Psychology Unit 2 Questions

What is behavior modification?

*Behavior modification* is the application of learning principles to help people develop more effective or adaptive behaviors.

What are some advantages and disadvantages of each problem-solving strategy?

*Trial and error* can be a useful problem-solving strategy, but it can be very time-consuming when the range of possible answers or solutions is large. *Algorithms* inevitably produce the correct solution, but are not always practical. *Heuristic* strategies are not guaranteed to solve a given problem, but they reduce the number of possible solutions.

What are the short-term signals that regulate eating behavior?

About 30 minutes before you eat, you experience a slight increase in blood levels of insulin and a slight decrease in blood levels of glucose. *Ghrelin*, or the hunger hormone, rises sharply before meals. *Classical conditioning* and *operant conditioning* affect eating behavior. *Positive reinforcement* places a role in eating too. We stop eating because of *satiation*, involving *stretch receptors* in the stomach, a neurotransmitter called *CCK*, and *sensory-specific satiety*.

What were the fundamental assumptions of behaviorism?

All human behavior is a result of *conditioning* and learning—past experience and environmental influences.

How did Watson apply classical conditioning techniques to advertising?

Classical conditioning is widely used in commercials, pairing emotion-evoking images with otherwise neutral stimuli, like soft drinks or new cars.

What factors contribute to excess weight and obesity?

Factors involved in becoming overweight include overeating, highly palatable foods, variety, sedentary lifestyles, inadequate sleep, individual changes, and lifespan changes.

How do neurons change when a memory is formed?

First, the *function* of the neurons is altered: There is an increase in the amount of the neurotransmitters produced by the neurons. Second, the *structure* of the neurons changes: The number of interconnecting branches between the neurons increases, as does the number of synapses, or communication points, on each branch. Collectively, these changes are called *long-term potentiation*.

How do social, cultural, and psychological factors affect performance on intelligence tests?

In many different societies, average IQ is lower for members of a discriminated-against minority group, event when that group is not racially different from the dominant group. Also, tests tend to favor the people from the culture in which they were created.

What is the stage model of memory?

In the *stage model* of memory, memory is described as consisting of three distinct stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

What are the duration and capacity of short-term memory?

Information in short-term memory lasts for about *20 seconds* before it is forgotten. However, information can be maintained in short-term memory through maintenance rehearsal. The *capacity* of short-term memory was believed to be limited to about seven items at a time. Current research suggests that the true magical number is more likely to be four plus or minus one when chunking is not involved.

What are the characteristics of language?

Language is characterized by *arbitrary* symbols, making it tremendously flexible. These symbols are *shared* by those who speak the language, which is why other languages sound like gibberish. Language is a highly structured system, following *syntax* rules for combining words. Language is also *generative* meaning you can generate an infinite number of new phrases and sentences. Finally, language has *displacement*, allowing us to communicate about ideas, objects, and activities that are not physically present.

What are some important criticisms of Maslow's theory?

Maslow's notion that we must satisfy needs at one level before moving to the next has not been supported by empirical research. His concept of self-actualization is very vague and cannot be tested scientifically. His initial studies have questionable reliability. Also, most people do not experience or achieve self-actualization.

How has the involvement of cognitive processes in classical conditioning been demonstrated experimentally?

One group of rats was shocked while hearing a tone 20 times, and another group was shocked 20 times with a tone and 20 times without. The rats in the second group displayed less fear, leading Rescorla to conclude that the rats in both groups were *actively processing information* about the reliability of the signals they encountered.

What is Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences?

Rather than one intelligence, *Gardner* believes there are multiple intelligences for solving problems that are valued within one or more cultural settings. Thus, he believes that intelligence must be defined with the context of a particular culture.

What factors contribute to the formation of false memories?

Repeatedly imagining an event makes it seem increasingly familiar, causing source confusion and mixing the imagination with the actual event.

How is retrieval tested, and what is serial position effect?

Retrieval is tested in one of three ways. *Recall* is a test of memory involving retrieval without retrieval cues. *Cued recall* involves remembering information in response to a cue. *Recognition* involves identifying correct information out of several possible choices. *Serial position effect* refers to the tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than the middle.

What were B.F. Skinner's key assumptions?

