Psychology Paper 2
Rosenhan's conclusion
- "We can not distinguish the sane from the insane in psychiatric hospitals" - He felt hospital environment created situational factors, leading to people being seen as insane.
Features of OCD
- 1-3% affected by it - 30% have no clear triggers - 30% show significant improvement after therapy, 40% moderate improvement and 30% no improvement - 30% have depression and at risk of suicide
Heston (1966) results and conclusion
- 10% of adopted children of schizophrenic mothers developed schizophrenia - Therefore, there's a genetic link
Pots (2004) procedure
- 12 week randomised clinical trials - 112 volunteers with OCD, age 7-17 - Randomly allocated to one of four groups - CBT alone (14 1hr sessions) - Medical management with SSRI drug (first 6 weeks, weekly appointment and then fortnightly) - Combined treatment - Control, placebo pill
Loftus and Palmer Experiment 2 procedure
- 150 pariticipants shown one minute film included short scene of car accident 3 conditions: - 50 asked, 'How fast were the cars going when they hit eachother?' - 50 asked, 'How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?' - 50 asked nothing - After a week participants called back in and asked if they saw any broken glass
Heston (1966) methods
- 47 adults who had been adopted at birth because their mothers had schizophrenia - 47 adults whose mothers were mentally healthy. - Assessed to see if they had developed schizophrenia. - If there was genetic link, expect 10% to develop schizophrenia.
Gottesman and Shields (1966) results
- 75% of monozygotic twins both had severe schizophrenia - 22% of dizygotic twins both had severe schizophrenia - Sig. difference between MZ and DZ twins concordance for schizophrenia - Greater similarity in female twins
Advantages of adoption studies
- Controls extraneous variables of environment - Twin studies have been shown to overestimate genetics
Advantages of matched pairs
- Controls participant variables - Avoids order effect - Less chance of demand characteristics
Advantages of repeated measures
- Controls participant variables - Fewer participants needed
Advantages of Opportunity Sampling
- Convenient and quick - Only option if can't list whole population
Orbital Frontal Cortex's role in OCD
- Creates an anxious response and promotes checking behaviour
HCPC Guidelines 2009
- Criminal convictions must be revealed and character reference required - If health affects judgement, should be declared - Standards of proficiency - Standards of conduct, performance and ethics; confidentiality maintained - Standards for continual professional development - Standards of education and training; have BPS qualification in area of practice - Standards for prescribing
Weaknesses of DSM
- Culture-bound tool, uses western measures but culture bound illnesses have now been added - Assumes a medical model to diagnosis but Laing argues mental illness is more an issue with society - Reductionist; Compartmentalises a patient into a diagnosis rather than a person with an illness
Advantages of overt observation
- Participants can give consent - Observer can be noticeable
advantages of correlational research
- View relationship between two continuous co-variables - Permits preliminary analysis
Disadvantages of Volunteer Sampling
- Volunteer bias (highly motivated) - More likely to respond to demand characteristics
Internal validity
- Whether a test/study does measure what it intended to measure. - May be extraneous variables
Skills acquisition
- acquiring social skills with reduce rates of offence - combination of modelling, instruction, role play and rehearsal. - Often based on controlling anger and learning to manage it
Disadvantages of a mean
- affected by extreme values - only uses interval data
Disadvantages of lab experiments
- contrived situation, behaviour may not be natural - Demand characteristics
Advantages of the range
- convenient - easy to calculate
Evidence for stress and arousal
- e.g. Valentine and Mesout found that recall was compromised if the individual was overly aroused. Therefore, there would be inconsistencies in eye witness testimony if people have different optimum levels of stress. This cant explain why all participants in the Yuille and Cutshall study recalled so vividly their memories of a real bank robbery.
Cingulate gyrus's role in OCD
- emotion and behaviour - Sorts conflicting information - Hyperactive in OCD
Advantages of peer review
- ensures only high quality work was published - part of scientific process, enables criticism
Advantages of field experiments
- feels more natural - participants not always aware of being studied, avoids demand characteristics
Advantages of lab experiments
- high control, minimises extraneous variables - easy replication
Old interview technique
- interviewer does most of the talking - Closed questions - Witness discouraged from adding - No effort to make witness feel relaxed
Disadvantages of field experiments
- less control, reduces validity - more time consuming - may be ethical issues, e.g. consent
What % of hallucinations are auditory?
74%
Application for eye witness testimony
A Cognitive interview - reinstate state emotional cues to allow for recall.
Application for stress and arousal
A Cognitive interview - reinstate state emotional cues to allow for recall.
Hawthorne effect
A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied
Flashbulb memory
A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event.
Danger
A danger to themselves or others.
Interview
A face-to-face or telephone questioning of a respondent to obtain information.
XYY syndrome
A genetic condition where a man has an extra Y chromosome within the 23rd pair.
internal reliability
A measure of the extent to which something is consistent within itself
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter responsible for directing attention.
What does the DSM allow for?
A reliable diagnosis that matches the diagnostic criteria with the patient's presented symptoms.
Researcher effect
A researcher's expectations may encourage certain behaviours in participants
Opportunity sampling
A sample of whoever happens to be there and agrees to participate
What does the ICD allow for?
A standardised diagnosis
self-fulfilling prophecy
A stereotype that leads someone to act in a manner consistent with the stereotype.
Predictive Validity
A test score should forecast performance on some other measures of the same behaviour.
Cofounding variables
A variable that is not under the experimenter's control. Often not recognised by researcher but can emerge from critical inspection of the study.
Questionnaire
A written set of questions to be answered by a research participant
Confounding variable
An extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure of the true source of the change to the DV.
Stereotyping
An overgeneralised belief about someone or something usually based on little information.
Walsh and Milne (2010)
Analysed 99 audiotapes of interviews with benefit fraud suspects. Although questioning was better when the officer was trained using ethical interviews there were flaws; lacked planning and rapport building.
What biological drives might be reduced by Non-anti androgens?
Androgen and gonadotropin.
Medication used in OCD
Anti-anxiety medication; beta blockers and antidepressants
What can anti-psychotic medication deteriorate?
Anti-psychotic medication can deteriorate grey matter
High neuroticism scores
Anxious, depressed, react very strongly to aversive stimuli and high levels of instability.
Social Norm
Any behaviour that deviates from what is acceptable in society
Statistical Norm
Any behaviour that is statistically significant from others
Criminal behaviour
Any overt or covert law breaking conduct in a. given country, punishable upon conviction.
Phineas Gage
Had damage to his frontal lobe, limbic system and caudate nucleus, displayed aggressive and antisocial behaviour.
positive symptoms of schizophrenia
Hallucinations, delusions and thought disorders
Thalamus role in OCD
Responsible for relaying messages to cerebral cortex.
Two forms of labelling
Retrospective, someones past or projective, predicting a future outcome
Cognitive interviewing suspect's rights
Right to remain silent
Clinical Classic study
Rosenhan (1973)
Pedersen & Mortensen (2001)
Rural areas have a 1% relative risk of schizophrenia, whereas capital cities have a relative risk of 2.3%.
What section of the ICD is for mental health disorders?
Section F
Which diagnostic tool uses guidelines?
ICD, the DSM uses criteria
Criminal classic study
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Evidence for post event information
Loftus and Palmer found that participants were impacted by leading questions e.g. smashed and hit. This shows that ewt can be a confabulation and therefore there may not be consistency of recall between those who have witnessed a crime.
Asch Experiment
Looked at 123 students and found that they conformed to the majority of a group go stooges to an obviously wrong answer, therefore, jury influence by other members of jury.
Meyer et al. (1992)
Looked at 40 men treated with MPA for paedophilia. Treatment lasted 6 months to 12 years. Treatment group reoffended 18% compared to 35% in control group.
Baldwin police interviews
Looked at 400 videos and 200 taped interviews and found low standards, no rapports, trying to get a confession, interrupting suspect and aggression.
How do atypical antipsychotics work?
Loosely bind to dopamine receptors and block serotonin receptors.
Side effects of anti anxiety medication
Low blood pressure, low sex drive and nausea
Stability
Low reactivity in sympathetic nervous system and calm.
Geilselman study's limitations
Low-stake environment in his study.
Difference in upper class and lower class care for schizophrenia
Lower class are more likely to be brought in by police/social services and admitted as long-term compulsory patients. Whereas, upper class are more likely to choose private care.
How does biological treatment for OCD effect self esteem?
Lowers self esteem as individuals realise they have no control over their disorder.
Effect of too much dopamine
Makes the brain overactive, leading to disordered thinking, racing and unrelated thoughts, paranoia and other delusions and hallucinations. (symptoms of schizophrenia)
What gender is schizophrenia more common amongst?
