Developmental progression of depression Childhood Adolescence-Adulthood Depression in Old Age

Treatment of Eating Disorders

Cognitive-behavioral therapy: challenge distorted perception of self/body image and replace with more adaptive cognitions Empirically validated treatment for anorexia and bulimia Family systems approach: address family interaction patterns that may perpetuate a need for thinness; address control/power issues between teen and parents Prevention: most effective treatment programs are multiple session workshops that focus on promoting self-esteem, stress management skills, healthy weight control behaviors, and critical analysis of the "thin ideal" in our culture

Unbiased therapy model

Counselors encounter complex ethical issues when working with clients within the context of the professional therapeutic relationship A common ethical issue arises when a counselor's personal biases and values clash with those of their clients This paper reviews an ethical brief that addresses the clash of religious and cultural values between a counselor and his client Ultimately, this ethical case results in the counselor imposing his values onto the client The authors of this paper write from the perspective of a consultant team who is required to make recommendations to a court of law while utilizing an ethical decision making model to decide a course of action

Honor Killings and Honor Rapes

Cultures where men's honor is tied to the sexual purity and fidelity of women in their families When a woman's actions bring shame to her family, honor can only be restored by killing the woman U.N. estimates that 5,000 women are murdered each year in honor killings In many countries where honor killings occur, may be systematically permitted, or laws protecting women are ignored

Gender Differences in Psychological Disorders

Diagnosis of mental health disorders: -Women: 47.8% -Men: 48.7% -Some disorders are diagnosed more frequently in women than men Pattern of diagnosis is consistent with traditional gender roles: 1. Internalizing disorders more commonly diagnosed among girls/women -Internalizing Disorders: negative affect is turned inward 2. Externalizing disorders more commonly diagnosed among boys/men -Externalizing Disorders: negative affect is expressed outwardly -Alcohol use disorders -3:1 male -Depression 2:1 female -Anxiety -Panic 3:1 female -GAD 2:1 female -Antisocial PD 3:1 male -Histrionic PD 3:1 female -Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa 90% female

Rape Myths

False beliefs about rape, rape victims, and rapists which function to discredit victims' accounts of rape and excuse rapists' behavior

Unbiased Therapy

Feminist Therapy: 1. Gender is a salient variable in therapy that can only be understood in the context of other factor's in the woman's life 2. Women's experiences must be interpreted within a sociocultural perspective 3. Goal = empowerment, expansion of alternatives/options 4. Therapeutic relationship is mutual and egalitarian 5. Focus on strengths as well as deficits Nonsexist Therapy 1. The therapist should be aware of her or his own values 2. There are no prescribed gender-role behaviors 3. Nontraditional gender roles are not labeled as pathological 4. Women are expected to be as autonomous and assertive as men Assertiveness Training -Assertiveness: standing up for one's basic interpersonal rights in such a way that the other person's rights are not violated -Uses CBT techniques to teach assertiveness through role playing, modeling

Violence in the media and how it relates to violence against women

Findings have demonstrated how media content reproduces sexist stereotypes that associate male identity to violence, domination, independence, aggression and power, while women are linked to emotions, vulnerability, dependency and sensitivity In particular, news reports of violence against women tend to represent women as victims and as responsible for the violence of which they are victims Usually, aggressors are not part of news reports VAW is not shown as a structural problem which is the consequence of inequality between women and men in society, but as a mere individual experience which uses to happen in domestic spaces With the development of ICT, cyber-VAWG is emerging as a global problem Almost three quarters of women have been exposed to some form of violence online Types of cyber-violence include: hacking, surveillance, harassment, death threat, recruitment and malicious distribution Violence online and offline "feed into each other Abuse may be confined to networked technologies or may be supplemented by offline harassment including vandalism, phone calls and physical assault Similarly, the viral character of distribution is now explosive What was once a private affair can now be instantly broadcast to billions of people across the digital world" In countries such as Mexico, cyberviolence has been at the core of public debates in recent years In 2016, at least ten young women denounced through social networks that they had been harassed by men in public spaces These women publicised the aggressors and, in response, they became victims of both sexual violence and death threats from Facebook and Twitter users A very powerful response came from young women in the country Through the hashtagh #MyFirstHarassment, 100,000 women told of their experiences as victims of sexual violence A similar movement emerged in October 2017, in USA The hashtag #MeToo was used to denounce the Hollywood producer Harvey Weinstein as a sexual aggressor The hashtag was promptly popularized worldwide for millions of women to publicize personal experiences of sexual harassment or assault Online and social media have become new and powerful vehicles for misogynistic threats and harassment which can result in the silencing of women While fewer women than men access the Internet today - there are currently 200 million fewer women online than men - new sexist media and new sexist discourses can exacerbate violence against women and girls Another dimension of the sexist nature of online discourse is the widespread circulation of pornography Some statistics suggest that there are more than 4 million websites that offer pornography - 12% of the total number of websites in the world - 100,000 of which offer child pornography The online pornography industry has a turnover of 97.06 billion dollars per year, more than Microsoft, Google, Yahoo, Amazon, Netflix and Apple combined Linked to pornography is the sex trafficking of women, girls and boys that has been enhanced by new media Sex trafficking used to happen mainly in countries which there is a lack of Internet regulation and policy, particularly in countries where there is a high percentage of poor women What can we conclude about violence against women offline and online? -That the initial feminist research questions - originating in the 1960s - are still at the core of theory and research on media content -"This still revolves around the most basic questions of power, values, access and exclusion" In addition, the new media environment has exacerbated some existing problems and puts new challenges that need to be addressed: -"Media sexism and male-dominated power structures are continually shifting and finding new forms of representation and practice our critique can be never be static or one-dimensional, but we must act collectively -Across disciplines and sectors and across countries and regions"

Gender-Based Violence

Forms of violence in which women are the predominant victims and men are the predominant perpetrators Transgender individuals are also overrepresented among victims Grossly under-reported for a number of reasons Associated with several psychological and physical health consequences

Overview

Gender differences in psychological disorders Disorders diagnosed more frequently in women Depression Anxiety Eating Disorders Gender differences in substance use disorders Sexism and psychotherapy Defining abnormality Feminist critique of DSM Bias in diagnosis Bias in treatment Unbiased treatments