Skinner's *operant conditioning* explains learning as a process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences. *Reinforcement* is said to occur when a stimulus follows an operant and increases the likelihood of the operant being repeated.

What factors can affect classical conditioning?

Stimulus *generalization* and *discrimination* occur when similar stimuli elicit the conditioned response or are distinguished from the conditioned stimulus. *Higher order conditioning* occurs when a conditioned stimulus from one learning trial functions as the unconditioned stimulus in a new conditioning trail. Gradual weakening of conditioned behavior can lead to *extinction*, but *spontaneous recovery* is the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response.

What are discriminative stimuli?

The *discriminative stimulus* is the specific stimulus in the presence of which a particular operant is more likely to be reinforced.

What brain structures are involved in normal memory?

The *hippocampus* encodes new memories and transfers them to long-term memory. The *cerebellum* is involved in procedural memories and the *amygdala* handles emotional components of memories. The *frontal lobes* organize information associated with episodic memories, and the *prefrontal cortex* plays a role in working memory. The *medial temporal lobes* are involved in encoding complex memories.

What is the misinformation effect?

The *misinformation effect* is where someone's existing memories are altered by misleading information. Whether it is in the form of suggestive questions, misinformation, or other exposure to conflicting details, such post-event experiences can distort eyewitness memories.

What is the partial reinforcement effect, and how do the four schedules of reinforcement differ in their effects?

The *partial reinforcement effect* refers to the phenomenon in which behaviors conditioned with partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than behavior conditioned using continuous reinforcement. With a *fixed-ratio* schedule, reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses. With a *variable-ratio* schedule, reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses, which varies from trial to trial. On a *fixed-interval* schedule, a reinforcer is delivered for the first response emitted after the preset time interval has elapsed. On a *variable-interval* schedule, reinforcement occurs for the first response emitted after an average amount of time has elapsed, but the interval varies from trial to trial.

How is the sympathetic nervous system involved in intense emotional responses?

The *sympathetic nervous system* triggers the fight-or-flight response when you are threatened, and it is also activated by other intense emotions, such as excitement, passionate love, or extreme joy.

How does the semantic network model explain the organization of long-term memory?

The model explains how when one concept is activated, it can spread in any number of directions, activating other associations in the semantic network.

How do taste aversions challenge the basic principles of classical conditioning, and what is biological preparedness?

The particular conditioned stimulus that is used does make a difference in classical conditioning. Rats were more likely to associate pain with external stimuli and taste with internal stimuli.

What are the basic emotions?

The six basic emotions are fear, disgust, surprise, happiness, anger, and sadness. Each basic emotion represents a family of related emotional states, and people often experience a blend of emotions.

How do we manipulate mental images?

We tend to scan and manipulate mental images in the same way that we visually scan or physically rotate an actual image.

What evidence supports the idea that facial expressions for basic emotions are universal?

*Blind people* naturally make the same faces as those who can see. Also, people from Papua New Guinea were able to identify Western facial expressions *without any knowledge* of the culture.

What is source confusion, and how can it distort memories?

*Source confusion* arises when the true source of the memory is forgotten or when a memory is attributed to the wrong source. This can explain why false details provided after the event become confused with the details of the original memory.

What is g, and how did Spearman and Thurstone view intelligence?

*Spearman* believed that a factor he called general intelligence, or the *g* factor, was responsible for overall performance on tests of mental ability. *Thurstone* believed that their were seven different primary mental abilities, each a relatively independent element of intelligence.

What are three basic types of learning?

*Classical conditioning* explains how certain stimuli can trigger an automatic response. *Operant conditioning* is useful in understanding how we acquire voluntary actions. *Observational learning* is how we acquire new behaviors by observing the actions of others.

Why are standardization, validity, and reliability important components of psychological tests?

*Standardization* is the administration of a test to a representative sample to establish norms. *Reliability* refers to the ability of a test to produce consistent results. *Validity* is the ability of a test to measure what is intended to measure.

How does competence motivation differ from achievement motivation, and how is achievement motivation measured?

*Competence motivation* provides much of the motivational push to prove to yourself that you can successfully tackle new challenges. *Achievement motivation* is the drive to excel, succeed, or outperform others at some task. Achievement motivation is measured with the need for achievement test.

