Psychology Test 3
12. Self-concept refers to ________. A) our level of confidence in our own abilities B) all of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves C) the belief that we control our own outcomes D) the belief that our outcomes are outside of our control
B) all of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves
16. When you are examining data to look for trends, which type of intelligence are you using most? A) practical B) analytical C) emotional D) creative
B) analytical
11. Jane believes that she got a bad grade on her psychology paper because her professor doesn't like her. Jane most likely has an _______ locus of control. A) internal B) external C) intrinsic D) extrinsic
B) external
10. Using scissors to cut out paper shapes is an example of ________. A) gross motor skills B) fine motor skills C) large motor skills D) small motor skills
B) fine motor skills
1. Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the study of ________. A) human development B) human thinking C) human behavior D) human society
B) human thinking
19. The United States is considered a ________ culture. A) collectivistic B) individualist C) traditional D) nontraditional
B) individualist
4. The idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists is called ________. A) egocentrism B) object permanence C) conservation D) reversibility
B) object permanence
5. According to your reading, nearly ________ of the adult population in the United States can be classified as obese. A) one half B) one third C) one fourth D) one fifth
B) one third
5. The id operates on the ________ principle. A) reality B) pleasure C) instant gratification D) guilt
B) pleasure
22. A personality assessment in which a person responds to ambiguous stimuli, revealing unconscious feelings, impulses, and desires ________. A) self-report inventory B) projective test C) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) D) Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
B) projective test
2. Developmental psychologists study human growth and development across three domains. Which of the following is not one of these domains? A) cognitive B) psychological C) physical D) psychosocial
B) psychological
6. The ego defense mechanism in which a person who is confronted with anxiety returns to a more immature behavioral stage is called ________. A) repression B) regression C) reaction formation D) rationalization
B) regression
14. The way a person reacts to the world, starting when they are very young, including the person's activity level is known as ________. A) traits B) temperament C) heritability D) personality
B) temperament
9. Self-regulation is also known as ________. A) self-efficacy B) will power C) internal locus of control D) external locus of control
B) will power
11.4 Learning Approaches
Behavioral theorists view personality as significantly shaped and impacted by the reinforcements and consequences outside of the organism. People behave in a consistent manner based on prior learning. B. F. Skinner, a prominent behaviorist, said that we demonstrate consistent behavior patterns, because we have developed certain response tendencies. Mischel focused on how personal goals play a role in the self-regulation process. Albert Bandura said that one's environment can determine behavior, but at the same time, people can influence the environment with both their thoughts and behaviors, which is known as reciprocal determinism. Bandura also emphasized how we learn from watching others. He felt that this type of learning also plays a part in the development of our personality. Bandura discussed the concept of self-efficacy, which is our level of confidence in our own abilities. Finally, Rotter proposed the concept of locus of control, which refers to our beliefs about the power we have over our lives. He said that people fall along a continuum between a purely internal and a purely external locus of control.
2. ________ proposed the hierarchy of needs. A) William James B) David McClelland C) Abraham Maslow D) Albert Bandura
C) Abraham Maslow
6. ________ are the smallest unit of language that carry meaning. A) Lexicon B) Phonemes C) Morphemes D) Syntax
C) Morphemes
15. Which theorist put forth the triarchic theory of intelligence? A) Goleman B) Gardner C) Sternberg D) Steitz
C) Sternberg
21. Where does high intelligence come from? A) genetics B) environment C) both A and B D) neither A nor B
C) both A and B
8. The universal bank of ideas, images, and concepts that have been passed down through the generations from our ancestors refers to ________. A) archetypes B) intuition C) collective unconscious D) personality types
C) collective unconscious
1. The view that development is a cumulative process, gradually adding to the same type of skills is known as ________. A) nature B) nurture C) continuous development D) discontinuous development
C) continuous development
14. Which of the following is the order of stages in Kübler-Ross's five-stage model of grief? A) denial, bargaining, anger, depression, acceptance B) anger, depression, bargaining, acceptance, denial C) denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance D) anger, acceptance, denial, depression, bargaining
C) denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance
6. According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, what is the main task of the adolescent? A) developing autonomy B) feeling competent C) forming an identity D) forming intimate relationships
C) forming an identity
13. Individuals suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder have been shown to have reduced volumes of the ________. A) amygdala B) hippocampus C) hypothalamus D) thalamus
C) hypothalamus
20. The DSM-5 now uses ________ as a diagnostic label for what was once referred to as mental retardation. A) autism and developmental disabilities B) lowered intelligence C) intellectual disability D) cognitive disruption
C) intellectual disability
6. ________ is a chemical messenger secreted by fat cells that acts as an appetite suppressant. A) orexin B) angiotensin C) leptin D) ghrelin