Males
External validity
Whether the results can be verbalised if conducted in a different environment or using different participants
Construct validity
Whether the test or method can be used to support the underlying theoretical constructs concerning the variable that it is supposed to be measuring.
Where does ACT's appropriateness lie?
With preventing relapse, it allows close monitoring of patients.
Weapon effect
Witnesses often focus on a weapon at the expense of other details such as face or clothes.
Why can there be problems with eye witness testimony?
Witnessing a criminal event could be very stressful. Studies on the effect of stress and arousal suggest that we perform better at medium levels of arousal in comparison to high or very low levels of arousal.
Average age for working class and upper class to develop schizophrenia
Working class- 33 Upper class- 24
directional hypothesis
a hypothesis that makes a specific prediction about the direction of the relationship between two variables
Eye witness
a person who has seen someone or something and can communicate these facts
Implicit bias
a positive or negative mental attitude towards a person, thing, or group that a person holds at an unconscious level
Participant observation
a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities.
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
cross-sectional study
a study which compares sections of the population
Null hypothesis
the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between two variables, any observed difference being due to chance.
Median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
Yerkes-Dodson Law
the psychological principle stating that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than either low or high arousal.
independent variable
variable that is manipulated
OCD
an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions)
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.
What biological drives may be reduced by anti androgens?
anti-androgen, anti-gonadotropic, pro-gestational effects
Extraneous variables
any variable other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable.
Reconviction rate in UK
64%
Cingulotomy
Burns lesions in cingulate gyrus with electrodes to reduce OCD symptoms.
Examples of typical antipsychotics
Chlorpromazine and Haloperidol
ICD Axis 3
Circumstantial and personal life factors
DSM Axis 1
Clinical disorder
ICD Axis 1
Clinical syndromes
What crimes is CBT suitable for?
Drug related, violent and juvenile offenders.
PEN personality
Psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism
Rosenhan's initial study procedure
- 8 pseudo patients, were observers inc. psychologists, psychiatrist and housewife. - Each prevented themselves at a psychiatric hospital with symptom of hearing an unclear same sex voice saying 'empty', 'hollow' and 'thud' - Those involved in medicine etc. gave fake professions - Behaved normally after initial nerves - Behaved sane to be released
Carlsson et al (1999) results
- A lot of evidence supporting the role of low levels of glutamate in development of psychotic symptoms - PCP users have been found to be more likely to result in having psychosis, as inhibits glutamate. - Failure of glutamate in cereal cortex leads to negative symptoms and failure in basal ganglia leads to positive symptoms. - Clozapine, blocks dopamine receptors is effective treatment for schizophrenia.
Attractiveness of defendant
- According to Dion et al physically attractive people are assumed to have other attractive properties, this is the halo effect. - Efran (1974) found good looking criminals received lighter sentences unless looks involved in crime e.g. fraud
Disadvantages of the range
- Affected by extreme values - Doesn't reflect distribution
Carlsson et al. (1999) reliability
- All lab experiments, standardised techniques - Brain scans are reliable and replicable - One study cited Laurelle et al. was unpublished at time and therefore hadn't been peer reviewed
POTS Ethics
- All participants and at least one parent gave written consent - Those who had placebo at the end could choose a 'genuine' treatment
Results of Rosenhan's initial experiment
- All psuedo patients were admitted to hospital - 7 diagnosed with schizophrenia and 1 with bipolar - Length of hospitalisation: 7-52 days - Average- 19 days - When released said to have 'schizophrenia in remission' - 30% suspected as pseudopatients
How and why do they use accounts in ethical interviews?
- Allows suspect to put their account of events forwards - Does not use leading questions/dishonest methods to gain information
Weaknesses of ICD
- Assumes a medical model to treatment, doesn't take socio-economic factors into account - Reductionist; categorises symptoms - Culture-bound to western culture
Results of Rosenhan's follow up study
- At least 1 member of staff, wrongly reported with high confidence, that 41/193 patients were fake - One psychiatrist diagnosed 22/193 with high confidence
Disadvantages of Opportunity Sampling
- Biased because only drawn from a part of the target population - Refusal means it becomes a volunteer sample
How could an experimenter impact research?
- Biased interpretation of research - Demand characteristics - Hawthorne effect
What does a hypothesis need to contain?
- Both conditions of IV - DV - Word 'significant' - Difference, relationship or association
How and why do they use closure in ethical interviews?
- Brings the interview to a good conclusion to avoid distress and remain rapport - Allows the suspect to remain calm when returning to cell/release
How and why do they engage and explain in ethical interviews?
- Build rapport with suspect - Tell them what to expect - Prevents animosity - Reduces fear and anxiety in suspect
Appropriateness of CBT
- CBT may only be appropriate for offenders who have a direct trigger for their crimes e.g. anger. However, it may be more difficult to treat individuals who commit complex crimes e.g. Fraud - Similarly, Cannon found that the treatment is less effective for females than males as it was found that CBT has little impact on female offenders. -That said, it has been seen as appropriate for juvenile offenders
Ethical issues with antipsychotic medication
- Can be given to people without their consent - Pharmaceutical companies have been accused of only being interested in making money
Advantages of Cross-cultural research
- Can study nature vs nurture - Takes psychology beyond middle-class behaviour
During trial factors
- Characteristics of defendant - Race of defendant - Witness confidence - Accent of defendant
Gottesman and Shields (1966) conclusion
- Closer genetic relationship, greater likelihood of both twins developing schizophrenia - But not a 100% concordance rate, so not entirely genetic cause for schizophrenia
Loftus and Palmer application
- Cognitive interviews, don't use leading questions
Advantages of Volunteer Sampling
- Committed participants - Specialised group
Advantages of animal lab studies
- Conditioning processes are the same in all animals - Fewer ethical issues - Easier to study complex behaviours over generations
BPS 1993 guidelines
- Consent - Deception - Debriefing - Withdrawal - Confidentiality - Protection of participants - Observational research - Giving advice - Colleagues
Gottesman and Shields (1966) validity
- Construct validity, ties in with Rosenthal's diathesis-stress model - The twins' illnesses might be nothing to do with schizophrenia - for example, having to care for a mentally ill twin is stressful and depressing, but that doesn't necessarily make you schizophrenic too.
Evidence for 4Ds
- Danger is useful measure of mental illness as there's clear evidence; 50% of individuals who commit suicide were diagnosed with major depressive disorder - Deviance is useful measure of mental illness because a 2011-2013 US study showed that 26.5% of US prisoners are diagnosed with mental illness BUT then majority of people with mental illness don't end up incarcerated
Method of thematic analysis
- Deductive - Researcher starts with pre-set themes - Usually generated by previous research/studies - Researcher usually wants to see whether the aim of the data are consistent with the previous theoretical standpoint
Disadvantages of overt observation
- Demand characteristics
Weaknesses of CBT for offenders
- Designed for male offenders and Cann (2006) found it less appropriate for women - To benefit, offenders must be highly motivated - Problems of low-risk offenders may not be valid for CBT - Cann et al (2003) found after two years after year release advantage of CBT lost
Carlsson et al. (1999) application
- Development of new antipsychotic drugs
Disadvantages of Open Questions Questionnaire
- Difficult to draw conclusions - Subjective intepretation
Weaknesses of psychological formulation
- Difficult to gain all the information - Relies on offender being able to remember all events and willingness to share to psychologist - There may be medical or mental health diagnoses the individual does not know they have
4Ds and reductionism
- Doesn't discuss physical symptoms of mental illness - Good for initial diagnosis - Misses other factors such as circumstance
Weaknesses of 4D's
- Dysfunction is prone to subjectivity, may think avoiding certain things doesn't significantly effect you - Deviance is difficult to measure, as could be deviant such as completely cover yourself I'm tattoo but not have a mental illness
POTS Generalisability
- Each group only 28, so very small - Only generalisable to young people - All from US, ethnocentric
Advantages of quantitative data
- Easier to analyse - More objective
Advantages of Structured Interviews
- Easily repeated - Easy to analyse - Can answer respondent's questions
Advantages of Closed Questions Questionnaire
- Easy to analyse - More objective
Loftus and Palmer validity
- Ecological validity poor, not typical everyday event and had very little emotional impact on participants and emotions often affect memory
Strengths of thematic analysis
- Encourages researcher to derive themes, so achieves better validity - Large data sets, many researchers can apply their interpretation to the data
Disadvantages of fMRI scans
- Expensive - Person has to stay very still - Time lag may cause interpretation difficulities
Things that can affect internal validity
- Experimenter bias - Experimental design - Demand characteristics
Aims of psychological formulation
- Explain why offender committed the crime - Reduce the risk of reoffending - Establish whether it is safe to release the offender - Identify the skills needed by the offender so they don't reoffend
Valentine and Mesout (2009) conclusion
- Eyewitness identification is impaired under conditions of high anxiety - Memory's negatively impacted by increased psychological arousal
Key Question AO1 Criminal
- Eyewitness testimony is information given to the police or in court about what a witness to a crime recalls about the crime. - Juries tend to rely on eye witness testimony when coming to a verdict, especially if the forensic evidence is hard to follow. - If there is no forensic evidence then the testimony of the witness becomes more important. - If the witnesses are not accurate in their recall then the wrong person could be convicted.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conclusion
- Eyewitnesses aren't as inaccurate as lab studies suggest - Misleading witnesses wasn't successful - Stress did not affect memory
Gottesman and Shields (1966) Generalisability
- Fairly large sample, range of ages and 50/50 genders - Many twins had been admitted to hospital after WWII, some had been prisoners of war and these traumatic experiences may of triggered the schizophrenia
Valentine and Mesout (2009) results
- Females recalled greater anxiety than men. No difference in trait anxiety. - Participants who reported reduced anxiety could recall more about the scary person. - Those who were above the median for stress only correctly recalled the culprit in 17% of cases. - Those who were below the median were correct in 75% of the cases. - Those who were correct in the line-up showed more confidence.