Anxiety Disorders

Greater incidence of anxiety disorders among women (2:1), including: -Generalized Anxiety Disorder -Phobias -Specific Phobia -Agoraphobia -Social Phobia -Panic Disorder

Characteristics of Men who Harass

Greater likelihood of sexual harassment associated with: 1. Holding adversarial beliefs about sexual relationships 2. Greater acceptance of interpersonal violence 3. Higher in authoritarianism and hostile sexism 4. More likely to believe rape myths

Child sexual abuse prevalence

In FY16 alone, Child Protective Services agencies substantiated, or found strong evidence to indicate that, 57,329 children were victims of sexual abuse One in 9 girls and 1 in 53 boys under the age of 18 experience sexual abuse or assault at the hands of an adult 82% of all victims under 18 are female Females ages 16-19 are 4 times more likely than the general population to be victims of rape, attempted rape, or sexual assault The effects of child sexual abuse can be long-lasting and affect the victim's mental health Victims are more likely than non-victims to experience the following mental health challenges: -About 4 times more likely to develop symptoms of drug abuse -About 4 times more likely to experience PTSD as adults -About 3 times more likely to experience a major depressive episode as adults Out of the sexual abuse cases reported to CPS in 2013, 47,000 men and 5,000 women were the alleged perpetrators In 88% of the sexual abuse claims that CPS substantiates or finds supporting evidence of, the perpetrator is male. In 9% of cases they are female, and 3% are unknown

Male as normative principle

In feminist theory, the principle of male as norm holds that language referring to females, such as the suffix -ess, the use of man to mean "human", and other such devices, strengthens the perceptions that the male category is the norm and that the corresponding female category is a derivation

GENDER AND VICTIMIZATION

In this chapter we will review the psychological research on gender-based violence and victimization Gender-based violence refers to forms of violence in which women are the predominant victims and men are the predominant perpetrators; in addition, transgender individuals are also overrepresented among victims Gender-based violence has clearly demonstrated psychological and physical health consequences for victims

Risk factors for intimate partner violence

Individual Risk Factors -Low self-esteem -Low income -Low academic achievement/low verbal IQ -Young age -Aggressive or delinquent behavior as a youth -Heavy alcohol and drug use -Depression and suicide attempts -Anger and hostility -Lack of nonviolent social problem-solving skills -Antisocial personality traits and conduct problems -Poor behavioral control/impulsiveness -Traits associated with borderline personality disorder -History of being physically abusive -Having few friends and being isolated from other people -Unemployment -Emotional dependence and insecurity -Belief in strict gender roles -Desire for power and control in relationships -Hostility towards women -Attitudes accepting or justifying IPV -Being a victim of physical or psychological abuse -Unplanned pregnancy Relationship Factors -Marital conflict-fights, tension, and other struggles -Jealousy, possessiveness, and negative emotion within an intimate relationship -Marital instability-divorces or separations -Dominance and control of the relationship by one -partner over the other -Economic stress -Unhealthy family relationships and interactions -Association with antisocial and aggressive peers -Parents with less than a high-school education -Having few friends and being isolated from other people -Witnessing IPV between parents as a child -History of experiencing poor parenting as a child -History of experiencing physical discipline as a child Community Factors -Poverty and associated factors -Low social capital-lack of institutions, relationships, and norms that shape a community's social interactions -Poor neighborhood support and cohesion -Weak community sanctions against IPV -High density of places that sell alcohol Societal Factors -Traditional gender norms and gender inequality -Cultural norms that support aggression toward others -Societal income inequality -Weak health, educational, economic, and social policies/laws

What predicts alcohol use disorders in women?

Interaction of genetic and environmental factors Environmental factors include: -History of childhood adversity -Depression -Anxiety

Intimate Partner Violence

Intimate partner violence: physical aggression and violence occurring between relationship partners 1. Sexual violence, such as sexual coercion and sexual assault 2. Physical violence, such as slapping, pushing, burning, or choking 3. Stalking or harassment 4. Verbal aggression, such as name calling, insulting, or humiliating 5. Coercive control behaviors meant to monitor and control or threaten 6. Control of reproductive or sexual health Occurs in all types of intimate relationships = IPV is a pervasive problem in the US, across ethnic groups, regions of the country, and types of colleges and universities IPV impacts men & women differently, with more negative and severe economic, physical & mental health impacts for women Women are 3-4 times more likely to sustain major emotional trauma and serious physical injuries due to dating violence than men Affects emotional states, cognitive functioning and identity

INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE

It might seem that, given the high risk of rape, women should just stay home to be safe Yet, in many cases, women are not safer in their own home Definition and Prevalence -Women are more likely to be attacked, raped, injured, or killed by current or former male partners than by any other type of assailant -Intimate partner violence may include any of the following components directed toward an intimate partner: (a) sexual violence, such as sexual coercion and sexual assault (b) physical violence, such as slapping, pushing, burning, or choking (c) stalking or harassment (d) verbal aggression, such as name calling, insulting, or humiliating (e) coercive control, which refers to behaviors meant to monitor and control or threaten an intimate partner (f) control of reproductive or sexual health, such as refusing to wear a condom during sex -The first contemporary book exposing the topic was Scream Quietly or the Neighbors Will Hear, by Erin Pizzey, who opened a shelter for female IPV victims in England -Following that murder, domestic violence shelters were flooded with women, as many realized how dangerous their situation truly was Consequences of IPV for Victims -IPV can have severe physical health consequences for victims -Although the term battered woman syndrome was originally coined for these responses, psychologists now favor seeing them, like responses to rape, as instances of PTSD -None of these reasons justifies IPV, of course Consequences of IPV for Children -When IPV occurs in a household with children present, it is important to consider the impact on them as well -The intergenerational transmission of IPV is also a serious concern -The consequences of IPV are pervasive IPV Perpetrators -What kind of man beats his wife or girlfriend? -Family-only batterers tend to be the least violent and show little violence toward people outside their family -The dysphoric-borderline batterer engages in moderate or severe violence toward his partner but not toward others -Generally violent-antisocial batterers are the most violent, both toward their partner and toward others, and they are likely to exhibit antisocial personality disorder -We will return to the topic of treatment in a later section Causes of IPV -A number of theoretical perspectives have been proposed to explain IPV -Feminists also point out how, across history and even today, IPV is condoned or supported by rape myths Prevention and Treatment -The causes and consequences of IPV are complex, and no single measure is likely to address them all -In many communities and states, activists secured a mandatory arrest or shock arrest policy in which the man must be arrested and spend a minimum of one night in jail if the police are called to respond to a case of IPV -A complementary policy is the no-drop policy -In sum, reforms in gender roles, socialization, and education will also be necessary to remedy the situation fully