C) leptin
9. Animal research suggests that in male rats the ________ is critical for the ability to engage in sexual behavior, but not for the motivation to do so. A) nucleus accumbens B) amygdala C) medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus D) hippocampus
C) medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus
15. Which of the following is not one of the seven universal emotions described in this chapter? A) contempt B) disgust C) melancholy D) anger
C) melancholy
10. During the ________ phase of the sexual response cycle, individuals experience rhythmic contractions of the pelvis that are accompanied by uterine contractions in women and ejaculation in men. A) excitement B) plateau C) orgasm D) resolution
C) orgasm
7. The Oedipus complex occurs in the ________ stage of psychosexual development. A) oral B) anal C) phallic D) latency
C) phallic
12. Which type of bias involves relying on a false stereotype to make a decision? A) anchoring bias B) confirmation bias C) representative bias D) availability bias
C) representative bias
4. An event schema is also known as a cognitive ________. A) stereotype B) concept C) script D) prototype
C) script
2. Which of the following is an example of a prototype for the concept of leadership on an athletic team? A) the equipment manager B) the scorekeeper C) the team captain D) the quietest member of the team
C) the team captain
9. What begins as a single-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge at conception? A) embryo B) fetus C) zygote D) infant
C) zygote
18. The mean score for a person with an average IQ is ________. A) 70 B) 130 C) 85 D) 100
D) 100
8. In order to be classified as morbidly obese, an adult must have a BMI of ________. A) less than 25 B) 25-29.9 C) 30-39.9 D) 40 or more
D) 40 or more
19. Who developed the IQ test most widely used today? A) Sir Francis Galton B) Alfred Binet C) Louis Terman D) David Wechsler
D) David Wechsler
3. ________ is credited with the first comprehensive theory of personality. A) Hippocrates B) Gall C) Wundt D) Freud
D) Freud
5. Which theorist proposed that moral thinking proceeds through a series of stages? A) Sigmund Freud B) Erik Erikson C) John Watson D) Lawrence Kohlberg
D) Lawrence Kohlberg
5. ________ provides general principles for organizing words into meaningful sentences. A) Linguistic determinism B) Lexicon C) Semantics D) Syntax
D) Syntax
9.4 Death and Dying
Death marks the endpoint of our lifespan. There are many ways that we might react when facing death. Kübler-Ross developed a five-stage model of grief as a way to explain this process. Many people facing death choose hospice care, which allows their last days to be spent at home in a comfortable, supportive environment.
7.6 The Source of Intelligence
Genetics and environment affect intelligence and the challenges of certain learning disabilities. The intelligence levels of all individuals seem to benefit from rich stimulation in their early environments. Highly intelligent individuals, however, may have a built-in resiliency that allows them to overcome difficult obstacles in their upbringing. Learning disabilities can cause major challenges for children who are learning to read and write. Unlike developmental disabilities, learning disabilities are strictly neurological in nature and are not related to intelligence levels. Students with dyslexia, for example, may have extreme difficulty learning to read, but their intelligence levels are typically average or above average.
Multiple Intelligences Theory
Gardner's theory that each person possesses at least eight types of intelligence
11.1 What Is Personality?
Personality has been studied for over 2,000 years, beginning with Hippocrates. More recent theories of personality have been proposed, including Freud's psychodynamic perspective, which holds that personality is formed through early childhood experiences. Other perspectives then emerged in reaction to the psychodynamic perspective, including the learning, humanistic, biological, trait, and cultural perspectives.
11.9 Personality Assessment
Personality tests are techniques designed to measure one's personality. They are used to diagnose psychological problems as well as to screen candidates for college and employment. There are two types of personality tests: self-report inventories and projective tests. The MMPI is one of the most common self-report inventories. It asks a series of true/false questions that are designed to provide a clinical profile of an individual. Projective tests use ambiguous images or other ambiguous stimuli to assess an individual's unconscious fears, desires, and challenges. The Rorschach Inkblot Test, the TAT, the RISB, and the C-TCB are all forms of projective tests. Previous
11.7 Trait Theorists
Trait theorists attempt to explain our personality by identifying our stable characteristics and ways of behaving. They have identified important dimensions of personality. The Five Factor Model is the most widely accepted trait theory today. The five factors are openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. These traits occur along a continuum.
triarchic theory of intelligence
Sternberg's theory of intelligence; three facets of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical
11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality
The culture in which you live is one of the most important environmental factors that shapes your personality. Western ideas about personality may not be applicable to other cultures. In fact, there is evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures. Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on different basic values. People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are important. People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. There are three approaches that can be used to study personality in a cultural context: the cultural-comparative approach, the indigenous approach, and the combined approach, which incorporates both elements of both views.