Rosenhan (1973) validity
- Field experiment so ecologically valid - bias could be usefully employed in making insightful notes within hospitals, but may have an impact on their own behaviour within the wards - Psuedopatients aren't really insane so experiences don't reflect those of real patients
Mednick et al
- Finish birth cohort - Tested hypothesis that viral infection during second trimester of pregnancy would increase risk of developing schizophrenia. - Hospital diagnosis recorded for all individuals in greater Helinski, who were foetuses during the 1957 influenza epidemic. - Found those exposed to viral epidemic during second trimester of pregnancy were at greater risk of being admitted to hospital with schizophrenia.
Advantages of Structured observations
- Focus on specific behaviours and test hypothesis - Easier to make conclusions
Advantages of Open Questions Questionnaire
- Free range for self expression, increases validity - Unexpected answers
How and why do they report everything in cognitive interviews?
- Free recall; allows witness to 'tell their story' and prompt for details of seemingly insignificant memories - Prevents schema activation
Carlsson et al (1999) conclusions
- Further research is needed to develop drugs that treat schizophrenia and avoid negative side effects. - May be different neurotransmitters other than dopamine involved in schizophrenia.
Disadvantages of animal lab studies
- Generalisation may not be justified - Pain may not be justified - Guidelines may not be effective
Strengths of content analysis
- Good for summarizing large quantities of mediated information - Unobtrusive- Does not require interaction with participants - Systematically study historical events/media
Loftus and Palmer reliability
- Good reliability due to controls - Use of filmed crashes is standardised - Cause and effect established
Strengths of psychological formulation
- Help simplify complex information and explain factors influencing the offender's behaviour to other professional - Explain to the offender themselves what led to them committing crime - Support them to make changes - Holistic approach as it looks at all the aspects, helps find effective treatment - Multiagency approach
Disadvantages of CAT scans
- High radiation - No information about activity
Introverts
- Higher levels of cortical activity - Requires less external arousal - Less outgoing - Less likely to be risk taking
Weaknesses of thematic analysis
- Highly subjective data as it requires interpretation, so unscientific - Open to researcher bias, not very reliable
Advantages of qualitative data
- Holistic approach - Free range for expression
Rosenhan's follow-up study
- Hospitals wanted to show this couldn't happen in their workplace - More pseudo patients went in - Staff rated each patient on a scale of 1-10 if they thought they're a pseudo patients
Rosenhan (1973) application
- Huge impact on mental health care universally - Drugs weren't handed out as freely, between 8 participants 2100 drugs handed out - DSM-3 defined mental illness more clearly, schizophrenia symptoms needed to have lasted 1 month before diagnosis
Cognitive preparation CBT
- Identifies triggers of past behaviours - Keep diaries about their feelings - Can be done in a group - Identify trains of thought leading to anger
CBT for OCD
- Identify intrusive thoughts that trigger anxiety and create an anxiety hierarchy. - Discuss how anxiety is diminished by facing fears - Challenges client through hierarchy - Client assesses risk and reality of harm if compulsions aren't activated - Some therapy completed at home to in group
POTS validity
- In report, states it was designed to balance internal and external validity - CY-BOCS has high concurrent validity - High face validity - DSM-VI now outdated
Advantages of meta-analysis
- Increases sample size - Variety of samples
Disadvantages of independent groups
- Individual differences - Needs more participants (time and cost)
Method of grounded theory
- Inductive - Categories/themes that emerge are rounded in the data. - That then creates a theory/explanation
Side effects of anti-androgens
- Infertility - Liver dysfunction - Depression
Side effects of Non-anti androgens
- Infertility - Weight gain - Gastrointestinal dysunctions
Valentine and Mesout (2009) ethics
- Informed consent - Under stress but was voluntary
Carlsson et al. (1999) validity
- Internal validity high by using PET scans as can be rechecked and replicated - Scans may not be valid as participants under stress - Animal studies have different brain structure
Disadvantages of PET scans
- Interpretation difficulties - Can't pinpoint locations - May damage tissue
Disadvantages of Structured Interviews
- Interviewer bias - Respondents may not reveal information face to face
Effectiveness of CBT
- Ireland (2004) used an anger management programme with young offenders. 92% showed improvement in at least one measure of anger. This was based on 50 male young offenders and 37 control offenders. This shows the effective use of CBT on juvenile offenders. That said, it may only work on young offenders because they are more malleable than adult offenders.
self-fulfilling prophecy stages
- Labelling -Treatment based on labelling - Reaction to expectation - Behaves accordingly - Fulfilment of label
Disadvantages of covert observations
- Lack of consent - Invasion of privacy
Advantages of secondary data
- Large data set - Saves time in design and checking
Ethics of CBT
- Less ethical issues compared to drug treatment - Society feels more obliged to help them, as they're seeking help and change
Weaknesses of cognitive interviews
- Less valid for witness - Time consuming - Interviewers can find it hard to be impartial
Disadvantages of Cross-sectional research
- Participant variables not controlled - Participant effects
Carlsson et al (1999) procedure
- Literature review of research and current theory - Reviews research from a variety of sources investigating neurotransmitters in patients with schizophrenia. - Used evidence from brain scans - Abi-Dorgham et al (1988): - Looked into evidence on the use of recreational drugs that are known to induce schizophrenia. - Drew on evidence from studies looking at effectiveness of drug treatments for schizophrenia
How and why do they evaluate in ethical interviews?
- Look back at the aims and outcomes to ensure the interview has gained the required information - Ensures the ethical procedures have been followed
Gottesman and Shields (1966) method
- Looked at patient records from a short-stay psychiatric hospital - 16 year record history 1940's-1960's - 62 patients who had same sex twin and diagnosis of schizophrenia - 50% male and 50% female - Age 19-64 - Both primary and secondary data
Disadvantages of twin studies
- MZ;s treated more similar, may overestimate genetic influence - Can't identify specific genes
Carlsson et al. (1999) ethics
- Many animal studies used and - People given harmful drugs such as amphetamines and PCP
Geilsemen Study
- Matched 2 group of participants; male and female college students. - Had 6 UG research assistants trained in cognitive interview procedure - Each interview had to relate two personal 'life events' one that had occurred in past 3 months and one which had never happened - Interviews had to follow cognitive interviews format and say whether interviewee was lying or giving honest information - He found intervenes found it difficult reversing order of their account in false stories
Disadvantages of Structured observations
- May feel contrived, low ecological validity - Demand characteristics
Disadvantages of standard deviation
- May hide extreme value
Disadvantages of secondary data
- May not exactly fit current aims - May waste time on inappropriate data
Disadvantages of quantitative data
- May restrict expression - Reductionist
Strengths of cognitive interviews
- Memory jogging elements can lead to suspect stating things only perpetrator would know - Trainings not difficult
Disadvantages of non-participant observation
- Misinterpretation - May see less
Disadvantages of Unstructured/Semi-structured Interviews
- More affected by interviews bias - Needs well trained interviewer
Advantages of Unstructured/Semi-structured Interviews
- More detailed information collected - Can reveal unexpected information
Disadvantages of qualitative data
- More difficult to detect patterns - Subjective
Strengths of ethical interviews
- More effective in comparison to standard interviewing - Helps improve public's view of police - Treats suspects with dignity and respect - Innocent until trial
Advantages of covert observations
- More naturalistic behaviour
Advantages of standard deviation
- Most precise, uses all values - Just use calculator
Advantages of Stratified Sampling
- Most representative - Select subgroups, reduces extraneous variables
Advantages of Independent Groups
- No order effect, no fatigue/practice effect - Avoids demand characteristics
What should an ethical interview be?