Feminist Critique of Traditional Psychotherapy

Male-as-normative perspective Focus on the individual as the source of problems versus recognition of sociocultural factors that disadvantage/discriminate against minorities Focus on client deficits/weaknesses

HUMAN TRAFFICKING

Often referred to as "modern-day slavery," human trafficking is the acquisition of people by improper means such as force, fraud, or deception, with the aim of exploiting them, most often for sexual exploitation and forced labor or slavery The therapist will also work with the victim to understand their narrative about being trafficked, assess their psychological symptoms, and focus on the victim's strengths to provide hope

PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC APPROACHES

One of the most important factors influencing a woman's experience in therapy is the theoretical orientation of the therapist and the corresponding type of therapy they use Below we will consider two kinds of therapy to see how they relate to women and whether they are likely to be biased Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy -In cognitive-behavioral therapy, the therapist and client identify not only dysfunctional behaviors, but also dysfunctional thought patterns -Some feminist therapists have developed feminist cognitive-behavioral therapies Feminist Therapy -In response to the critiques of traditional therapies, particularly psychoanalysis, feminist psychologists developed feminist counseling and psychotherapy -The basic assumptions and principles of feminist therapy are as follows: Gender is a salient variable in the process and outcomes of therapy, but it can be understood only in the context of many other factors in a woman's life -Women have multiple identities defined by gender, race/ethnicity, social class, sexual orientation, and disability -The personal is political: A person's experiences must be understood from a sociocultural perspective that includes an analysis of power relationships as well as intrapsychic or individual perspectives -A person's experiences of sexism and discrimination must also be addressed -"Symptoms" can be seen as a person's best attempts to cope with a restrictive and oppressive environment -Social activism can help a person gain a sense of personal strength and control over their life -A major goal of feminist therapy is personal empowerment and helping people expand their alternatives and choices -The therapeutic relationship is mutual and egalitarian -Therapy focuses on a person's strengths rather than only on their deficits -The qualities of caring and nurturing are valued and honored -Clients are encouraged to nurture themselves and to bond with others in a community of support -Rather than "fixing" the client's problems, the feminist therapist encourages the client to discover their strengths and develop new strengths that empower them to deal with situations that have previously caused their distress

Nonsexist approach to therapy

Over the past 30 years much has been written about feminism, but the literature needs to point out morestrongly the critical role of counselors, particularly male counselors, in facilitating social change toward a more egalitarian view of the world This article discusses, from a feminist perspective, issues of anger, power, autonomy, and gender role stereotyping and their importance for women in counseling relationships Recommendations for training counselors in feminist or nonsexist therapy are also reviewed

What can companies do about harassment?

Policies and programs centered around sexual harassment education**not just to protect itself from lawsuit Make clear to employees in policies that sexual harassment will not be tolerated Provide support systems to those who have been harassed Protect reporters from retaliation Beyond companies more research needed on why some men harass when the majority of men do not

Prevention and Treatment

Providing shelter and safety to victims Treatment for the batterer, victim and children Trauma informed care: treating the "whole person" by factoring past trauma into case conceptualization

Impact of Rape

Psychological consequences: Anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation and attempts, and PTSD Risk factors for poor psychological adjustment outcomes following rape: 1. Previous exposure to sexual violence 2. How others respond 3. Whether victim blames themselves Physical effects of rape are serious

Causes of Rape

RAPISTS Four risk factors 1. Hostile or violent home environment 2. Delinquency 3. Sexual promiscuity 4.Hostile masculine personality Protective factor = Empathy

Rape Culture

Set of cultural attitudes and beliefs about gender and sexuality -Pop music that tells women "you know you want it" because of these "blurred lines" -Supporting athletes who committed rape by calling the victims "career-destroyers" -Sexual assault prevention education programs that focus on women being told to take measures to prevent rape instead of men being told not to rape

Prevalence of Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment is likely to go unnoticed and unrecognized A large body of research suggests:When asked directly if they have been sexually harassed, report rate is lower than being asked to check off which harassing things they have experienced Victims might not label what happens to them as "harassment"35-50% of women have experienced sexual harassment at some point in their working lives

LGBTQ population and violence

Sexual violence affects every demographic and every community - including LGBTQ people According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, lesbian, gay and bisexual people experience sexual violence at similar or higher rates than straight people The National Coalition of Anti-Violence Projects estimates that nearly one in ten LGBTQ survivors of intimate partner violence has experienced sexual assault from those partners Studies suggest that around half of transgender people and bisexual women will experience sexual violence at some point in their lifetimes As a community, LGBTQ people face higher rates of poverty, stigma, and marginalization, which put us at greater risk for sexual assault We also face higher rates of hate-motivated violence, which can often take the form of sexual assault Moreover, the ways in which society both hypersexualizes LGBTQ people and stigmatizes our relationships can lead to intimate partner violence that stems from internalized homophobia and shame Yet, as a community, we rarely talk about how sexual violence affects us or what our community's unique needs are when it comes to preventing sexual assault and supporting and caring for survivors of sexual violence The CDC's National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey found for LGB people: -44 percent of lesbians and 61 percent of bisexual women experience rape, physical violence, or stalking by an intimate partner, compared to 35 percent of straight women -26 percent of gay men and 37 percent of bisexual men experience rape, physical violence, or stalking by an intimate partner, compared to 29 percent of straight men -46 percent of bisexual women have been raped, compared to 17 percent of straight women and 13 percent of lesbians -22 percent of bisexual women have been raped by an intimate partner, compared to 9 percent of straight women -40 percent of gay men and 47 percent of bisexual men have experienced sexual violence other than rape, compared to 21 percent of straight men Within the LGBTQ community, transgender people and bisexual women face the most alarming rates of sexual violence Among both of these populations, sexual violence begins early, often during childhood The 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey found that 47% of transgender people are sexually assaulted at some point in their lifetime Among people of color, American Indian, multiracial, Middle Eastern and Black respondents of the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey were most likely to have been sexually assaulted in their lifetime Nearly half of bisexual women who are rape survivors experienced their first rape between ages 11 and 17 For LGBTQ survivors of sexual assault, their identities - and the discrimination they face surrounding those identities - often make them hesitant to seek help from police, hospitals, shelters or rape crisis centers, the very resources that are supposed to help them 85 percent of victim advocates surveyed by the NCAVP reported having worked with an LGBTQ survivor who was denied services because of their sexual orientation or gender identity The 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey found that one in five respondents who were incarcerated in jail, prison, or juvenile detention in the past year were sexually assaulted by facility staff during that time Additionally, 17% of respondents who stayed at one or more homeless shelters in the past year were sexually assaulted at the shelter because they were transgender This epidemic of sexual violence in the LGBTQ community is something we must all work together to address If someone discloses to you that they have been sexually assaulted, remember to believe them, reassure them that it wasn't their fault, keep their disclosure confidential, and never pressure them for more information than they want to share