do not resuscitate (DNR)
a legal document stating that if a person stops breathing or his or her heart stops, medical personnel such as doctors and nurses are not to take steps to revive or resuscitate the patient
health care proxy
a legal document that appoints a specific person to make medical decisions for a patient if he or she is unable to speak for him/herself
assimilation
adjustment of a schema by adding information similar to what is already known
accommodation
adjustment of a schema by changing a scheme to accommodate new information different from what was already known
norming
administering a test to a large population so data can be collected to reference the normal scores for a population and its groups
overweight
adult with a BMI between 25 and 29.9
obese
adult with a BMI of 30 or higher
morbid obesity
adult with a BMI over 40
practical intelligence
aka "street smarts"
analytical intelligence
aligned with academic problem solving and computations
culture
all of the beliefs, customs, art, and traditions of a particular society
metabolic rate
amount of energy that is expended in a given period of time
developmental milestone
approximate ages at which children reach specific normative events
id
aspect of personality that consists of our most primitive drives or urges, including impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex
ego
aspect of personality that represents the self, or the part of one's personality that is visible to others
superego
aspect of the personality that serves as one's moral compass, or conscience
set point theory
assertion that each individual has an ideal body weight, or set point, that is resistant to change
schema
(plural = schemata) mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts
11. Which of the following findings was not a result of the Kinsey study? A) Sexual desire and sexual ability can be separate functions. B) Females enjoy sex as much as males. C) Homosexual behavior is fairly common. C) Masturbation has no adverse consequences.
A) Sexual desire and sexual ability can be separate functions.
15. Brianna is 18 months old. She cries frequently, is hard to soothe, and wakes frequently during the night. According to Thomas and Chess, she would be considered ________. A) an easy baby B) a difficult baby C) a slow to warm up baby D) a colicky baby
B) a difficult baby
10. A mental shortcut in the form of a general problem-solving framework is called ________. A) an algorithm B) a heuristic C) a mental set D) trial and error
B) a heuristic
23. What is a learning disability? A) a developmental disorder B) a neurological disorder C) an emotional disorder D) an intellectual disorder
B) a neurological disorder
17. In order for a test to be normed and standardized it must be tested on ________. A) a group of same-age peers B) a representative sample C) children with mental disabilities D) children of average intelligence
B) a representative sample
3. Which of the following is an example of an artificial concept? A) mammals B) a triangle's area C) gemstones D) teachers
B) a triangle's area
1. Need for ________ refers to maintaining positive relationships with others. A) achievement B) affiliation C) intimacy D) power
B) affiliation
concept
category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences
traits
characteristic ways of behaving
crystallized intelligence
characterized by acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it
avoidant attachment
characterized by child's unresponsiveness to parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if parent leaves
secure attachment
characterized by the child using the parent as a secure base from which to explore
disorganized attachment
characterized by the child's odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused
resistant attachment
characterized by the child's tendency to show clingy behavior and rejection of the parent when she attempts to interact with the child
dyslexia
common learning disability in which letters are not processed properly by the brain
collective unconscious
common psychological tendencies that have been passed down from one generation to the next
language
communication system that involves using words to transmit information from one individual to another
artificial concept
concept that is defined by a very specific set of characteristics
selective migration
concept that people choose to move to places that are compatible with their personalities and needs
mental set
continually using an old solution to a problem without results
self-efficacy
individual's belief in his own capabilities or capacities to complete a task
gender identity
individual's sense of being male or female
distorted body image
individuals view themselves as overweight even though they are not
temperament
innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment
sexual response cycle
divided into 4 phases including excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
psychosocial development
domain of lifespan development that examines emotions, personality, and social relationships. Process proposed by Erikson in which social tasks are mastered as humans move through eight stages of life from infancy to adulthood.