- Non-judgemental - Not involve coercion - Valid and reliable; triangulation - Honest- no deception - Take special needs into consideration
Weaknesses of grounded theory
- Not possible to generalise findings as specific time-frame with specific participants. - Impossible to code and categorise data without some theory in mind - Not appropriate to ignore previous research to generate a new model or theory. Original question is likely to come from previous research. - Engaged theory is another idea, focus on generating concepts from data but uses existing theory to help analyse.
Advantages of Ranked Scale Questionnaire
- Objective way to express views - Easy to draw conclusions
Advantages of non-participant observation
- Objectivity - Unobtrusive
Disadvantages of participant observation
- Observer bias - Difficult to record behaviour unnoticeably
Disadvantages observing people/animals
- Observer bias - Understanding what people think may be important
Weaknesses of ethical interviews
- Often not used or used effectively - The focus of interview is on gaining truthful or incriminating evidence but this may not be consistent with rapport building - Needs specialist training
Criminal Practical Procedure
- Opportunity sample - Repeated measures - The participants were asked to rating on a scale of 1-9 based on a case scenario and were asked to suggest a sentence for this case. - They were then give pictures for defendants and victims and asked to rated (1-9) number of years they were likely to be sentenced for. - Participants were debriefed and given the right to withdraw. - Wilcoxon
Loftus and Palmer Experiment 1 procedure
- Opportunity sample 45 students - Shown film clips of traffic accidents from safety films, 5-30 seconds long - Participants divided into 5 groups - Each asked question after 'About how fast were the cars going when they ________ (into) eachother' - Gap filled by: - Smashed - Collided - Bumped - Hit - Contacted
Disadvantages of repeated measures
- Order effects, e.g. score improves with practice - May guess aims of the study
How and why do they use planning in ethical interviews?
- Outcomes outlined, time and place set out - Allows officers to keep calm - Allows suspect to prepare
Disadvantages of longitudinal research
- Participant effects - High drop out rates
Rosenhan (1973) ethics
- Participants deceived as lied about symptoms to be seen as mentally ill but necessary for study to work - Participants weren't aware of study so didn't have a right to withdraw though their anonymity was protected
Loftus and Palmer Ethics
- Participants deceived over studies aims - May be upsetting if participant had had car accident
Gottesman and Shields (1966) ethics
- Participants gave consent, however, may not be competent to understand agree to research - Strong social responsibility, may label twins
Pots (2004) findings
- Placebo had highest dropout rate and SSRI drug had lowest. - Best Y-BOC score at 12 weeks best for combined at 11.2 and worst for placebo at 21.5
Savage and Milne (2007) ethical interview process
- Planning - Engage and explain - Account - Closure - Evaluate
Disadvantages of case studies
- Poor generalisability - Recollection from past - Low objectivity - Ethical issues
Key Question Criminal AO3
- Post event information - how does this lead to the unreliability of EWT? - How this supported by Loftus but then give a criticism of Loftus that can be applied to the question. - Weapon focus - supported by Loftus and Pickell but the it may the unusualness of the item that could link to reliability issues. - Stress - provides an understanding of the influence of individual differences in the reliability of EWT. This is supported by Valentine and Mesout. - That said, EWT may well be reliable as a result of flash bulb memories e.g. Yuille and Cutshall found that...
Rosenhan (1973) reliability
- Procedure and investigators; remained constant but pseudo patients didn't follow same standardised procedure - Observers weren't secretive or discrete about making notes - Misdiagnosis was measured on if pseduopatients were admitted or not, objective - But length of stay was subjective to their behaviour
Understanding the functioning of offending (psychological formulation)
- Provides information about why the offender committed the crime, motivation or purpose. - Is this behaviour typical? - How's the crime rewarding? - Helps to understand how to change behaviour?
weaknesses of content analysis
- Purely descriptive method, may not reveal the underlying motives for the observed pattern - Analysis is limited by availability of material, observed trends in media may not be an accurate reflection of reality.
Advantages of case studies
- Rare cases - In-depth data, complex interactions
How and why do they reinstate context in cognitive interviews?
- Recall 'being there'- what do you hear, see, smell? - Provides 'cues' to aid recall from long-term memory
How and why do they change the perspective in cognitive interviews?
- Recall the event from another person's perspective - Produce new 'cues' to aid recall
How and why do they change the order in cognitive interviews?
- Recall the event from start to finish or random points in sequence - Prevents reconstructive memory and schema activation
Geiselmean et al (1985) cognitive interview order
- Reinstate context - Report everything - Change the order - Change the perspective
Strengths of correlation coefficient
- Relationship between variables can be measured - Large amounts of data can be used
Gottesman and Shields (1966) Reliability
- Repeated 2 small scale studies and got similar results - No DNA testing, so zygocity assigning wasn't 100% accurate - In 1950's and 1960's diagnosis used the DSM-1, that defined illness by Freud's psychodynamic theory and classification system has changed 4 times since then
Home office regulations animals
- Replacement, avoid use of animals - Reduction, minimise number of animals used - Refinement, minimise animal suffering and improve welfare
Disadvantages of Cross-cultural research
- Researches often Westerners - Imposed etics (western methods)
Disadvantages of Ranked Scales Questionnaire
- Response set - Social desirability bias
Disadvantages of Closed Questions Questionnaire
- Restricts self expression - Oversimplifies reality
Advantages of Questionnaires
- Reveal thoughts and feelings - Easy data collection - More anonymous than interview
Advantages of CAT scans
- Reveals structural features
Strengths of CBT for offenders
- Review of CBT used by probation service in England and Wales found treatment group re-offended less than controls - Offers alternative to revolving door - Less ethical issues than drug treatment for offenders
Disadvantages of peer review
- Reviewers may not be impartial - Publication bias
Disadvantages of meta-analysis
- Sample bias - Studies may not be comparable
Loftus and Palmer generalisability
- Sample was students so are good at remembering things, not representative of population - May have less driving experience
Disadvantages of Stratified Sampling
- Selection of subgroups may be biased - Lengthy process and some may decline
Disadvantages of adoption studies
- Selective placement - Adoptive parents tend to be better educated etc.
Advantages of PET scans
- Shows brain in action - Can identify specific brain areas linked to behaviours
Advantages of fMRI scans
- Shows brain in action - No radiation, so safer - Clear picture, to the millimetre
Advantages of twin studies
- Shows genetic influences - Twin registries can provide large data sets
Advantages of observing people/animals
- Shows what people do instead of saying what they'd do, higher validity
Loftus and Palmer Experiment 2 conclusion
- Smashed condition gave highest estimate of speed and significantly more likely to report seeing broken glass - Post-event information didn't just cause a biased response but actually altered the person's memory of the event.
Loftus and Palmer Experiment 2 results
- Smashed had highest speed at 10.46mph compared to 8.00mph in hit - 32% in smashed saw broken glass, 14% in hit saw broken glass and 6% in control saw broken glass
Disadvantages of Questionnaires
- Social desirability bias, affects validity - Sample may be biased - Motivation
Examples of key question AO1 Clinical
- Some things such as being gay was once classed as mental illness, until 1973 in DSM. - Lobotomies etc. now not commonly performed to treat mental illness - As attitudes changed, so has funding: in 2019, 181m NHS funding on mental health
Advantages of participant observation
- Special insights - May see more from inside
Ways of checking internal reliability
- Split half method; two forms of same test prepared and you should yield same scores - Inter-rater method; two people conduct observations independently using same measures
POTS reliability
- Standard procedure, strict CBT protocol - 12 pots and clinicians in combined knew it wasn't a placebo - Intensity of combined matched to other groups
Strengths of ICD
- Studies have shown the ICD-10 is a reliable measure of schizophrenia the measured against the DSM-3 - Allows for a diagnosis which allows individuals to gain an understanding of treatment they should follow and progression of their illness
Advantages of longitudinal research
- Studies the effects of age and development - Participant variables controlled
Content analysis
- Study of qualitative data (e.g. pictures, newspapers etc.) - Form of indirect observation - Categories selected from sample - Frequency of each event is then counted
Carlsson et al. (1999) generalisability
- Study was 20 years ago so may be locked in time - 33 studies used so wide range
Advantages of primary data
- Suits aims of study - First hand participants, authentic
Advantages of Cross-sectional research
- Takes less time to study age effects - Enables comparison between groups
Disadvantages of Random Sampling
- Takes time - May be biased if some decline to take part
Disadvantages of primary data
- Takes time and money - May end up with flawed data
Ways of checking external reliability
- Test-retest method; administer same test twice and should yield same results - Replication; an experiment is repeated using same standardised procedure to see if findings are the same
Shortcomings and Strengths for Weapon Effect
- The inconsistency in eye witness recall based weapon focus takes into account the role of nature and nurture in producing accurate memories e.g. we are evolved to be frighten things that threaten our survival and we our upbringing determines how comfortable we are with the presence of weapons. - It also takes into account individual differences because the inconsistency between eye witnesses is dependant on their optimum level of arousal. - That said, it may well be the unusualness of the item and not the threat that could actually cause the inconsistency in recall. Therefore, this explanation may be somewhat reductionist.