Human Trafficking

The illegal trade of human beings, a modern-day form of slavery, for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation, forced labor, or involuntary military combat

Feminization of poverty

The increasing concentration of poverty among women, especially unmarried women and their children

Causes of Rape: Social Status of Women

The lower social status of women and the continued belief that women are the property of men Violence against women is an assertion of power and control men have over women Across cultures, the status of women is strongly correlated with rates of violence against women Women are most vulnerable to abuse when they have the least power in their societies Causes of Rape: Social Status of Women

Gender Bias in Diagnosis

The process of diagnosis is not an objective, value-free process Values and gender stereotypes can affect diagnosis Research examples: -Landrine, 1987 -Ford & Widiger, 1989

Looking Forward

The victimization of girls and women is something that must be acknowledged YET, we need to move beyond that recognition to empowerment Terminology: rape victim vs rape survivor Victim: may imply that person is weak or somehow deficient Survivor: possibility that some feel pressured by this label Post-traumatic growth: Future research needed to better understand this construct

LOOKING FORWARD

We need to acknowledge the victimization of girls and women Does using the term victim imply that those who've been victimized are weak or somehow deficient? We also think it's important to be sensitive to the possibility that some feel pressured by the label survivor to "just get over it." It takes great courage to persist after trauma, so many have embraced the label of survivor to acknowledge this courage and resiliency

GENDER AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

When psychologist Phyllis Chesler wrote her revolutionary book Women and Madness in 1972, stories like this one were not uncommon We also consider American Psychological Association guidelines for psychological practice with two marginalized groups: trans people and women of color

Rape Myths

beliefs about rape that function to blame the victim and exonerate the rapist

Sexual harassment

comments, gestures, or physical contacts of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated, and unwelcome

Feminist approach to therapy

directs awareness of counselors to the historical oppression, marginalization, and cultural limitations to which women have been subjected

Honor killings

murders, often public, as a result of a female dishonoring, or being perceived to have dishonored, her family or community

Internalizing disorders

psychosocial problems that are manifested in a turning of the symptoms inward, as in depression or anxiety

Externalizing disorders

psychosocial problems that are manifested in a turning of the symptoms outward, as in aggression or delinquency

Learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

IPV Perpetrators

Wide range of social classes and occupationsBut perpetrator characteristics are better predictors of IPV than victim characteristics Three Subtypes 1. Family-only 2. Dysphoric borderline 3. Generally violent-antisocial

Quid pro quo

something given in exchange or return for something else

RAPE

Definition and Prevalence -In 2011, the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation revised its definition of rape as follows: "Penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim." -In this chapter, we primarily discuss rape of cisgender women by cisgender men and include data about transgender people when available Impact of Rape -Many studies have examined the psychological responses of women following rape -Compared with women who have not been raped, women who have been raped are more likely to experience anxiety, depression, suicide ideation and attempts, and posttraumatic stress disorder -Moreover, these behaviors will do nothing to prevent the most likely kind of rape—acquaintance rape Rapists -Who is the typical rapist? -One factor is growing up in a hostile or violent home environment -Another factor is delinquency -Sexual promiscuity is also a factor that predisposes men to rape -Having a hostile masculine personality is another factor -That is, a man who has several of the risk factors listed above, but who also is sensitive to the needs and feelings of others and isn't focused solely on himself, is less likely to rape than a man who has the risk factors and lacks empathy and is self-centered Causes of Rape -A number of theoretical views of rape have been proposed, most of which focus on men's rape of women -Many of the theories of rape fall into the following categories: 1. Victim-precipitated 2. Psychopathology of rapists 3. Feminist 4. Social disorganization. -For example, in the United States, research has documented widespread acceptance of rape myths, which are false beliefs about rape, rape victims, and rapists -These myths, shown in Table 14.1, include victim precipitation, victim fabrication, and victim masochism -Rape culture refers to a set of cultural attitudes and beliefs about gender and sexuality—for example, that it is natural and normal for men to be sexually aggressive and that rape is inevitable -Rape myths also shape our sexual scripts, which may be another factor in rape -The peer group can have a powerful influence encouraging men to rape -In some cases, miscommunication between men and women may be a factor -To prevent miscommunication about sexual interest, some people advocate for affirmative consent, in which partners explicitly and voluntarily agree to have sexual relations with one another rather than assume or infer it based on nonverbal cues Prevention -How can we prevent rape from occurring? -Communicate your limits clearly -Be assertive -Trust your instincts -Respond physically -Awareness-based programs aim to create community change by raising people's awareness of the prevalence of rape and sexual assault -Empathy-based programs focus on increasing the audience's empathy by improving their understanding of experiences and outcomes for rape victims -Social norms-based programs encourage individuals to question the gendered norms that support gender-based violence such as rape -Skills-based programs aim to empower and teach people, especially women, skills that might reduce their risk of being victimized -Bystander intervention programs encourage people to intervene actively if they see violence occurring -Direct tactics involve directly intervening by stepping into a situation to stop violence or speaking up when sexist statements such as rape myths are repeated -Distraction tactics involve distracting the potential rapist and removing the potential victim from harm -Delegation tactics involve multiple people working together to de-escalate a potentially violent situation -Finally, delay tactics, which are more reactive and are used after violence has occurred, focus on providing support and accessing resources for victims -At that point, we must consider ways to help victims recover and prevent rapists from reoffending Treatment -Once a rape has occurred, how can we help the victim and treat the rapist so that he does not repeat his offense? Treating Victims -Women respond to being raped in diverse ways, and there is no one "right" or "normal" way to respond to this kind of trauma -This cognitive-behavioral approach has been effective in reducing both PTSD and depression symptoms in rape victims Treating Rapists -After committing rape, perpetrators are in need of treatment, not just punishment -The standard treatment for incarcerated sex offenders is called risk-need-responsivity, or RNR -Risk refers to treating people who are likely to reoffend, and need refers to the strength of the person's need to commit the crime -Responsivity refers to applying a treatment that is best matched to the characteristics of the offender. Just as with treating rape victims, cognitive-behavioral therapy is the commonly accepted treatment for rapists -Does he continue to rape? An Alternative: Restorative Justice -Traditional methods of handling rape in the criminal justice system have three serious flaws: They often treat the crime as minor and do nothing to halt men who are embarking on a career of sexual offending, those rapists who are punished are not held accountable in a way that will reduce their threat of offending again in the future, and the processes traumatize victims and their families -Mary Koss and her colleagues have pioneered an alternative approach to the treatment of both rapists and victims, known as restorative justice -Koss's program involves conferencing, in which a highly structured and supervised meeting occurs between the victim, her family, and the responsible person, but no attorneys -In addition, 90% of all participants reported that they felt listened to, supported, and treated fairly and with respect and that they believed that the restorative justice conference was successful