What are the nature and function of sensory memory?

*Sensory memory* registers a great deal of information from the environment and holds it for a very brief period of time. This information is available just long enough for us to pay attention to specific elements that are significant to us at that moment.

How did Watson use classical conditioning to explain and produce conditioned emotional responses?

He taught a baby to associate a metal clang with a rat, which made him terrified of furry animals and white beards.

How is emotion related to the topic of motivation?

Motivation is closely tied to emotional processes—emotions can drive a behavior.

How do we use the availability and representativeness heuristics to help us estimate the likelihood of an event?

When we use the *availability heuristic*, we estimate the likelihood of an event on the basis of how readily available other instances of the event are in our memory. With the *representativeness heuristic*, we estimate an event's likelihood by comparing how similar its essential features are to our prototype of the event.

What chemical signals are involved in the long-term regulation of stable body weight?

*Leptin* is a hormone directly correlated with body fat, a key element in the feedback loop that regulates energy homeostasis. *Insulin* is also involved in brain mechanisms controlling food intake and body weight. *Neuropeptide Y*, or *NPY*, is a neurotransmitter secreted during periods of weight loss.

What are some of the basic characteristics of mental images?

*Mental images* are mental representations of objects or events that are not physically present. The brain processes mental images in the same way that it processes physical perceptions.

How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement?

*Negative reinforcement* always increases the likeliness that an operant will be repeated in the future. In contrast, *punishment* always decreases the future performance of an event.

What three characteristics are associated with motivation?

*Activation* is demonstrated by the initiation or production of behavior. *Persistence* is demonstrated by continued efforts or the determination to achieve a particular goal, often in the face of obstacles. *Intensity* is seen as the greater vigor of responding that usually accompanies motivated behavior.

What roles did Binet, Terman, and Wechsler play in the development of intelligence tests?

*Alfred Binet* was a French psychologist who devised a series of tests to measure different mental abilities. American psychologist *Lewis Terman* revised Binet's test to measure IQ and it become the standard for intelligence tests in the United States. In 1955, *David Wechsler* designed a new intelligence test reflecting his belief that intelligence involved a variety of mental abilities.

How did Binet, Terman, and Wechsler differ in their beliefs about intelligence and its measurement?

*Binet* developed the idea of a mental age, but he firmly believed that intelligence was too complex a quality to describe with a single number. *Terman* added a single number score to Binet's test, expressing an individual's mental level in terms of the average abilities of a given age group. *Wechler* believed that intelligence involved a variety of mental abilities.

What is BMI?

*Body mass index* is a widely used measure of weight status, providing a single numerical value reflecting your weight in relation to your height.

How can you overcome the limitations of short-term memory?

*Chunking*, or grouping related items together in a single unit, allows us to hold more information in our short-term memory.

What are concepts, and how are they formed?

*Concepts* are mental categories we form to group objects, events, or situations that share similar features or characteristics. Concepts economize the cognitive effort required for thinking and communicating. *Formal concepts* are formed by learning the rule or features that define the particular concept. *Natural concepts* are formed through everyday experience.

What is conditioning?

*Conditioning* is the process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses.

What are dementia and Alzheimer's disease?

*Dementia* is a broad term that refers to the decline and impairment of memory, reasoning, language, and other cognitive functions. The leading cause of dementia is *Alzheimer's disease*, which mostly affects those over age 60.

How does culture affect the behavioral expression of emotion?

*Display rules* can lead others to mask their emotions out of respect or pride.

What are ways to improve the effectiveness of encoding?

*Elaborating* on information by telling a story, *applying* information to yourself, and the use of *visual imagery* all enhance encoding. *Restate* information in your own words, *actively* question new information, and *think* about potential applications and implications of the material. *Generate* your own examples of the concept and *relate* the new material to information you already know.

How do encoding failure, interference, and decay contribute to forgetting, and how can prospective memory be improved?

*Encoding failure* occurs when insufficient encoding occurs in long-term memory. This is often caused by absentmindedness. *Prospective memory* is the inability to recall a memory because of missing or inadequate retrieval cues. According to *decay theory*, we forget memories because we don't use them and they fade away over time—but much evidence contradicts this theory.

