public speaking

Evidence and persuasion

Use specific evidence. Present novel information. Use credible sources.

What sets public speaking apart?

1. Builds community 2. Audience centered 3. Influenced by technology 4. Prepares for public dialogue

Slippery Slope

Argument that claims a first step in a certain direction will inevitably lead to undesirable further steps in that direction.

Fallacies

Arguments that seem valid but is flawed because of unsound evidence or reasoning.

Language and Rhythm

Arrangement of words into patterns so the sound of the words together enhance the meaning of a phrase.

problematic audiences

Audiences who think they won't be interested Distracted or disruptive audience Confused audience Audiences who plan their responses instead of listening

Hasty Generalization

Based on too few cases or examples to support a conclusion.

Conclusion

Bring your speech to an end Reinforce your thesis statement Summarize main points Remember it's a summary No new information Try to use same language as the rest of the speech Answer introductory question (if you started with one) Refer back to the introduction Recite a quotation

Introduction

Catch the audience's attention Reveal topic to the audience Establish credibility with audience Preview speech: brief overview of each of the main points of the speech

5 basic organizational patterns

Chronological Spatial Causal Problem-solution pattern Topical

Audience as a diverse group

Complex and varied groups of people the speaker addresses So we're all different in many ways, and there are many levels on which we are different -> Master Statuses Master Status: Significant positions occupied by a person within society that affects that person's identity in almost all social situations" Standpoint Attitudes Belief Values Demographics Stereotyping

Speaking outline

Condensed form of a preparation outline that you use when speaking Remember specific points or phrases Delivery notes (breathe, make eye contact, etc.)

3 conditions for creating an invitational environment

Condition of Equality: All audience members hold equally valid perspectives worthy of exploration. Condition of Value:Inherent value of the audience's views, although those views may differ from the speaker's views. Condition of Self-Determination: People know what is best for them and have the right to make choices about their lives based on this knowledge.

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Explains that receivers process persuasive messages in either a central processing or a peripheral processing route, depending on how motivated the audience is to think critically about a message. Central: Active and critical engagement, potentially heavily influenced by speaker. Peripheral: Passive engagement, potentially moved more by dress or delivery than message.

4 methods of delivery

Extemporaneous: Carefully prepared and practiced from brief notes, rather than from memory or a written manuscript Impromptu: Not planned or prepared in advance Manuscript: Read to an audience from a written text Memorized: Speech that has been written out, memorized, and given word-for-word

Why are visual aids important

Gain and maintain audience attention Help audience recall information Explain and clarify information May increase persuasiveness and enhance credibility May help reduce nervousness

Non inclusive language

Gender-inclusive language Culturally inclusive language Spotlighting - highlighting a particular attribute

Articulating your purpose

General Purpose: one of the categories of speaking (To Inform, To Invite, To Persuade, To Introduce, To, Commemorate, To Accept) Specific Purpose: focused statement that identifies exactly what a speaker wants to accomplish with a speech. Helps to have a behavioral objective: What do you want the audience to do after the speech?

Types of plagiarism

Patchwork - forming a complete speech out of several different sources without citation Global- stealing an entire speech and presenting it as if it were your own Incremental - having parts of your speech belong to another single speech

Nonverbal Components of delivery

Personal appearance Eye contact Facial expression Posture Gestures Proxemics

Parallelism

arrangement of related words so that they are balanced, or of related sentences so they have identical structure

Personification

attributes human characteristics to animals, objects, or concepts

Either-or

Presents only two options - "either A or B" - when actually more than two options exists (also known as false dilemma).

Types of informative speaking

Processes: describes how something is done, how something comes to be what it is, or how something works Events: describe or explains a significant, interesting or unusual occurence People or Places: describes significant, interesting, or unusual place or person Objects: about anything that is tangible/that can be perceived with the senses Concepts: About an abstraction, something you can't perceive with your sense, i.e. an idea, principle, world view or belief

Ways to Combat Nervousness

Research Practice Realistic Expectations Practice Visualizations and Affirmations Connect with your Audience

Speaking environment

Time and place in which a speaker will speak Size and physical arrangement Technology Temporal factors (chronemics: issues of time)

Simile

- explicit comparison of two things using like or as

Repetition

- repeating keywords or phrases at the beginnings or endings of sentences or clauses to create rhythm

5 patterns of reasoning

1. Inductive (Reasoning from Specific Instances): Process of reasoning that uses specific instances or examples to make a claim about a general conclusion. 2. Deductive (Reasoning from General Instances): Process of reasoning that uses a familiar and commonly accepted claim to establish the truth of a very specific claim. 3. Causal: Supports a claim by establishing a cause-and-effect relationship. 4. Analogical: Reasoning by way of comparison and similarity that implies that because two things resemble each other in one respect, they also share similarities in another respect. 5. Reasoning by Sign: Assumes something exists or will happen based on something else that exists or has happened.