Valentine and Mesout (2009) reliability
- The reliability of the study can be said to be strong. e.g. standardised measures This means that the method to measure anxiety and the impact on recall was consistent between participants so was internally reliable. - That said, there may have been inconsistency between participants e.g. the attention they paid as they were on a fun day out - However, there were good controls e.g. the same actor and direction that participants went in the dungeon
Valentine and Mesout (2009) Generalisability
- The sample is voluntary, the ability to generalise from this study could be questioned. - This could be a shortcoming of the study because they may have similar personality characteristics and may be different to a non-visiting population. Therefore the impact of stress on recall may well be different. - That said, it would be problematic to gather participants using other methods as it would be unethical to enforce stress on individuals.
Valentine and Mesout (2009) validity
- The study can be considered valid as it was a field experiment in a real stress situation. - The study can be said to have ecological validity as participants were in a non-contrived environment so therefore more representative of a real life stress setting. However, it is unlike a real EWT setting where there would be actual threat. - That said, the controls e.g. validating the questionnaires etc. meant that relationships between stress and the impact on the accuracy of recall could be measured. Also, individual differences e.g. gender and trait anxiety were measured. This means that the internal validity of the study is strong.
Appropriateness of drug treatment for offenders
- The treatment may only be appropriate criminality with a known cause e.g. sexually motivated or aggressive. This therefore, could not be used with more complex crimes which may have a number of motivations e.g. Fraud. - That said, it is appropriate for a crime with a known cause. -Testosterone based treatments are not appropriate for female offenders. Therefore, female sex offenders will need other methods of treatment e.g. CBT -The treatment is only is appropriate for criminals whose behaviour is biologically determined.
Application and practice of skills CBT
- Therapist creates role play for client where they need to use their skills to control their emotions in a triggering situation. - However, can be hard as some crimes have complex triggers. - Led by trained officers, psychologists etc. - May form part of their parole application
Strengths of grounded theory
- Validity as coding is carried out carefully and developed into wider concepts. Participants' own thoughts and feelings are used to drive analysis - Specific terms to explain how it is done. Grounded theory puts forward a theory to explain the data - Richness and detail of qualitative data.
Shortcomings and strengths for stress and arousal
- There are many strengths to this model e.g. it takes into account individual differences in the stress and arousal and the impact on the consistency of ewt. - It is difficult to establish cause and effect in measuring the impact of stress and arousal on the consistency of EWT e.g. a number of other factors e.g. the usualness of the weapon in the context the eye witness is in could impact eye witness testimony.
Evidence for Weapon effect
- There is evidence supporting the inconsistency of eye witness testimony. e.g. Loftus found that there were more inconsistencies when a gun was shown rather than a cheque book in a slide of a restaurant scene. - Therefore, eye witnesses focus attention away from the perpetrator leading to inconsistency in ewt because only the weapon is being encoded into memory at the time. - That said, the study was conducted in a lab. In a real life setting memory and recall may be consistent amonst eye witnesses.
Cognitive interview shortcomings
- Time consuming - Interview may find it difficult to be impartial and not lead a suspect
Disadvantages of matched pairs
- Time-consuming - May not control all participant variables - More participants required
Gottesman and Shields (1966) Application
- To provide evidence for when an individual is predisposed to schizophrenia so they can avoid triggers - Monitor 'at-risk' patients
Rosenhan's aims
- To reveal what Rosenhan saw as deep flaws in process of psychiatric diagnosis and to demonstrate psychiatrists were unable to distinguish 'sane from insane'. - To provide evidence, mental diagnosis is with the person making the diagnosis.
Carlsson et al (1999) aims
- To review studies into the relationship between the levels of neurotransmitters on the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Rosenhan (1973) generalisability
- Took place at US hospitals, where the DSM-5 is used, ethnocentric - Carried out at multiple different hospitals so very generalisable to US - Various mental health staff were studied, therefore, it's generalisable to all US mental health staff - He only studied 12 hospitals so its limiting
POTS Application
- Treatments argued to be highly practical and well tolerated - Benefits for young people with OCD in wider society
Advantages of Random Sampling
- Unbiased - Can use a subgroup of the population
Extroverts
- Underactive ARAS - Requires more external arousal - More outgoing - More likely to take risks
Risk management
- Understanding implications of study - Be suitably qualified and know guidelines - Seek advice if unsure of anything - Adhere to data protection act and know how to store data - Adhere to safe practice
Strengths of DSM
- Updated on rigorous field trials led to recent DSM-5 - Allows for a common diagnosis
Application for 4Ds
- Useful for practical initial diagnosis and can then be applied to Diagnostic Manuals, symptoms matched with criteria for each specific disorder
Practicality of CBT
- may be more practical for offenders in comparison to drug treatment because it gives offenders the skills to use it past the sessions that are provided for them. - Prison officers can also be trained to deliver the programme which can be cost effective. This is because standardised programmes such as CALM can be delivered to offenders. - However, the consistency of delivery could be impacted by the willingness and consistency of the prison officers running the courses.
Advantages of a mean
- most sensitive, uses all values
disadvantages of correlational research
- no cause and effect - intervening variables, leading to false conclusions - Reliability of a variable may be poor
Advantages of a median
- not affected by extreme values
Disadvantages of a median
- not as sensitive as mean - not used for interval data
Disadvantages of a mode
- not useful where there are many modes
code of conduct for psychologists
- respect and dignity for all the individuals in terms of their differences - provide privacy and confidentiality - gain informed consent - avoid deception - offer right to withdraw - Competence; Level of professionalism held by psychologist conduction research, maintain subject knowledge and seek support if necessary - Responsibility - To public, participants, profession and science - Restate white to withdraw - Not given incentives to do study - Brief Integrity: - Not exploit people and be honest and fair
Advantages of a mode
- useful for nominal data - can use for all data
What percentage of people have schizophrenia?
1-2%
3 stages of CBT for offenders
1. Cognitive preparation 2. Skills acquisition 3. Application and practice of skills
3 stages of psychological formulation
1. Offence analysis 2. Understanding the function of offender 3. Application of treatment
Hans Eysenck's Theory of Personality
1. There are three main dimensions to personality 2. The introversion-extroversion trait varies on optimal arousal levels
How common is XYY syndrome?
1/1000 male births
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) participants
13 witnesses to a gun-shooting incidence in Vancouver, 7 central and 6 peripheral witnesses.
How long does CBT take for OCD?
14-16 WEEKS
Albert and Friedman (1980)
16% show no improvement with typical antipsychotic medication
When was the ICD created?
1948
When were typical antipsychotics developed?
1950's
When was the DSM created?
1952
Richard Speck
1966, claimed he had XYY syndrome, and that this is why he raped and murdered 8 women but he actually was XY.
When was assertive community treatment (ACT) developed?
1970's in USA
Loftus and Palmer year
1974
When were atypical antipsychotics developed?
1990's
DSM Schizophrenia Code
295.30
What % of prisoners are diagnosed with a mental illness?
36.6%
Lower class incidence rate of schizophrenia
4%
What % of those who commit suicide are diagnosed with major depressive disorder?
50%
How many people don't take their antipsychotic medication regularly or stop?
50% don't take their antipsychotic medication regularly
Anti-social behaviour
Actions that violate social norms in ways that reflect disregard for others.
How can a brain injury be caused?
Accident, illness or long term alcohol/drug use.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) results
Accuracy in police interviews: - Central: 84.56% - Peripheral: 79.31% Accuracy in researcher interviews: - Accuracy remained similar to one another and high accuracy - Misleading information had little effect on answers
Volunteer sampling
Advertise for willing participants
What do brain. injuries lead to?
Affect social judgement and increase impulsive behaviour, also linked to more risk-taking behaviour.
Brain scan evidence for biological theory of OCD
After being shown a dirty rag their pet scans showed less activity in caudate nucleus, allowing 'worry' signals to get through. BUT dyes had to be used which are invasive.