ADDRESSING THE MENTAL HEALTH NEEDS OF PEOPLE OF COLOR

Access to mental health services has long been a privilege of middle- and upper-middle-class White people, and the services have been designed to meet their needs These are important new directions for feminist therapy in the next decade

DEPRESSION

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, at least five of the following symptoms must be present for at least 2 weeks for a diagnosis of depression: -Depressed, sad, empty, or hopeless mood -Loss of interest or pleasure in all or nearly all activities -Significant increase or decrease in appetite and/or weight -Sleeping too much or too little -Psychomotor agitation or retardation -Fatigue or loss of energy -Feelings of worthlessness or inappropriate guilt -Difficulty concentrating or making decisions -Thinking about death, suicidal ideation, or even attempting suicide -These are the classic, defining symptoms of depression Gender Differences -No matter how you count it, more women than men are depressed -Newer theories of depression, such as the ABC model, must integrate multiple factors to explain gender differences in depression The ABC Model -The ABC model is illustrated in Figure 15.1 -Let's consider each of them Affective vulnerability -The A stands for affective vulnerability -Those girls with higher negative emotionality are more vulnerable to depression Biological vulnerabilities -The B is for biological vulnerabilities -Thus, early puberty is a risk factor for depression, regardless of gender Cognitive vulnerabilities -C is for cognitive vulnerabilities -Negative cognitive style is rooted in the hopelessness theory of depression, formulated by psychologist Lyn Abramson and her colleagues -Psychologist Susan Nolen-Hoeksema introduced a second type of cognitive vulnerability to depression: rumination, which refers to the tendency to think repetitively about one's depressed mood or about the causes and consequences of negative life events -Thus, body surveillance and the cultural forces that create it contribute to the gender difference in depression Negative life events -We have described the three categories of vulnerabilities to depression: affective, biological, and cognitive -An increasing proportion of those living below the poverty line are women or women and their children, a phenomenon known as the feminization of poverty -It is clear that the higher rates of poverty among women contribute to the higher incidence of depression in women Summary -We have looked at the three categories of factors—affective, biological, and cognitive—proposed by the ABC model to make a person vulnerable to depression when faced with negative life events -While humans are very adaptable and many overcome significant challenges, there are also many ways and reasons that we may develop disorders like depression

Causes of Rape: Theories

1. Victim-precipitated model 2. Psychopathology of rapists theory 3. Feminist perspective 4. Social disorganization theory

Violence against LGBTQ Community

2017 was the deadliest year on record for the LGBTQ community in the U.S. -86% increase in hate killings from the previous year Transgender individuals have become more visible -Transgender people, especially trans women of color, face significant barriers to their health and safety Approximately 0.6% of U.S. adults identify as transgender -In 2017 NCAVP reported 27 homicides of transgender women Approximately half of transgender people will experience sexual violence at some point in their lives 44% of lesbians and 61% of bisexual women experience rape, physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner, compared with 35% of heterosexual women More barriers to disclosure of sexual violence 66% LGBTQ survivors said police were indifferent or hostile when reporting Approximately half of LGBTQ survivors turned away from emergency shelter, 71% denied services

Feminist critique of DSM

All in all, the run-up to the DSM-5 has set off another crisis of legitimacy for psychiatry, one more far-reaching than earlier ones This time, however, feminist concerns have not featured prominently in the popular press Feminist scholars have continued to voice strong criticisms of several diagnoses However, these diagnoses are not the ones that have been targeted in the mass media Even though women remain the primary consumers of mental health care, as well as psychoactive drugs, women are not identified as a 'vulnerable' group This lack of attention to feminist concerns was part of the impetus for this special issue The articles you will read here underscore our continuing stake in psychiatric diagnosis They also widen the scope of feminist critique and offer new conceptual and methodological tools for our critical projects

Prevalence of Gender-Based Violence

Around the world, one-third of women have been physically assaulted, subjected to coerced sexual activity, or suffered severe emotional abuse In 2012, approximately 87,400 women were victims of homicide worldwide Over half of all female murder victims were killed by a current or former partner Rape and violence against women is widespread in war zones and refugee camps