physical development
domain of lifespan development that examines growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness
cognitive development
domain of lifespan development that examines learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity
range of reaction
each person's response to the environment is unique based on his or her genetic make-up
anorexia nervosa
eating disorder characterized by an individual maintaining body weight that is well below average through starvation and/or excessive exercise
projection
ego defense mechanism in which a person confronted with anxiety disguises their unacceptable urges or behaviors by attributing them to other people
rationalization
ego defense mechanism in which a person confronted with anxiety makes excuses to justify behavior
regression
ego defense mechanism in which a person confronted with anxiety returns to a more immature behavioral state
reaction formation
ego defense mechanism in which a person confronted with anxiety swaps unacceptable urges or behaviors for their opposites
displacement
ego defense mechanism in which a person transfers inappropriate urges or behaviors toward a more acceptable or less threatening target
repression
ego defense mechanism in which anxiety-related thoughts and memories are kept in the unconscious
sublimation
ego defense mechanism in which unacceptable urges are channeled into more appropriate activities
sexual orientation
emotional and erotic attraction to same-sexed individuals, opposite-sexed individuals, or both
bisexual
emotional and erotic attractions to both same-sexed individuals and opposite-sexed individuals
heterosexual
emotional and erotic attractions to opposite-sexed individuals
homosexual
emotional and erotic attractions to same-sexed individuals
body language
emotional expression through body position or movement
James-Lange theory of emotion
emotions arise from physiological arousal
Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion
emotions consist of two factors: physiological and cognitive
nurture
environment and culture
overgeneralization
extension of a rule that exists in a given language to an exception to the rule
facial feedback hypothesis
facial expressions are capable of influencing our emotions
anchoring bias
faulty heuristic in which you fixate on a single aspect of a problem to find a solution
confirmation bias
faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that confirms your beliefs
availability heuristic
faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on information readily available to you
representative bias
faulty heuristic in which you stereotype someone or something without a valid basis for your judgment
cognitive psychology
field of psychology dedicated to studying every aspect of how people think
formal operational stage
final stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; from age 11 and up, children are able to deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations
spermarche
first male ejaculation
sensorimotor stage
first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; from birth through age 2, a child learns about the world through senses and motor behavior
satiation
fullness; satisfaction
nature
genes and biology
working backwards
heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by focusing on the end result
temperament
how a person reacts to the world, including their activity level, starting when they are very young
object permanence
idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists
conservation
idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size, volume, or number as long as nothing is added or removed
functional fixedness
inability to see an object as useful for any other use other than the one for which it was intended
newborn reflexes
inborn automatic response to a particular form of stimulation that all healthy babies are born with
dysgraphia
learning disability that causes extreme difficulty in writing legibly
polygraph
lie detector test that measures physiological arousal of individuals as they answer a series of questions
attachment
long-standing connection or bond with others
personality
long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways
syntax
manner by which words are organized into sentences
adrenarche
maturing of the adrenal glands
gonadarche
maturing of the sex glands
standard deviation
measure of variability that describes the difference between a set of scores and their mean
prenatal care
medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the fetus
conscious
mental activity (thoughts, feelings, and memories) that we can access at any time
unconscious
mental activity of which we are unaware and unable to access Previous
natural concept
mental groupings that are created "naturally" through your experiences
heuristic
mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem
problem-solving strategy
method for solving problems
standardization
method of testing in which administration, scoring, and interpretation of results are consistent
intrinsic motivation
motivation based on internal feelings rather than external rewards
extrinsic motivation
motivation that arises from external factors or rewards
embryo
multi-cellular organism in its early stages of development
emerging adulthood
newly defined period of lifespan development from 18 years old to the mid-20s; young people are taking longer to complete college, get a job, get married, and start a family
Flynn effect
observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation
cultural display rule
one of the culturally specific standards that govern the types and frequencies of emotions that are acceptable
primary sexual characteristics
organs specifically needed for reproduction
cognitive-mediational theory
our emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus
self-concept
our thoughts and feelings about ourselves
secure base
parental presence that gives the infant/toddler a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings
uninvolved parenting style
parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; they don't respond to the child's needs and make relatively few demands
authoritative parenting style
parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child's point of view
permissive parenting style
parents make few demands and rarely use punishment
Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test (C-TCB)
projective test designed to be culturally relevant to African Americans, using images that relate to African-American culture
TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test
projective test designed to be culturally relevant to minority groups, especially Hispanic youths, using images and storytelling that relate to minority culture
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
projective test in which people are presented with ambiguous images, and they then make up stories to go with the images in an effort to uncover their unconscious desires, fears, and struggles
Rorschach Inkblot Test
projective test that employs a series of symmetrical inkblot cards that are presented to a client by a psychologist in an effort to reveal the person's unconscious desires, fears, and struggles
Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB)
projective test that is similar to a word association test in which a person completes sentences in order to reveal their unconscious desires, fears, and struggles
heritability
proportion of difference among people that is attributed to genetics
convergent thinking
providing correct or established answers to problems
oral stage
psychosexual stage in which an infant's pleasure is focused on the mouth
anal stage
psychosexual stage in which children experience pleasure in their bowel and bladder movements
latency period
psychosexual stage in which sexual feelings are dormant
genital stage
psychosexual stage in which the focus is on mature sexual interests
phallic stage
psychosexual stage in which the focus is on the genitals
inferiority complex
refers to a person's feelings that they lack worth and don't measure up to others' or to society's standards
leptin
satiety hormone
individual psychology
school of psychology proposed by Adler that focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority
preoperational stage
second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; from ages 2 to 7, children learn to use symbols and language but do not understand mental operations and often think illogically
hospice
service that provides a death with dignity; pain management in a humane and comfortable environment; usually outside of a hospital setting
event schema
set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as a cognitive script
cognitive script
set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as an event schema
role schema
set of expectations that define the behaviors of a person occupying a particular role
grammar
set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of a lexicon
Yerkes-Dodson law
simple tasks are performed best when arousal levels are relatively high, while complex tasks are best performed when arousal is lower Previous
morpheme
smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning
socioemotional selectivity theory
social support/friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not more close than in earlier years
self-efficacy
someone's level of confidence in their own abilities
instinct
species-specific pattern of behavior that is unlearned
hierarchy of needs
spectrum of needs ranging from basic biological needs to social needs to self-actualization
psychosexual stages of development
stages of child development in which a child's pleasure-seeking urges are focused on specific areas of the body called erogenous zones
congruence
state of being in which our thoughts about our real and ideal selves are very similar
incongruence
state of being in which there is a great discrepancy between our real and ideal selves
placenta
structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen to the developing baby
zygote
structure created when a sperm and egg merge at conception; begins as a single cell and rapidly divides to form the embryo and placenta
normative approach
study of development using norms, or average ages, when most children reach specific developmental milestones
emotion
subjective state of being often described as feelings
representative sample
subset of the population that accurately represents the general population
neurosis
tendency to experience negative emotions
lexicon
the words of a given language
Five Factor Model
theory that personality is composed of five factors or traits, including openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
cognition
thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgment, and memory
concrete operational stage
third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; from about 7 to 11 years old, children can think logically about real (concrete) events
critical (sensitive) period
time during fetal growth when specific parts or organs develop
refractory period
time immediately following an orgasm during which an individual is incapable of experiencing another orgasm
binge eating disorder
type of eating disorder characterized by binge eating and associated distress
bulimia nervosa
type of eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging
bariatric surgery
type of surgery that modifies the gastrointestinal system to reduce the amount of food that can be eaten and/or limiting how much of the digested food can be absorbed
defense mechanism
unconscious protective behaviors designed to reduce ego anxiety
transgender hormone therapy
use of hormones to make one's body look more like the opposite-sex
gross motor skills
use of large muscle groups to control arms and legs for large body movements
fine motor skills
use of muscles in fingers, toes, and eyes to coordinate small actions
continuous development
view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills
discontinuous development
view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages
motivation
wants or needs that direct behavior toward some goal
conception
when a sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote
phoneme
basic sound unit of a given language
menarche
beginning of menstrual period; around 12-13 years old
reciprocal determinism
belief that one's environment can determine behavior, but at the same time, people can influence the environment with both their thoughts and behaviors
hindsight bias
belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn't
locus of control
beliefs about the power we have over our lives; an external locus of control is the belief that our outcomes are outside of our control; an internal locus of control is the belief that we control our own outcomes
prototype
best representation of a concept
teratogen
biological, chemical, or physical environmental agent that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus
intelligence quotient
(also, IQ) score on a test designed to measure intelligence
14. According to the ________ theory of emotion, emotional experiences arise from physiological arousal. A) James-Lange B) Cannon-Bard C) Schachter-Singer two-factor D) Darwinian
A) James-Lange
21. Which of the following is NOT a projective test? A) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) B) Rorschach Inkblot Test C) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) D) Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB)
A) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
23. Which personality assessment employs a series of true/false questions? A) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) B) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) C) Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB) D) Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
A) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
3. How is lifespan development defined? A) The study of how we grow and change from conception to death. B) The study of how we grow and change in infancy and childhood. C) The study of physical, cognitive, and psychosocial growth in children. D) The study of emotions, personality, and social relationships.
A) The study of how we grow and change from conception to death.