Special considerations ethical interviews
Age, autistic spectrum or illiterate
High psychoticism scores
Aggressive, antisocial, cold and egocentric
Who created the DSM?
American Psychiatric Association
Why is cost effectiveness of ACT reduced?
As the treatment is one to one and individualistic.
Pots (2004) outcome measures
Assessment took place at baseline, 4th, 8th and 12th week. Same independent assessor blindfolded. Y-BOCS used.
Caudate Nucleus
Associated with motor processes, plays important role in various other non motor functions as well, including inhibitory control.
Reaching a verdict
At end of trial jury return to courtroom, they reach verdict as a group. Jury decisions are susceptible to majority and minority influence.
Solutions to manage risk
Avoidance (eliminate) , reduction, transference (insurance), retention (cost-benefit)
Anti-anxiety medication example OCD
Benzodiazepines
Beta-blockers OCD
Beta blockers prevent compulsions, decrease overall physiological responses.
When does the frontal cortex develop?
Between 18-25 y/o.
What model is the DSM based on?
Biological/Medical model that all mental illness has a biological basis.
Schizophrenia rates for Black Afro Caribbeans
Black Afro Caribbeans are 4X more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia
Side effects of beta blockers
Bradycardia, hypotension and depression
Application for Weapon Effect
Cognitive interview and reinstatement of cues to aid memory processes.
Weaknesses of correlation coefficient
Cannot claim a cause and effect relationship
Clinical contemporary study
Carlsson et al (1999)
CBT for offenders
Changing the way offenders think can prevent them reoffending in future by ensuring they act in a more prosocial way.
Participant variables
Characteristics of a participant that might influence the outcome of the study.
Key Question Criminal Example
Charles T. "Ted" Dubbs was convicted of sexually assaulting two women in Dauphin County, PA in 2000 and 2001. Both women identified him as their attacker. Wilbur Cyrus Brown, II has been convicted of a series of similar attacks, and has confessed to the two attacks Dubbs was convicted of committing.
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another
Application of post event information
Cognitive interviews ensure that memories are actually reconstructed to improve consistency e.g. getting EWT's to think about their feelings and emotions in relation to a crime.
Hypervigilant and OCD
Cognitive theory suggests those with OCD are hyper vigilant, making them more aware of threats in environment and causing anxiety.
Pots (2004) conclusion
Combined treatment most effective. SSRI drug effective compared to placebo.
Inter-rater reliability
Compare data from more than one interviewer
Test-retest reliability
Compare test scores over time
Cross-cultural research
Compares behaviours of cultures
Cross-sectional research
Compares sections of the population
Ecological validity
Concerns to the extent to which the findings can be generalised beyond the particular study. Affected by the task, sample and setting.
Menzies et al (2008)
Confirms that the orbital frontal cortex is different in individual's OCD
Reliability
Consistency of measurement
Amygdala function
Controlling human emotions
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)
Found teachers expectations of bloomers and non-bloomers students influenced their behaviour and changed IQ score. Bloomers performed better academically than non-bloomers.
Time sampling
Count behaviours at regular intervals
Event sampling
Count behaviours in a specified time period
Example of anti-androgens
Cyproterone acetate (CPA)
Primary data
Data collected by researcher, solely for purpose of investigation
Meta-analysis
Data from many studies combined
Negatives of anti-anxiety medication for OCD
Decreases general anxiety but high relapse rate if medication's discontinued
CAT scan
Detailed picture build up from X-ray slices
Case study
Detailed study of one person, group or event, involves psychological tests, experiments, interviews, observations etc.
Neuroticism
Determined by the reactivity of their sympathetic nervous system. Unstable and react to stimuli.
3 Aims of Clinical Psychology
Diagnose, Explain and Treat
ICD Axis 2
Disabilities
XYY and gender
Doesn't explain females explanation for crime.
Two neurotransmitters involved in schizophrenia
Dopamine and glutamate
Ethics of drug treatment for offenders
Drug treatment may act as a chemical straight jacket when used on offender as it only minimises the behaviour whilst taking the drug. Therefore, it may not empower criminals to change negative behaviours and may just act as a form of social control to maintain positive and controllable behaviour within a prison context.
Non-anti androgens
Drugs that block the effects of androgen indirectly
Random sampling
Each person has an equal chance of selection
Background gathered on offender in Offence analysis (psychological formulation)
Early experiences, beliefs about appropriate way to behave and triggers
Federoff et al. (1992)
Found that 15% of those using MPA reoffend compared to 65% of non-users. A significant reduction but not acceptable.
Van Vugt et al (2011)
Found that as long as the model was followed, ACT could be effective.
Frontal lobe function
Emotional expression, judgement and control
Interval data
Equal intervals on a scale, can go into negative values
Pots (2004) aim
Evaluate three OCD treatments for young people, relative to a placebo group
Repeated measures
Every participants takes part in every condition tested
Who has access to the ICD?
Everyone
misinformation effect
Exposure to misleading post event information made accuracy fall below chance levels this is known as misinformation. This could also be a result of the witnesses past experiences which then impacts recall.
Valentine and Mesout (2009) application
Eyewitness testimony, stress can affect recall
ICD schizophrenia Code
F20.9
Situational variables
Factors in the environment that could act as extraneous variables
Madon (2004)
Found that a parents prediction of their child's alcohol intake was very accurate, parents negative opinion about their child's alcohol intake = high levels of alcohol use.
Effectiveness of drug treatment for offenders
Federoff et al. (1992), Found that 15% of those using MPA reoffend compared to 65% of non-users. A significant reduction but not acceptable.
Dougherty et al (2002)
Found 32-45% of patients partially improved after cingulotomy.
Williams et al (2010)
Found 60% of prisoners had some form of traumatic brain injury. Adults with brain injuries were younger entering the prison system.
van Os (2000)
Found a person was more likely to be schizophrenic if foreign born, unemployed or dependent on welfare if many of their neighbours were not in the same position.
Thibault et al (1988)
Found anti androgens useful for sex offenders if used with psychotherapy as well.
Brar et al (1997)
Found clozapine was highly effective in treating positive symptoms of schizophrenia and also reduced negative symptoms.
Boduszek et al (2013)
Found high levels of extroversion in inmates who had high levels of reoffence.
Thomas (2010)
Found in English mock juries that all white jurors were not more likely to convict black/asian defendants and therefore their are culture differences in how race effects decision making.
Stocholm (2012)
Found in a study involving 161 males with XYY syndrome, there was a significant increase in number of crimes compared to XY controls. Apart from drug and traffic related crimes. However, when socio-economic factors controlled, difference was very small.
Raine et al (1997)
Found lower activity on left side of amygdala and higher activity on right site of amygdala in NGRI murderers compared to a control when carrying out PET scans.
Ruva, Dickman and Muayes (2014)
Found negative PTP group has a greater percentage of guilty verdicts compared to positive PTP group, when they showed PTP to 345 university students and showed a video of murder trial.
Rondrup and Muntervas (1966)
Found rats showed many behavioural indicators of schizohrenia including stereotypical movement when injected with anphetamines with increase dopamine levels.
Ireland (2000)
Found significant decrease in aggressive behaviour when prisoners underwent anger management (CBT) programme compared to control group, but long term outcomes not measured. Measured anger questionnaire and observations by prison guards.
Ramonat and Farrington (2006)
Found that females are significantly more affected by labels the parents gave them and that led to violent crime but this was based in Trinidad so therefore is ethnocentric and has big cultural differences to UK.
Meltzer et al (2004)
Found that haloperidol (typical antipsychotic) gave significant improvements in all areas of functioning compared to placebo.
Veiling et al (2008)
Found that immigrants living in neighbourhoods where their own ethnic group didn't predominate had higher rates of psychotic disorders.
Frank (2006)
Found that offenders had better awareness of what anger was and how to deal with it after CBT.
Hope et al. (2004)
Found that pre-trial publicity constitutes a 'serious source of juror bias'. Completed a mock trial with 122 students and students who received negative PTP were significantly more likely to produce a guilty verdict.
Dixon and Mahoney (2002)
Found that those with a strong Birmingham accent were more likely to be found guilty than those without. Black Brummies were more likely to be found guilty than white Brummies. BUT... Jurors are selected from local communities, so in theory this doesn't effect it.
Besemer et al (2013)
Found when a child was labelled as belonging to a criminal family they were more likely to be convicted.
Bradbury and Williams (2013)
Found white jurors were more likely to convict black defendants, while black jurors were less likely to convict black defendants. Therefore, racial composition of jury has significant effect. Secondary data from real trials.
Anti-androgens
Group of drugs that act as receptor blockers and block the effects of androgens.