SEXISM AND PSYCHOTHERAPY

As the second wave of feminism emerged in the late 1960s, psychotherapists and the institution of psychotherapy became the object of sharp attacks for sexism To answer that question, let's examine the research on gender bias in diagnosis and gender bias in treatment Gender Bias in Diagnosis -Clinicians' diagnoses of women seeking therapy may be influenced by gender stereotypes -And on an institutional level, we must be vigilant about the ways that gender stereotypes and values can affect the very diagnostic categories that are officially available Gender Bias in Treatment -Gender bias in psychotherapy may occur in a number of forms, some of them blatant and some of them quite subtle: A client's concerns are conceptualized stereotypically -For example, the therapist may assume that a woman's problems will be solved by getting married to a man or becoming a better wife -Or the therapist may expect lesbian and gay relationships to mimic heterosexual relationships with regard to masculine and feminine roles -The therapist uses essentialist, gender-difference beliefs in working with clients -For example, in viewing women as especially competent at relationships and less competent in the world of work, the therapist may fail to help the client construct a vision of herself that transcends traditional gender roles -The therapist misuses the power of the therapist role -This may include using diagnosis as a means of categorizing and controlling a client and viewing a client who disagrees with the therapist's interpretations as being "difficult." -Seduction of a female client is one of the worst abuses of a therapist's power -Psychoanalysis is a system of therapy based on Freud's theory -Reflecting on how psychoanalysis has evolved in response to feminist critique, Chodorow stated, "I've learned that from my feminist medical-psychiatric colleagues, that being aware of one's body and bodily sexuality does not mean that anatomy is destiny, as Freud put it"

Making a Difference

Challenging the "Crazy Woman Stereotype" The idea that women are mentally ill is prominent in this culture Pay attention to the examples you see and challenge them Consider becoming an advocate for women with psychological disorders NAMI: National Alliance on Mental Illness Provides support, education, advocacy and research to help individuals diagnosed with mental illness Promoting Psychological Well-being among Women Consider the sociocultural context of women's stress Encourage clients to seek relief through social change

Child Sexual Abuse

Child Sexual Abuse: coercive sexual interaction between child and adult Children are dependent on others and therefore vulnerable Most often abused by someone they know and trust Worldwide data: 20% of women and 5-10% of men report experiencing CSA as a child US data: Over twenty-five percent of US women experience sexual abuse during childhood Family members and family friends responsible for about 90% of child rapes Older male relatives, brothers, fathers or stepfathers are the leading abusers of girls within the family = Abusive families tend to be emotionally distant, unaffectionate, strongly patriarchal, and have a lot of conflict among family members May negatively impact a child's emotional, cognitive and social development Survivors face increased risk of psychological disorders including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, sexual dysfunction, personality disorders, suicidal or self-injurious behavior, and substance abuse Majority of adult women survivors say it has negatively & significantly impacted their entire lives

Disorders that are diagnosed more often in women & reasons as to why that is happening

Depressive disorders account for close to 41.9% of the disability from neuropsychiatric disorders among women compared to 29.3% among men Leading mental health problems of the older adults are depression, organic brain syndromes and dementias A majority are women An estimated 80% of 50 million people affected by violent conflicts, civil wars, disasters, and displacement are women and children Lifetime prevalence rate of violence against women ranges from 16% to 50% At least one in five women suffer rape or attempted rape in their lifetime Depression, anxiety, psychological distress, sexual violence, domestic violence and escalating rates of substance use affect women to a greater extent than men across different countries and different settings Pressures created by their multiple roles, gender discrimination and associated factors of poverty, hunger, malnutrition, overwork, domestic violence and sexual abuse, combine to account for women's poor mental health There is a positive relationship between the frequency and severity of such social factors and the frequency and severity of mental health problems in women Severe life events that cause a sense of loss, inferiority, humiliation or entrapment can predict depression Up to 20% of those attending primary health care in developing countries suffer from anxiety and/or depressive disorders In most centres, these patients are not recognized and therefore not treated Communication between health workers and women patients is extremely authoritarian in many countries, making a woman's disclosure of psychological and emotional distress difficult, and often stigmatized When women dare to disclose their problems, many health workers tend to have gender biases which lead them to either over-treat or under-treat women Research shows that there are 3 main factors which are highly protective against the development of mental problems especially depression These are: -having sufficient autonomy to exercise some control in response to severe events -access to some material resources that allow the possibility of making choices in the face of severe events -psychological support from family, friends, or health providers is powerfully protective

Feminist Critique of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

Diagnosis is a subjective process Gender, race, and social class influence whether a behavior is viewed as normal Diagnostic process is categorical rather than dimensional May imply that all individuals diagnosed with a certain disorder are "the same" May not capture the complexity of human behavior DSM lists diagnoses that are widely argued Gender Dysphoria Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder

EATING DISORDERS

Disordered eating behaviors are common among adolescent girls and adult women Here we focus on anorexia and bulimia, which are well researched and overwhelmingly more common among women, with gender ratios of 10:1 Anorexia Nervosa -When asked if she had a personal motto, the supermodel Kate Moss famously replied, "Nothing tastes as good as skinny feels" -Anorexia nervosa is a disorder in which one essentially starves oneself -They also tend to resist any treatment or psychotherapy, convinced that such efforts will only make them fat Bulimia Nervosa -Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by episodes of binge-eating large amounts of food while feeling a lack of control over eating, followed by purging behaviors, such as self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or other medications, fasting, or excessively exercising -They may also develop problems with their stomach, heart, and bones, and may even die from complications of the disorder Causes of Eating Disorders -Many factors have been proposed as causes of or risk factors for eating disorders, including biological factors, personal traits such as perfectionism and low self-esteem, traumatic life events, and a culture that is obsessed with thinness -Many feminists have linked this thin-ideal internalization to objectified body consciousness and our culture's obsession with thinness Feminist Perspective -The feminist perspective emphasizes the socialization practices and media messages of our society over the pathology of the individual -Stice's results with the high school sample indicated significant support for every link in the model, and other studies have shown similar findings Treatments for Eating Disorders -For people with eating disorders, three treatments have been used: cognitive-behavioral therapy, family-based therapy, and antidepressants -Cognitive-behavioral therapy is a frequently used therapy for people with eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia -Data on outcomes of people with bulimia are only slightly better Prevention of Eating Disorders -Of course, it would be far better to prevent eating disorders rather than to treat them after they have developed -Peer-led interventions for college women in sororities have also been effective

Why are anxiety disorders more prevalent among women?