9. A specific formula for solving a problem is called ________. A) an algorithm B) a heuristic C) a mental set D) trial and error
A) an algorithm
11. Which type of bias involves becoming fixated on a single trait of a problem? A) anchoring bias B) confirmation bias C) representative bias D) availability bias
A) anchoring bias
14. Which of the following is not one of Gardner's Multiple Intelligences? A) creative B) spatial C) linguistic D) musical
A) creative
8. The time during fetal growth when specific parts or organs develop is known as ________. A) critical period B) mitosis C) conception D) pregnancy
A) critical period
4. Carl mows the yard of his elderly neighbor each week for $20. What type of motivation is this? A) extrinsic B) intrinsic C) drive D) biological
A) extrinsic
22. Arthur Jensen believed that ________. A) genetics was solely responsible for intelligence B) environment was solely responsible for intelligence C) intelligence level was determined by race D) IQ tests do not take socioeconomic status into account
A) genetics was solely responsible for intelligence
17. Temperament refers to ________. A) inborn, genetically based personality differences B) characteristic ways of behaving C) conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extroversion D) degree of introversion-extroversion
A) inborn, genetically based personality differences
4. An early science that tried to correlate personality with measurements of parts of a person's skull is known as ________. A) phrenology B) psychology C) physiology D) personality psychology
A) phrenology
11. The child uses the parent as a base from which to explore her world in which attachment style? A) secure B) insecure avoidant C) insecure ambivalent-resistant D) disorganized
A) secure
20. The concept that people choose to move to places that are compatible with their personalities and needs is known as ________. A) selective migration B) personal oriented personality C) socially oriented personality D) individualism
A) selective migration
10. Your level of confidence in your own abilities is known as ________. A) self-efficacy B) self-concept C) self-control D) self-esteem
A) self-efficacy
16. Which of the following theories of emotion would suggest that polygraphs should be quite accurate at differentiating one emotion from another? A) Cannon-Bard theory B) James-Lange theory C) Schachter-Singer two-factor theory Darwinian theory
B) James-Lange theory
8. ________ is (are) the basic sound units of a spoken language. A) Syntax B) Phonemes C) Morphemes D) Grammar
B) Phonemes
9.3 Stages of Development
At conception the egg and sperm cell are united to form a zygote, which will begin to divide rapidly. This marks the beginning of the first stage of prenatal development (germinal stage), which lasts about two weeks. Then the zygote implants itself into the lining of the woman's uterus, marking the beginning of the second stage of prenatal development (embryonic stage), which lasts about six weeks. The embryo begins to develop body and organ structures, and the neural tube forms, which will later become the brain and spinal cord. The third phase of prenatal development (fetal stage) begins at 9 weeks and lasts until birth. The body, brain, and organs grow rapidly during this stage. During all stages of pregnancy it is important that the mother receive prenatal care to reduce health risks to herself and to her developing baby. Newborn infants weigh about 7.5 pounds. Doctors assess a newborn's reflexes, such as the sucking, rooting, and Moro reflexes. Our physical, cognitive, and psychosocial skills grow and change as we move through developmental stages from infancy through late adulthood. Attachment in infancy is a critical component of healthy development. Parenting styles have been found to have an effect on childhood outcomes of well-being. The transition from adolescence to adulthood can be challenging due to the timing of puberty, and due to the extended amount of time spent in emerging adulthood. Although physical decline begins in middle adulthood, cognitive decline does not begin until later. Activities that keep the body and mind active can help maintain good physical and cognitive health as we age. Social supports through family and friends remain important as we age.
13. Who created the very first modern hospice? A) Elizabeth Kübler-Ross B) Cicely Saunders C) Florence Wald D) Florence Nightingale
B) Cicely Saunders
social-cognitive theory
Bandura's theory of personality that emphasizes both cognition and learning as sources of individual differences in personality
24. Which of the following statements is true? A) Poverty always affects whether individuals are able to reach their full intellectual potential. B) An individual's intelligence is determined solely by the intelligence levels of his siblings. C) The environment in which an individual is raised is the strongest predictor of her future intelligence D) There are many factors working together to influence an individual's intelligence level.
D) There are many factors working together to influence an individual's intelligence level.
18. According to the Eysencks' theory, people who score high on neuroticism tend to be ________. A) calm B) stable C) outgoing D) anxious
D) anxious
13. Fluid intelligence is characterized by ________. A) being able to recall information B) being able to create new products C) being able to understand and communicate with different cultures D) being able to see complex relationships and solve problems
D) being able to see complex relationships and solve problems
7. ________ is characterized by episodes of binge eating followed by attempts to compensate for the excessive amount of food that was consumed. A) Prader-Willi syndrome B) morbid obesity C) anorexia nervosa D) bulimia nervosa
D) bulimia nervosa
12. The frontal lobes become fully developed ________. A) at birth B) at the beginning of adolescence C) at the end of adolescence D) by 25 years old
D) by 25 years old
13. The idea that people's ideas about themselves should match their actions is called ________. A) confluence B) conscious C) conscientiousness D) congruence
D) congruence
12. If someone is uncomfortable identifying with the gender normally associated with their biological sex, then he could be classified as experiencing ________. A) homosexuality B) bisexuality C) heterosexuality D) gender dysphoria
D) gender dysphoria
1. Personality is thought to be ________. A) short term and easily changed B) a pattern of short-term characteristics C) unstable and short term D) long term, stable and not easily changed
D) long term, stable and not easily changed
2. The long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways are known as ________. A) psychodynamic B) temperament C) humors D) personality
D) personality
3. ________ is an individual's belief in her capability to complete some task. A) physiological needs B) self-esteem C) self-actualization D) self-efficacy
D) self-efficacy
7. The meaning of words and phrases is determined by applying the rules of ________. A) lexicon B) phonemes C) overgeneralization D) semantics
D) semantics
16. According to the findings of the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart, identical twins, whether raised together or apart have ________ personalities. A) slightly different B) very different C) slightly similar D) very similar
D) very similar
7. Which of the following is the correct order of prenatal development? A) zygote, fetus, embryo B) fetus, embryo zygote C) fetus, zygote, embryo D) zygote, embryo, fetus
D) zygote, embryo, fetus
10.4 Emotion
Emotions are subjective experiences that consist of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal. Various theories have been put forward to explain our emotional experiences. The James-Lange theory asserts that emotions arise as a function of physiological arousal. The Cannon-Bard theory maintains that emotional experience occurs simultaneous to and independent of physiological arousal. The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory suggests that physiological arousal receives cognitive labels as a function of the relevant context and that these two factors together result in an emotional experience. The limbic system is the brain's emotional circuit, which includes the amygdala and the hippocampus. Both of these structures are implicated in playing a role in normal emotional processing as well as in psychological mood and anxiety disorders. Increased amygdala activity is associated with learning to fear, and it is seen in individuals who are at risk for or suffering from mood disorders. The volume of the hippocampus has been shown to be reduced in individuals suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder. The ability to produce and recognize facial expressions of emotions seems to be universal regardless of cultural background. However, there are cultural display rules which influence how often and under what circumstances various emotions can be expressed. Tone of voice and body language also serve as a means by which we communicate information about our emotional states.