Secondary data
Information someone else has collected, used by other researchers.
Hyperdopaminergia
High levels of dopamine in the brain's subcortex
Loftus and Palmer Experiment 1 results
Highest mean mph smashed, 40.5mph Lowest mean mph contacted 31.8mph
Androgens
Hormones influencing growth and development of male reproductive system.
Key Question Clinical
How has the perception of mental health treatment changed over time?
How do typical antipsychotics work?
Inhibit dopamine, by binding to dopamine receptors.
Medroxprogesterone acetate (MPA)
Inhibits the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axes, which then suppresses androgen and gonadotropin.
Rondrup + Muntevad (1966) procedure and findings
Injected rats with amphetamines to increase dopamine levels. Rats showed many of the behavioural indicators of schizophrenia including stereotypical movement.
Dysfunction
If a behaviour is significantly interfering with a person's life.
Loftus and Palmer Experiment 2 aim
If post event information influences recall because of memory actually being altered or if it os because information in question is influenced by person's response.
Why my a suspect be uncooperative according to Shepherd?
If unethical procedure followed they me uncooperative due to fear, anxiety and attitude towards police.
Mesolimbic pathway
Implicated in schizophrenia's positive symptoms e.g. hallucinations and delusions
Emic Symptom of Depression
In Nigeria, a symptom of depression is feeling like ants are crawling in your head
Cognitive interview application
In real-life suspects often end up stating things only the perpetrator could of know, e.g. in one case suspect remembers seeing body twitching
Benzodiazepines
Increase effectiveness of GABA in regulating anxiety and returning body to normal state of arousal.
Amphetamines
Increases dopamine levels, can lead to delusions and hallucinations
PCP
Increases glutamate levels and linked to schizophrenia.
What do patents receive with ACT?
Independence, rehabilitation and recovery
Kebbell et al (2010)
Interviewed 43 convicted sex offenders and a control group of 20 violent offenders, asked about different interview techniques. More likely to get confession with ethical interview.
Concurrent validity
Involves comparing new test with an already established one that claims to measure the same variable. A high positive correlation should be gained between the results of the two tests.
Face/content validity
Involves examining the continue t of the test to see if it 'looks' like it measures what it claims to measure. (demand characteristics)
Key Question Criminal
Is eyewitness testimony too unreliable to trust ?
Witness confidence
Jurors perceive nervousness as evidence of being unsure or lying. - Penrod and Cutler (1995) found witnesses who were 100% confident were more likely to convict the defendant than an eye witness who was 80% confident when they had students watch 2 versions of mock trials. BUT... - Further studies by Cutler have found correlation between accuracy and confidence very weak (0.00-0.02)
Charles Whitman
Killed 13 people, he had a brain tumour pressing on his amygdala.
Example of culture bound syndrome
Koro, anxiety your penis is shrinking and the belief your genitals are retracting.
negative symptoms of schizophrenia
Lack of energy, social withdrawal, flatness of emotions and not looking after your appearance.
Psychoticism
Lacking empathy and being cruel.
Validity
Legitimacy of the data collected
Why made clozapine be more effective?
Less side effects so more people are likely to continue to take it
What is life expectancy reduced by because of schizophrenia?
Life expectancy's reduced by 20 years
Measures of central tendency
Mean, median, mode
Ratio data
Measurements on a scale, intervals of which are known and equal. Has a true value zero.
DSM Axis 3
Medical and Physical Conditions
Example of Non-anti androgens
Medroxprogesterone acetate (MPA)
Aim of hormone treatment
Mimic surgical castration, that has a 5% recidivism but in a more ethical way.
What % of people don't get the appropriate treatment for schizophrenia?
More than 69% according to WHO
Side effects of antidepressants
Nausea, insomnia, blurred vision, dizziness and sexual dysfunction.
Falsification
Need to be able to reject a null hypothesis
Do all psychopaths become criminals?
No
Gender and amygdala
No real gender difference but males have a denser left amygdala.
When is the chi squared test used?
Nominal data and independent measures design
When is a sign test used?
Nominal data and repeated measures design
Signs of XYY syndrome
Normal development although some grow faster and taller in comparison to siblings. More emotionally immature and impulsive. More likely to have a learning disability.
Two types of conformity in reaching verdict
Normative- Yielding to group pressure because a person wants to fit in with the group. Informative- when a person lacks the knowledge and looks to the group for information and direction.
Non-participant observations
Observers are not a part of what is being observed, they sit away from the activity.
Symptoms of OCD
Obsession, compulsions and anxiety
Labelling
Occurs when eternal or broad terms are used to describe members of a group.
post-event information
Often individuals are interviewed after a long period of time and this can impact what they think they saw. This means that memories could be a confabulation.
standard deviation
On average, scores vary from measures of central tendency such as the mean.
4 areas of brain related to OCD
Orbital Frontal Cortex, Cingulate Gyrus, Thalamus and Caudate Nucleus
When is a Mann Whitney U used?
Ordinal/interval/ratio data and independent measures
Pre-trial publicity (PTP)
PTP may take form of factual and emotive, assuming guilt before the trial and may arouse negative emotions about the individual on trial. It is difficult for jurors to ignore the media.
Parents and children OCD
Parents and children often have different symptoms suggesting OCD is biological not learned behaviour.
Effect of too little dopamine
Parkinson's symptoms, such as shaking and tremors
Counterbalancing
Participant sample divided in half, one half complete 2 conditions in one order and other half complete the 2 conditions in reverse.
Examples of extraneous variables
Participant variable (e.g. intelligence) or situational variable (e.g. time of day)
Overt observation
Participants aware of being observed
Explain BPS colleagues
Psychologists should take action if they believe that any of the above principles are being violated by a colleague
Matched pairs
Participants paired on key variables and placed in either group.
Stratified sampling
Participants selected from subgroups in proportion to frequency in the population.
Covert observation
Participants unaware that they're being observed
Who's assertive community treatment suitable for?
Patients with schizophrenia who have frequent relapses and bouts of hospitalisation.
OCD and intrusive thoughts
People with OCD find it hard to distract and dismiss those thoughts.
OCD chain of events
Perception, emotion, behaviour and relieve anxiety
Psychopath's amygdala
Psychopaths have a smaller amygdala and higher levels of aggression.
Gomory (2001)
Points out that client is offered little choice and surrenders all responsibility for making decisions. 11% of patients forced into treatment.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) procedure
Police interviews; describe in own terms and asked series of questions. Researcher interviews; 4-5 months later asked questions in same way and asked 2 misleading questions. Asked about emotional state before and after incident.
What living conditions are linked to schizophrenia?
Poor nutrition and pre-natal infection
Cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia
Poor working memory, concentration and understanding of information
Alternative for eyewitness testimony
Post event information
Alternative for the weapon effect
Post event information
Shortcomings/strengths of post event information
Post event information does not take into account individual differences in EWT e.g . Individuals who have not gone past their optimum level of stress may not be impacted by post event information and so these eye witnesses may be more consistent in recall. Concepts such as schemas that post event information rests on may be difficult to test e.g. because they are hypothetical construct
Alternative for stress and arousal
Post-event information
Prison studies on XYY syndrome
Prison studies have shown there are 15/1000 prisoners with XYY syndrome, compared to 1/1000 in general population.
Cognitive interviewing
Process to enhance memories of witnesses and also modified to detect possible deception when questioning suspects about a crime.
Loftus and Palmer Experiment 1 conclusion
Provides evidence that post-event information can have an effect on the recall of an event.
Rosenhan's mini experiment
Psuedo patients approached staff in hospital grounds and asked about release
Explain BPS giving advice
Psychological advice must only be given if the psychologist is qualified in the areas that the advice is requested in
Ghaderi (2006)
Psychological formulation, claims that there are mixed views as to whether the formulations improve the outcome for the offender, much depending on crime.
Whitehead et al (2007)
Psychological formulation, explains that for offenders the focus is on changing their values and choices to ensure they don't reoffend in the interests of society
Introversion
Quiet and reserved, over aroused. Plan action and emotions. Serious and reliable.
fMRI scans
Radio waves measure blood oxygen levels
PET scans
Radioactive substances injected, which is taken up by active brain areas.
Lindstroem et al (1999)
Radioactively labelled a chemical L-dopa and administered to 10 patients with schizophrenia and 10 with no diagnosis, L-dopa is a dopamine antagonist. He found dopamine taken up quicker in patients with schizophrenia on PET scans.
Obsessions
Recurrent, persistent thoughts
What do typical antipsychotics do?
Reduce positive symptoms
What do atypical antipsychotics do?
Reduce positive symptoms and can reduce negative symptoms.