Display rules: Expressing fear is socially acceptable for women Agoraphobia Traditionally, women have been socialized to refrain from asserting themselves in public Agoraphobia is linked to safety fears that are more prevalent for women Specific phobias: 75-90% of individuals with natural environment and animal phobias are women

Consequences of Harassment

Economic consequences: Data in the US suggest that there are substantial economic costs associated with harassment, including costs associated with lost productivity, use of sick leave, and quitting Psychological consequences Self doubt, confusion, guilt Mental health consequences The more severe the harassment, the more likely it will cause psychological damage

Gender-Based Violence: Our Century's Greatest Injustice

Estimated more than 100 million women and girls are missing around the world, and each year, two million more disappear

Alcohol Use Disorders

Far more men are diagnosed with alcohol use disorder than women For that reason: Until 1995, studies of alcohol use disorders consisted of all-male participants Yet, alcohol use has significant consequences for women Women metabolize alcohol at a slower rate than men Higher risk of physical consequences Cirrhosis, hepatitis, ulcers, high blood pressure•Heavy drinking increases mortality rates Associated with higher risk of breast cancerWhat do we know about alcohol use in women? Heavy drinking almost always precedes development of alcohol use disorder Prevalence rates of heavy drinking among women is on the rise Progression of alcohol use disorders among women Cultural impact 11% of Native American girls and women engage in heavy drinking

ALCOHOL- AND SUBSTANCE-USE DISORDERS

Gender and Alcohol-Use Disorder -Each year in the United States, alcohol causes nearly 107,000 deaths, from car crashes to liver disease -Alcohol-use disorder is characterized not only by excessive alcohol use, but also by the associated failure to fulfill major role obligations -And because alcohol-use disorder is stereotyped as a "masculine" problem, women with alcohol-use disorder stand a good chance of being overlooked Causes of Gender Differences in Alcohol-Use Disorder -Heavy drinking almost always precedes and often predicts the development of alcohol-use disorder, and more men than women are heavy drinkers -According to this explanation, women may learn to moderate its use, thereby avoiding becoming problem drinkers Predictors of Alcohol-Use Disorder in Women -Many factors may contribute to the development of alcohol-use disorder in women, including genetic factors, a history of childhood adversity, having a mood disorder, and having a spouse or partner who has a drinking problem -In others, excessive alcohol use may lead a person to make maladaptive choices, the negative effects of which foster the development of depression or anxiety Substance-Use Disorder -Substance-use disorder has a cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological symptoms that develop from a person's excessive use of a substance despite its creating significant problems in their life -Not only do they themselves suffer enormously from dependence on drugs, but also, increasingly, women are being legally charged for damage to a fetus exposed to harmful drugs during a pregnancy

Gender bias in treatment

Gender bias occurs in the treatment of psychological disorders Doctors are more likely to diagnose depression in women compared with men, even when they have similar scores on standardized measures of depression or present with identical symptoms Female gender is a significant predictor of being prescribed mood altering psychotropic drugs Gender differences exist in patterns of help seeking for psychological disorder Women are more likely to seek help from and disclose mental health problems to their primary health care physician while men are more likely to seek specialist mental health care and are the principal users of inpatient care Men are more likely than women to disclose problems with alcohol use to their health care provider Gender stereotypes regarding proneness to emotional problems in women and alcohol problems in men, appear to reinforce social stigma and constrain help seeking along stereotypical lines They are a barrier to the accurate identification and treatment of psychological disorder Despite these differences, most women and men experiencing emotional distress and /or psychological disorder are neither identified or treated by their doctor Violence related mental health problems are also poorly identified Women are reluctant to disclose a history of violent victimization unless physicians ask about it directly The complexity of violence related health outcomes increases when victimization is undetected and results in high and costly rates of utilization of the health and mental health care system

Gender System & Violence against Women

Gender violence is pervasive and mostly hidden, under-reported and underestimated 60% of women worldwide experience some form of violence in their lifetime Not all woman will experience violence; the threat of violence is an important part of daily life for all women "Being born female is dangerous for your health" Gender-linked violence is often justified, condoned or overlooked Officially permitted by the state Laws defending these practices Semiofficial/unofficial terrorism of women Not technically legal, but no enforcement of laws protecting women

SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Gender-based violence includes sexual harassment, which can take a number of forms and occur in a variety of contexts Here we will focus on sexual harassment in the workplace and education Sexual Harassment in the Workplace -Because incidents of sexual harassment differ in the degree of offensiveness and coercion, they can be difficult to define, both in a legal or scholarly sense and in a personal sense -The first is often termed quid pro quo harassment and is captured in points 1 and 2 -One recent and very public example involved Hollywood film executive Harvey Weinstein, who was ousted as the co-chairman of the Weinstein Company after the New York Times and the New Yorker reported that he had, over several decades, sexually harassed and assaulted women in the film industry and paid settlements to keep his accusers quiet -The second part of the definition refers to a hostile environment and is captured in point 3 -A classic example is the landmark Supreme Court case Robinson v. Jacksonville Shipyards -A meta-analysis examining the effects of harmful workplace experiences—including sexual harassment and discrimination—on women found significant negative effects on women's well-being, ranging from lower work satisfaction to poorer physical and mental health Sexual Harassment in Education -In Chapter 7, we briefly discussed peer sexual harassment among adolescents -Sexual harassment is also linked to depression and symptoms of PTSD Perpetrators of Sexual Harassment -Psychologist John Pryor has developed a person X situation model of sexual harassment -Pryor measures men's likelihood to sexually harass by asking them to imagine a series of situations in which they have the opportunity to exploit an attractive woman sexually and experience no negative consequences -Place a man who is high in LSH in that situation and he is likely to harass Feminist Analysis -The feminist analysis makes several points about sexual harassment -The researchers found that, relative to sexual harassment perpetrated by Black men, sexual harassment perpetrated by White men was perceived more negatively and, in turn, led to higher PTSD symptoms

What causes an eating disorder?