11.5 Humanistic Approaches
Humanistic psychologists Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers focused on the growth potential of healthy individuals. They believed that people strive to become self-actualized. Both Rogers's and Maslow's theories greatly contributed to our understanding of the self. They emphasized free will and self-determination, with each individual desiring to become the best person they can become.
10.2 Hunger and Eating
Hunger and satiety are highly regulated processes that result in a person maintaining a fairly stable weight that is resistant to change. When more calories are consumed than expended, a person will store excess energy as fat. Being significantly overweight adds substantially to a person's health risks and problems, including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, certain cancers, and other medical issues. Sociocultural factors that emphasize thinness as a beauty ideal and a genetic predisposition contribute to the development of eating disorders in many young females, though eating disorders span ages and genders.
7.5 Measures of Intelligence
In this section, we learned about the history of intelligence testing and some of the challenges regarding intelligence testing. Intelligence tests began in earnest with Binet; Wechsler later developed intelligence tests that are still in use today: the WAIS-IV and WISC-V. The Bell curve shows the range of scores that encompass average intelligence as well as standard deviations.
analytical psychology
Jung's theory focusing on the balance of opposing forces within one's personality and the significance of the collective unconscious
7.1 What Is Cognition?
In this section, you were introduced to cognitive psychology, which is the study of cognition, or the brain's ability to think, perceive, plan, analyze, and remember. Concepts and their corresponding prototypes help us quickly organize our thinking by creating categories into which we can sort new information. We also develop schemata, which are clusters of related concepts. Some schemata involve routines of thought and behavior, and these help us function properly in various situations without having to "think twice" about them. Schemata show up in social situations and routines of daily behavior.
7.4 What Are Intelligence and Creativity?
Intelligence is a complex characteristic of cognition. Many theories have been developed to explain what intelligence is and how it works. Sternberg generated his triarchic theory of intelligence, whereas Gardner posits that intelligence is comprised of many factors. Still others focus on the importance of emotional intelligence. Finally, creativity seems to be a facet of intelligence, but it is extremely difficult to measure objectively.
7.2 Language
Language is a communication system that has both a lexicon and a system of grammar. Language acquisition occurs naturally and effortlessly during the early stages of life, and this acquisition occurs in a predictable sequence for individuals around the world. Language has a strong influence on thought, and the concept of how language may influence cognition remains an area of study and debate in psychology.
9.1 What Is Lifespan Development?
Lifespan development explores how we change and grow from conception to death. This field of psychology is studied by developmental psychologists. They view development as a lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across three developmental domains: physical, cognitive development, and psychosocial. There are several theories of development that focus on the following issues: whether development is continuous or discontinuous, whether development follows one course or many, and the relative influence of nature versus nurture on development.
7.3 Problem Solving
Many different strategies exist for solving problems. Typical strategies include trial and error, applying algorithms, and using heuristics. To solve a large, complicated problem, it often helps to break the problem into smaller steps that can be accomplished individually, leading to an overall solution. Roadblocks to problem solving include a mental set, functional fixedness, and various biases that can cloud decision making skills.
10.1 Motivation
Motivation to engage in a given behavior can come from internal and/or external factors. Multiple theories have been put forward regarding motivation. More biologically oriented theories deal with the ways that instincts and the need to maintain bodily homeostasis motivate behavior. Bandura postulated that our sense of self-efficacy motivates behaviors, and there are a number of theories that focus on a variety of social motives. Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a model that shows the relationship among multiple motives that range from lower-level physiological needs to the very high level of self-actualization.