Hypoglutamatergia
Reduced levels of glutamate
External reliability
Refers to how consistently a method measures over time when repeated
predicitive validity
Refers to whether a test predicts future performance
How to register with the HCPC
Renewed every 2 years: 1- HCPC will check that trainee has passed all elements of programme 2- Qualified psychologist would require a character reference and information about applicant
Compulsions
Repetitive behaviour to relieve obsessions
Codes of conduct
Respect, competence, responsibility and integrity
Antidepressants and OCD
Serotonin has an effect upon cingulate gyrus and other brain structures involved in OCD. Allows selective serotonin reuptake so more serotonins available.
Cannon and Britton (1925)
Severed neural connections to cortex in cats. When provoked the cats showed signs of rage. The cerebral cortex inhibits impulsive behaviour meaning cats emotions were uncontrolled. However cats have smaller cerebral cortex and aren't capable of higher order thinking.
What crimes may use hormone treatment?
Sex offenders
Non-directional hypothesis
Simply states that there is a difference but not what the difference will be between two variables
High extraversion scores
Sociable, active, lively and sensation seeking
Extraversion
Sociable, crave excitement and change, become bored easily. Take risks and are thrill seekers.
Who uses hormone treatments for offenders?
Some US states, Korea and Poland
Stanford School Medicine biological treatment evidence
Stanford School of Medicine suggests that 40-60% of OCD patients respond to Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors. Once stopped, symptoms return in 20% of sufferers.
Operationalisation of variables
Stating how you will manipulate the independent variable and how you will measure the dependent variable
Falloon et al (1996)
Stress and the physiological arousal can cause changes in neurotransmitters and lead to schizophrenia.
Alternative of post event information
Stress/arousal effect
Witkin
Studied 4590 tall males and found 12 cases of XYY males and found they were 41.7% more likely to be involved in crime.
Salkovskis OCD
Suggest that the unwanted thoughts stem from early childhood experiences, these cause a general negative belief system about how the world looks and that it's full of threats.
Abramowitz et al (2005)
Suggests for 'the average' OCD patient CBT doesn't help anymore than ERP which is based on flooding. Therefore, if cognitive therapy isn't most effective then a cognitive explanation is probably not the only explanation.
Shepherd (1993)
Suggests that a witness and suspect's emotional state, mental health, intelligence and general attitude to the police may act as a barrier to communication.
Who uses surgical castration?
Sweden
Side effects of typical antipsychotics
Tardive dyskinesia, involuntary movements. Parkinson's like symptoms
Criminal Practical Hypothesis
There will be a significant decrease in length of sentence when a defendant is more attractive.
Mean
The average value of all scores, calculated by adding all scores together in one condition and dividing by number of scores.
Deviance
The extent to which a behaviour is 'rare' within society.
Aetiological Validity
The extent to which a disorder has the same cause or causes. E.g. family history, when a disorder has a known cause.
Predictive Validity
The extent to which results from a test can predict future behaviour.
Distress
The extent to which the behaviour is causing upset to the individual. Should be treated in isolation to the other 3 D's.
Cooper (2005)
Unskilled male labourers are 4.1X more likely to develop schizophrenia than men in higher managerial positions. Childhood trauma and schizophrenia are linked, independent of class.
dependent variable
The measurable effect or outcome in which the research is interested.
Cohen and Williams
The more significant an individuals brain injury, the more impaired their facial expression recognition was, so lack social judgement.
Nominal data
The number of times something occurred in one category.
Practicality of drug treatment for offenders
The treatment may be more easily used in prisons and may not be readily available in their own environmental contexts. That said, it can be easily used to modify behaviours after initial diagnosis.
co-variables
The variables investigated in a correlation
Shortcomings and strengths of eyewitness testimony
There are many strengths to this model e.g. it takes into account individual differences in the stress and arousal and the impact on the consistency of ewt. That it is difficult to establish cause and effect in measuring the impact of stress and arousal on the consistency of EWT e.g. a number of other factors e.g. the usualness of the weapon in the context the eye witness is in could impact eye witness testimony.
Memory and OCD
Those with OCD have been found to lack confidence in memory and have poorer memory.
Glutamate's involvement in schizophrenia
Thought to cause psychotic symptoms if there is excess present.
How is personality measured?
Through self reports
Criminal Practical Aim
To assess whether defendant characteristics such as attractiveness impact sentencing.
Loftus and Palmer Experiment 1 aim
To investigate the idea that human memory's fallible, inspired by theory of reconstructive memory. In particular, memory can be influenced by post event information.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) aim
To look at the impact of leading questions on the accounts of witnesses to a real life crime.
Heston (1966) aim
To see how many adopted children of biological mothers with schizophrenia would go onto develop schizophrenia.
Rondrup + Muntevad (1966) aim
To see whether excess dopamine neurotransmitters may be partially responsible for schizophrenia symptoms.
Gottesman and Shields (1966) aim
To see whether schizophrenia had a genetic basis
When is spearman's rank order correlation coefficient used?
To test relationships, correlations
Valentine and Mesout (2009) aim
To test the hypothesis that high arousal (stress) can reduce an eye witness's ability to recall information and identify who committed the crime.
Offence analysis (psychological formulation) aim
To understand the motivations behind the offenders behaviours, these can be quite complex.
Who has access to the DSM?
USA's mental health professionals
Caudate nucleus's role in OCD
Unable to properly regulate the transmission of information regarding worrying events or ideas between thalamus and orbital frontal cortex.
Who created the ICD?
United Nations
Explain BPS observational research
Unless participants give their consent to being observed, observational research must only take place where those observed could normally be expected to be observed by strangers
Criminal contemporary study
Valentine and Mesout (2009)
Evidence for eye witness testimony
Valentine and Mesout found that recall was compromised if the individual was overly aroused. Therefore, there would be inconsistencies in eye witness testimony if people have different optimum levels of stress.
Mode
Value that occurs most frequently
Hong 2001
Variation of TPH gene was found in schizophrenics in China.
Cognitive interview training
Very easy, can be trained on 5 different levels of interviews. Can be done in just 6 hours.
Side effects of atypical antipsychotics
Weight gain, metabolic changes, reduces white blood cell count.
Concurrent Validity
When a new test or results are compared and validated with precasting data.
Neurones
brain cells which transmit and receive messages
Nickname for anti-psychotic medication
chemical straight jackets
Examples of atypical antipsychotics
clozapine and risperidone
Lipsey (1992)
conducted a meta- analysis of over 400 studies of juvenile delinquency treatment programmes and found cognitive behavioural methods were at least 20% more effective in preventing reoffending than other methods such a counselling.
Mundane realism
degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations
The 4 D's
deviance, distress, danger, dysfunction
Range
difference between highest and lowest values
Triangulation in criminal
different types of evidence. e.g. DNA and witness and motive
Empiricism
knowledge should be acquired through observation
Limbic system function
emotion
Delusions
false beliefs
Type 2 error
false negative, accepting a null hypothesis that is not true; likely to happen when probability level is too strict.
Type 1 error
false positive, rejecting a null hypothesis that is true; likely to happen if significance level is too lenient
Hallucinations
false sensory experiences
DSM Axis 5
global assessment of functioning scale
Mesocortical pathway
implicated in schizophrenia's negative symptoms e.g. apathy and flatness of emotions
Structured observations
in a controlled environment, e.g. laboratory
Caudate nucleus function
inhibition
Problems with eyewitness testimony
memories can be distorted or even created by cues and suggestions given at the time of recall, without the individual being aware the memory was changed
Ordinal data
ordered but not at equal intervals, e.g. ranked scales
When is Wilcoxen signed ranks test used?
ordinal/interval/ratio data and repeated measures
Single blind procedure
participants are unaware of, or blind to, the types of treatment they are receiving, but the administrator knows
DSM Axis 2
personality disorders and mental retardation
DSM Axis 4
psychosocial and environmental factors
Measures of dispersion
range and standard deviation
eye witness testimony
refers to an account given by people of an event they have witnessed
How much does it cost to keep a prisoner in prison for a year?
£37,540
Valentine and Mesout (2009) procedure
· Voluntary sample · Offered reduced price entry to complete a questionnaire and wear a heart monitor throughout their visit. · 56 participants (29 Female and 27 Male) · An actor was dressed as a 'scary' person and prevented from passing. · After completing the tour informed consent was gained and given the opportunity to withdraw at any stage. · Measures of anxiety (How they felt in the dungeon - state anxiety and general experience of emotions - trait anxiety) · Free recall of the scary person and cued recall asking about specific details (Questionnaire) · Nine person line up and told that the person they saw in the labyrinth might not be there. They had to rate their confidence in their decision (0-100)