What are encoding, storage, and retrieval?

*Encoding* refers to the process of transforming information into a form that can be entered and retained by the memory system. *Storage* is the process of retaining information, and *retrieval* involves recovering the stored information.

What is energy homeostasis, and how is food converted to energy?

*Energy homeostasis* is the equilibrium of calories consumed and calories expended. Food is broken down by enzymes and converted into amino acids, fatty acids, and simple sugars that can be used for energy.

How can functional fixedness and mental set interfere with problem solving?

*Functional fixedness* prevents us from seeing the full range of ways in which an object can be used. If we approach a problem with a rigid *mental set*, we may not see other solutions.

Who was H.M. and what did his case reveal about normal memory processes?

*Henry Molaison* suffered from severe anterograde amnesia after having his hippocampus and amygdala removed to prevent seizures. Over the next half-century, he participated in hundreds of studies that fundamentally altered the scientific understanding of memory. His case suggests that the hippocampus is not involved in most short-term memory tasks, nor is it the storage site for already established long-term memories. Instead, the critical role played by the hippocampus seems to be the encoding of new memories and the transfer of those new memories to long-term memory.

What is a heritability estimate, and why can't it be used to explain differences between groups?

*Heritability* refers to the percentage of variation within a given population that is due to heredity. Unless the environmental conditions of two racial groups are virtually identical, it is impossible to estimate the overall genetic differences between the two groups.

What is insight, and how does intuition work?

*Insight* is the sudden realization of how a problem can be solved. In *intuition*, you unconsciously perceive a pattern in the information you're considering, then consciously represent it in a hypothesis. An intuitive hunch integrates new information with existing knowledge.

How do procedural, episodic, and semantic memories differ, and what are implicit and explicit memory?

*Procedural memories* relate to skills, operations, and actions. *Episodic memories* are those relating to particular events. *Semantic memories* include general knowledge, concepts, facts, and names. *Explicit memory* is memory with awareness, while *implicit memory* is memory without awareness.

What is repression and why is the topic controversial?

*Repression* is motivated forgetting that occurs unconsciously. With repression, all memory of a distressing event or experience is blocked from conscious awareness. This is a cornerstone of Freud's psychoanalysis, but trying to scientifically confirm the influence of memories is difficult.

What are retrieval cues and how do they work?

*Retrieval cues* are prompts that trigger recall of a given piece of information stored in long-term memory.

What are schemas and scripts, and how can they contribute to memory distortions?

*Schemas* are organized clusters of knowledge and information about particular topics. One type of schema, called a *script*, involves the typical sequence of actions and behaviors at a common event. The schemas we have developed can promote memory errors by prompting us to fill in missing details with schema-consistent information.

How does shaping work?

*Shaping* involves reinforcing successively closer approximations of a behavior until the correct behavior is displayed.

How does Maslow's hierarchy of needs explain human motivation?

Abraham Maslow believed that people are innately motivated to satisfy a progression of needs, beginning with the most basic physiological needs. Once the needs at a particular level are satisfied, the individual is motivated to satisfy the needs at the next level, steadily progressing upward. The ultimate goal is self-actualization, the realization of personal potential.

How do instinct, drive, incentive, arousal, and humanistic theories explain the general principles of motivation?

According to *instinct theories*, people are motivated to engage in certain behaviors because of evolutionary programming. *Drive theories* asserted that behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs. *Incentive theories* proposed that behavior is motivated by the pull of external goals, such as rewards, money, or recognition. *Arousal theory* is based on the observation that people experience both very high levels of arousal and very low levels of arousal as being quite unpleasant. Although not discounting the role of biological and external motivators, *humanistic theories* emphasized psychological and cognitive components in human motivation.

What are the basic principles and key criticisms of the James-Lange theory of emotion?

According to the James-Lange theory, we don't tremble and run because we are afraid, we are afraid because we tremble and run. The problems with this theory include our ability to distinguish between emotions with similar effects, our emotional response often being faster than our physiological reaction, the lack of emotion in artificially induced psychological changes, and continued emotions after spinal injuries.

What is meant by the phrase "the animal behaves like a scientist" in classical conditioning?

Animals detect *causal relations* among events and use a range of information about those events to make relevant inferences. Classical conditioning involves learning the relationships between events.