Types of Persuasive Speaking

1. Questions of fact: Question that addresses whether something is verifiably true or not. 2. Questions of value: Question that addresses the merit or morality of an object, action, or belief. 3. Questions of policy: Question that addresses the best course of action or solution to a problem.

Organization of policy speeches

1. call to action: explicit request that an audience engage in some clearly stated behavior. 2. Gain passive agreement? Goal is to ask audience members to adopt a new position without also asking them to act in support of that position. 3. problem-cause-solution organization: focuses on identifying a specific problem, the causes of that problem, and a solution to the problem. 4. Causal? Based on cause-and-effect relationship that can develop in two ways: from cause to effect or from effect to cause. 5. Narrative organization? Uses one or more stories to construct an argument. 6. Comparative advantages? Illustrates the advantages of one plan over another. 7. Monroe's Motivated Sequence? Step-by-step process used to persuade audiences by gaining attention, demonstrating need, satisfying that need, visualizing beneficial results, and calling for action.

3 types of credibility

Credibility: -Initial: before giving a speech -Derived: develops during a speech -Terminal: at the end of a speech Competence: audience's view of a speaker's intelligence, expertise and knowledge of a subject. Character: audience's view of a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for his or her well-being.

Why do we speak?

Deciding Being Asked Being Required

Preparation outline

Detailed outline a speaker builds when preparing a speech, including: Title, specific purpose, thesis statement Introduction Main points, subpoints, sub-subpoints Connectives Conclusion Source citation

Red Herring

Introduction of irrelevant information into an argument to distract from the real issue.

Why we fail at listening

Listener Interference: anything that stops or hinders a listener from receiving a message Speaker Interference: Speeches must be listenable and considerate Listenable: considerate and delivered in a oral style Considerate: eases the audience's burden of processing information Inability to Get Beyond Differences: We are all different people with different goals.

Audience centered listening

Listening carefully: Purpose, Main Idea, Supporting Evidence and Sources, Write Down New Words, Ideas, and Questions, Listen for Conclusion, and Offer Nonverbal Feedback Listening critically: Looking for accuracy of a speech's content and the implications of a speaker's message Listening ethically: Considering the moral impact of a speaker's message on one's self and one's community Suspending judgment Assess information and respond to the speaker's ideas

False Cause

Mistakes a chronological relationship for a causal relationship.

Finding stuff at the library

Orientations and librarians Library catalogs Databases and indexes Government documents Reference works Evaluating library resources

Public Speaking Process

Speaker Audience Channel Noise Message Feedback Context

Ad Hominem

Speaker attacks a person rather than his or her arguments.

Ethical use of visual aids

Stay audience-centered Avoid misleading images or aids

Bandwagon

Suggests something has merit just because everyone agrees with it or is doing it.

Thesis

Summarizes in a single, declarative sentence the main ideas, assumptions or arguments you want to express in your speech.

Language

System of verbal or gestural symbols a community uses to communicate. Symbol: word or phrase spoken by the speaker NOTE ON THIS DEFINTION Referent: object, concept, or event a symbol represents Thought/Reference: memory and past experiences that audience members have with an object, concept or event

Communication Apprehension

Trait State or Situational

kinds of connectives

Transitions: phrases that indicate a speaker is finished with one idea and moving onto the next Internal previews: details what the speaker plans to discuss next Internal summaries: summarizes a point a speaker has already addressed Signpost: simple word or statement that indicates where you are in your speech or highlights an important idea

Verbal Components of delivery

Volume Rate Pitch Pauses Articulation Pronunciation Dialect

Civility

care and concern for others, the thoughtful use of words and language, and the flexibility to see the many sides of an issue

Metaphor

comparison between two things by describing one thing as being something else (mixed metaphor - metaphor that makes illogical comparisons between two or more things)

Audience Centered

considerate of the positions, beliefs, values and needs of an audience.

public dialogue

ethical and civil exchange of ideas and opinions among communities about topics that affect the public

Antithesis

placement of words and phrases in contrast or opposition to one another

Brainstorming

process of generating ideas randomly and uncritically, without attention to logic, connections or relevance Free Association Clustering Categories Technology

Alliteration

repetition of initial sounds of two or more words in a sentence or phrase (mnemonic device - verbal device that makes information easier to remember)

Oral Style

speaking style that reflects the spoken rather than the written word