Genetic factors Twin studies provide evidence that genetics plays a role in the development of eating disorders Perfectionism Risk factor or vulnerability When combined with stressful event, may lead to development of eating disorder Traumatic life events Individuals with eating disorders are considerably more likely to: -Have a history of childhood sexual abuse -Have been teased by peers for appearance -Societal obsession with thinness

Risk factors for rape

Having friends that are sexually aggressive, witnessing or experiencing violence as a child, alcohol or drug use, and being exposed to social norms, shared beliefs, that support sexual violence

PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICE WITH TRANS PEOPLE

In Chapter 7, we introduced the topic of trans-affirmative practice, which is care that is respectful, aware, and supportive of the identities and life experiences of transgender and gender nonconforming people As psychologists, our goal is to promote psychological well-being among all people, and therefore it is part of our ethical responsibility to provide trans-affirmative care

The Broverman Study

Male-as-normative principle: The standards for human health are for males Females represent a deviation from the norm Socially desirable personality characteristics assigned to men an undesirable traits to women

Violence and the Media

Media normalizes and condones violence against women, by deemphasizing perpetrators and consequences More likely to use the passive voice to describe crimesby male perpetrators Taking emphasis away from the male perpetrator's acts makes him appear less responsible for his behavior. Instead focus is on the woman, "What did she do to bring on this attack?" From 2004 - 2009, general TV violence increased only 2%; but storylines featuring a female victim increased 120% Exposure to media violence is related to increased aggressive emotions, thoughts and behavior in children and adolescents Long-term, violent video game use was positively associated with rape supportive attitudes

Impact of IPV on Children

Men who are violent towards partner are more likely to be hostile and aggressive toward children and display less positive parenting behaviors Children and adolescents who are exposed to IPV demonstrate signs of trauma.Intergenerational transmission of IPV: Children exposed to IPV in the home may grow up to perpetrate or be victimized by IPV Triples the chances

Rape-Prone Societies

Societies in which: 1. The occurrence of rape is high 2. Rape is connected to expressions of masculinity 3. Rape is viewed as an acceptable tool for punishing and controlling women

Broverman Study

This study attempted to evaluate the progress of mental health professionals regarding sex-role stereotyping in clinical functioning, identified as a problem over 10 years ago by Broverman et al. A comparable format and questionnaire were used in order to replicate faithfully the earlier study and facilitate past-present comparisons One hundred four psychiatrists, psychologists, and social workers were randomly assigned to three instruction-set conditions in completing the Stereotype Questionnaire: sexunspecified adult instruction set, female instruction set, and male instruction set. No significant differences were found related to sex of clinician A significant effect was found for social desirability and what was judged as healthy for sex-unspecified adults No significant relationship was found, however, for social desirability of traits and conventional sex-role stereotypes Based on the results of this study it is possible to speculate either that the Boverman results were primarily an artifact of their forced-choice methodology or that progress has been made in a more nonsexist direction among mental health professionals Limitations of this research are presented and considered relative to the Brovermans' study The basically attitudinal nature of this work is noted and the question is raised as to whether nonsexist attitudes are translated into nonsexist clinical functioning

Sexual assault myths

Victims cause the violence that has happened to them There is no reason for a victim not to report being raped to law enforcement Victims provoke sexual assaults when they dress provocatively or act in a promiscuous manner If a person goes to someone's room, house, or goes to a bar, he/she assumes the risk of sexual assault. If something happens later, he/she can't claim that he/she was raped or sexually assaulted because he/she should have known not to go to those places It's not sexual assault if it happens after drinking or taking drugs Most sexual assaults are committed by strangers. It's not rape if the people involved knew each other Rape can be avoided if people avoid dark alleys or other "dangerous" places where strangers might be hiding or lurking It's only rape if the victim puts up a fight and resists Sexual assault is often the result of miscommunication or a mistake Sexual assault won't happen to me or to anyone I know Sexual assault is provoked by the victim's actions, behaviors, or by the way they dress Most sexual assaults occur between strangers Sexual assaults only occur in dark alleys and isolated areas Women falsely accuse men of sexual assault or "cry rape." Men cannot be sexually assaulted Most sexual assaults are interracial People who commit sexual assaults are mentally ill, abnormal perverts Victims who do not fight back have not been sexually assaulted A rape survivor will be battered, bruised, and hysterical "If you wouldn't have been drinking, you wouldn't have been sexually assaulted." Serial rapists are uncommon When women say no, they really mean yes If a person is aroused s/he is assaulted, then it is not really sexual assault

Why is depression more prevalent among women?

Vulnerability-Stress Theory Biological vulnerability Affective vulnerability Cognitive vulnerabilities Negative cognitive style Rumination Negative life events: interacts with or activates existing vulnerabilities to depression Violence and poverty Experience of violence closely linked to depression Feminization of poverty: increasing trend over time for women to be overrepresented among the poor in the United States Related to factors such as: managing single parent households, facing inadequate child support payments, lack of affordable childcare, low paying jobs Significant association between poverty and mental health problems Traditional female gender roles predispose women to depression by encouraging them to feel and act helpless Passivity is socialized Women lack social power Theory of Learned Helplessness: When people feel as though they cannot do anything to change their situation, they give up Learn to be helpless/powerless = Depression "Doing gender" = Silencing of the self Needs of others are put first Defer needs to others = Depression

Prevalence of Rape

Within the US: 116,645 rapes in 2014 Most rapes are committed by acquaintances Far less likely to be reported compared to those committed by stranger Rape is one form of gender-based violence A woman has an 18.3% chance of being the victim of rape Nearly one in five women have been raped at some point in their lives Alarmingly prevalent among sexual minority and trans population Rape victims and perpetrators may be any gender

Rate of Diagnosis

Women more likely than men to talk about mental health disorders Women are more likely to seek out mental health services than men Asking for help/seeking care is more consistent with female gender role Gender stereotypes May affect how distress is expressed/experienced May influence how symptoms are responded to by others Some disorders may simply occur more frequently among women

Hostile work environment

a form of sexual harassment in which unwelcome and demeaning sexually related behavior creates an intimidating and offensive work environment