How are positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement similar, and how are they different?

Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. *Positive reinforcement* involves a behavior that leads to a reinforcing or rewarding event. In contrast, *negative reinforcement* involves behavior that leads to the avoidance of or escape from an aversive or punishing event.

How does classical conditioning occur?

Classical conditioning involves pairing a *neutral stimulus* with an unlearned, *natural stimulus* that automatically elicits the same basic reflexive response as the natural stimulus, even in the absence of the natural stimulus.

What discoveries were made by Hermann Ebbinghaus?

Ebbinghaus discovered that much of what we forget is lost relatively soon after we originally learned it. He also found that the amount of forgetting eventually levels off.

What are the three components of emotion, and what functions do emotions serve?

Emotion involves three distinct components: a *subjective experience*, a *physiological response*, and a *behavioral* or *expressive response*. People high in emotional intelligence posses the ability to manage their own emotions, comprehend the emotional responses of others, and respond appropriately to the emotions of other people.

How did Albert Bandura demonstrate the principles of observational learning?

He showed children a man being destructive with three different outcomes—reward, punishment, or no consequence. The children who saw the punishment were less likely to repeat the adult's actions, unless given a reward.

How are twin studies used to measure genetic and environmental influences on intelligence?

Identical twins share exactly the same genes, so any dissimilarities between them must be due to environmental factors rather than hereditary difference. Studies found that both genetic and environmental influences are important.

What is imagination inflation, and how has it been demonstrated?

Imagining the past as different from what it was can change the way you remember it. Several studies have shown that vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred in childhood, an effect called *imagination inflation*.

How has observational learning been shown in animals?

The ability to learn a novel behavior through observation has been demonstrated in many different species of animals. Orangutans in a study imitated the behavior of both humans and other orangutans, but they were more likely to imitate dominant models.

What are the main components of Baddeley's model of working memory?

In Baddeley's model of working memory, there are three main components, each of which can function independently. The *phonological loop* is specialized for verbal material, such as lists of numbers or words. The *visuospatial sketchpad* is specialized for spatial or visual material, such as remembering the layout of a room or city. The *central executive* controls attention, integrates information, and manages the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

What characteristics are associated with a high level of achievement motivation, and how does culture affect achievement motivation?

Measures of achievement motivation generally correlate well with various areas of success, and those who score high expend their greatest efforts when faced with moderately challenging tasks. They often display original thinking, seek expert advice, and value feedback about their performance.

What four mental processes are involved in observational learning?

Paying *attention* to the other person's behavior, *remembering* it for later, *transforming* the memory into actions, and *motivation* to perform the action are all required for observational learning.

What factors influence the effectiveness of punishment?

Punishment is more effective if it *immediately* follows a response than if it is delayed. It is also more effective if it *consistently* follows a response.

What effects are associated with the use of punishment to control behavior, and what are some alternative ways to change behavior?

Punishment may decrease a specific response, but it *doesn't necessarily teach* or promote a more appropriate response to take its place. Also, punishment that is intense may produce *undesirable results*, such as complete passivity, fear, anxiety, or hostility. *Instead of punishment*, consider reinforcing an incompatible behavior, stop reinforcing the problem behavior, reinforce the non-occurrence of the problem, and remove the opportunity to obtain positive reinforcement.

What brain structures are involved in emotional experience, and what neural pathways make up the brain's fear circuit?

Several studies has shown that the *amygdala* is a key brain structure in the emotional response of fear in humans. One neural pathway leads to the cortex, but the other leads directly to the amygdala, bypassing the cortex. The amygdala sends information to the hypothalamus and the medulla, which trigger the sympathetic nervous system. Another pathway triggers the release of stress hormones.

What is Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence?

Sternberg's theory suggests that there are three distinct forms of intelligence. *Analytic intelligence* refers to the mental processes used in learning how to solve problems. *Creative intelligence* is the ability to deal with novel situations by drawing on existing skills and knowledge. *Practical intelligence* involves the ability to adapt to the environment and often reflects what is commonly called "street smarts."

How can context and mood affect retrieval?

The *context effect* explains why we retrieve information more easily in the same setting that we learned it—environmental cues help with retrieval. *Mood congruence* is the phenomenon in which a given mood tends to evoke memories that are consistent with that mood.