11.2 Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective
Sigmund Freud presented the first comprehensive theory of personality. He was also the first to recognize that much of our mental life takes place outside of our conscious awareness. Freud also proposed three components to our personality: the id, ego, and superego. The job of the ego is to balance the sexual and aggressive drives of the id with the moral ideal of the superego. Freud also said that personality develops through a series of psychosexual stages. In each stage, pleasure focuses on a specific erogenous zone. Failure to resolve a stage can lead one to become fixated in that stage, leading to unhealthy personality traits. Successful resolution of the stages leads to a healthy adult.
11.6 Biological Approaches
Some aspects of our personalities are largely controlled by genetics; however, environmental factors (such as family interactions) and maturation can affect the ways in which children's personalities are expressed.
10.3 Sexual Behavior
The hypothalamus and structures of the limbic system are important in sexual behavior and motivation. There is evidence to suggest that our motivation to engage in sexual behavior and our ability to do so are related, but separate, processes. Alfred Kinsey conducted large-scale survey research that demonstrated the incredible diversity of human sexuality. William Masters and Virginia Johnson observed individuals engaging in sexual behavior in developing their concept of the sexual response cycle. While often confused, sexual orientation and gender identity are related, but distinct, concepts.
11.3 Neo-Freudians: Adler, Erikson, Jung, and Horney
The neo-Freudians were psychologists whose work followed from Freud's. They generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but they decreased the emphasis on sex and focused more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality. Some of the notable neo-Freudians are Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney. The neo-Freudian approaches have been criticized, because they tend to be philosophical rather than based on sound scientific research. For example, Jung's conclusions about the existence of the collective unconscious are based on myths, legends, dreams, and art. In addition, as with Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the neo-Freudians based much of their theories of personality on information from their patients.
9.2 Lifespan Theories
There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop into happy, healthy adults. Sigmund Freud suggested that we pass through a series of psychosexual stages in which our energy is focused on certain erogenous zones on the body. Eric Erikson modified Freud's ideas and suggested a theory of psychosocial development. Erikson said that our social interactions and successful completion of social tasks shape our sense of self. Jean Piaget proposed a theory of cognitive development that explains how children think and reason as they move through various stages. Finally, Lawrence Kohlberg turned his attention to moral development. He said that we pass through three levels of moral thinking that build on our cognitive development.
advance directive
a written legal document that details specific interventions a person wants (see living will)
living will
a written legal document that details specific interventions a person wants; may include health care proxy
cultural intelligence
ability with which people can understand and relate to those in another culture
creativity
ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities
motor skills
ability to move our body and manipulate objects
creative intelligence
ability to produce new products, ideas, or inventing a new, novel solution to a problem
fluid intelligence
ability to see complex relationships and solve problems
cognitive empathy
ability to take the perspective of others and to feel concern for others
divergent thinking
ability to think "outside the box" to arrive at novel solutions to a problem
emotional intelligence
ability to understand emotions and motivations in yourself and others
stage of moral reasoning
process proposed by Kohlberg; humans move through three stages of moral development
drive theory
deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs that result in psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the need and ultimately bring the system back to homeostasis
gender dysphoria
diagnostic category in DSM-5 for individuals who do not identify as the gender associated with their biological sex
authoritarian parenting style
parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child
central nucleus
part of the brain involved in attention and has connections with the hypothalamus and various brainstem areas to regulate the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems' activity
basolateral complex
part of the brain with dense connections with a variety of sensory areas of the brain; it is critical for classical conditioning and attaching emotional value to memory
habit
pattern of behavior in which we regularly engage
archetype
pattern that exists in our collective unconscious across cultures and societies
orgasm
peak phase of the sexual response cycle associated with rhythmic muscle contractions (and ejaculation)
adolescence
period of development that begins at puberty and ends at early adulthood
ideal self
person we would like to be
real self
person who we actually are
Projective test
personality assessment in which a person responds to ambiguous stimuli, revealing hidden feelings, impulses, and desires
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
personality test composed of a series of true/false questions in order to establish a clinical profile of an individual
resolution
phase of the sexual response cycle following orgasm during which the body returns to its unaroused state
plateau
phase of the sexual response cycle that falls between excitement and orgasm
excitement
phase of the sexual response cycle that involves sexual arousal
secondary sexual characteristics
physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time
components of emotion
physiological arousal, psychological appraisal, and subjective experience
egocentrism
preoperational child's difficulty in taking the perspective of others
reversibility
principle that objects can be changed, but then returned back to their original form or condition
algorithm
problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions
trial and error
problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are attempted until the correct one is found
semantics
process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words
mitosis
process of cell division
psychosexual development
process proposed by Freud in which pleasure-seeking urges focus on different erogenous zones of the body as humans move through five stages of life