How do the facial feedback hypothesis and other contemporary research support aspects of the James-Lange theory?

The *facial feedback hypothesis* states that expressing a specific emotion causes us to subjectively experience that emotion. In addition, PET scans show that internal changes are registered in the somatosensory cortex before they are consciously recognized.

Under what conditions is each decision-making strategy most appropriate?

The *single-feature* model is a good decision-making strategy when faced with a minor decision. The *additive model* provides a logical strategy for identifying the most acceptable choice from a range of possibilities. The *elimination-by-aspects* model is useful in decisions with many options because it quickly narrows down the alternatives.

What are the two-factor theory and the cognitive appraisal theory of emotion, and how do they emphasize cognitive factors in emotion?

The *two-factor theory* of emotion states that emotion is the result of interaction of physiological arousal and the cognitive label we use to explain our state. The *cognitive appraisal theory* of emotion asserts that the most important aspect of an emotional experience is your cognitive interpretation, or appraisal, of the situation.

What is the lost-in-the-mall technique, and how does it produce false memories?

The research strategy of using information from family members to help create or induce false memories of childhood experiences has been dubbed the *lost-in-the-mall* technique. By having participants remember real events along with imagining pseudoevents, researchers have created false memories for a wide variety of events.

What do tip-of-the-tongue experiences tell us about the nature of memory?

They tell us that memory retrieval is not an all-or-nothing process. In many instances, information is stored in memory but is not accessible without the right retrieval cues. They also tell us that information stored in memory is organized and connected in logical ways.

What are the single-feature model, the additive model, and the elimination-by-aspects model of decision making?

With the *single-feature* model, you base your decision on a single feature. In the *additive model*, you systematically evaluate the important features of each alternative. Using the *elimination-by-aspects* model, you evaluate all of the alternatives one characteristic at a time, starting with the most important feature. If an alternative fails to meet that criterion, it is dropped from the list.

How did Edward Thorndike study the acquisition of new behaviors, and what conclusions did he reach?

Thorndike placed hungry cats in puzzle boxes to study their learning behavior. He concluded that cats' learning is a process of *trial and error* and the law of effect strengthened responses leading to a positive result but not a negative.

What are the effects of bilingualism?

Those who are bilingual are better able to control attention, take the perspective of others, and preserve brain function in old age.

What are the basic premises of self-determination theory?

To realize optimal psychological functioning and growth throughout the lifespan, Ryan and Deci contend that three innate and universal psychological needs must be satisfied: *Autonomy*—the need to control one's own behavior so that it is in harmony with one's own interests and values. *Competence*—the need to learn and master appropriately challenging tasks. *Relatedness*—the need to feel attached to others and experience a sense of belonging.

How did Tolman's research demonstrate the involvement of cognitive processes in learning?

Tolman concluded that learning involves the *acquisition of knowledge* rather than simply changes in outward behavior. Operant conditioning involves the cognitive representation of the relationship between a behavior and its consequence.

What are cognitive maps, latent learning, and learned helplessness?

Tolman describes a mental representation of a familiar environment as a *cognitive map*. *Latent learning* describes learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement but is not behaviorally demonstrated until after a reinforcer becomes available. *Learned helplessness* refers to a phenomenon in which exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior.

What role does distinctiveness play in retrieval, and how accurate are flashbulb memories?

Unusual, surprising, or bizarre experiences are easier to retrieve than routine events because they are characterized by a high degree of distinctiveness. Although *flashbulb memories* can seem incredibly vivid, they appear to function just as everyday memories. What does seem to distinguish them is the high degree of confidence the person has in the accuracy of these memories.

How are memories both localized and distributed in the brain?

Very simple memories may be localized in a specific area, whereas more complex memories are distributed throughout the brain. A complex memory involves clusters of information, and each part of the memory may be stored in the brain area that originally processed the information.

What has research found about the cognitive abilities of animals?

Whether animals think or consciously reason is unknown, but animals communicate with one other and display a wide range of cognitive abilities in many different species.

How did Pavlov discover and investigate classical conditioning?

While studying salivation, he discovered that dogs began salivating whenever he entered the room because they associated him with food.