Quiz 2

Nurture definition

Environmental agents that impact personality and development, such as social learning, reinforcement, peer and group influences, affordances (opportunities given by the environment), systems that affect the person (school, home, church, neighborhood, economic opportunities etc).

Subpoints for N vs N

Epig Norm R Canal

Epig

Epigenetics

plasticity

refers to the brain's malleability in response to experiences. The brain thus changes in response to experiences that are 'expected' because they are universal to almost all human beings and cultures. Speech and language are only one example of EEP.

Subpoints for M o C

-P.V. -P.S. -Beh: *CC & OC -Cg: *Att *Enc *Auto *Util D -D-S: *EEP *EDP *Sens P

Imitation definition

Albert Bandura's research has shown the importance of imitation and modeling for learning. Both peer and adult models impact the development of aggression, fears, and much more, especially when the models are rewarded.

Guided participation definition

A specific type of scaffolding, where the adult or more experienced person offers partial assistance with a task that is hard for a novice. For example, a parent holds a paper still while a toddler learns to use scissors, or a golf coach stands behind the novice golfer and moves the body into correct position for a swing.

AC / AP

Active child- Active Person -Tropism

Psychological Variation definition

Among groups of people, and also within an individual, there is a wide range of possible human traits and behaviors. This diversity allows for a wide range of possibilities in developmental outcomes.

Examples of Active Child- Active Person

An athletic child who is also extroverted seeks out frequent athletic experiences and social experiences. These experiences afford the child with more opportunities to practice both social and athletic skills, allowing the child to master such skills. In contrast, the shy and uncoordinated child avoids social and athletic events, leading to ever-increasing feelings of awkwardness and low perception of his competence. The healthy-minded older adult walks every day, eats salads, and reads academic novels. Her mental and physical health are preserved into the nineties. The self-destructive elderly adult has smoked for his entire life, never reads, but lays on the couch watching low-grade situation comedies while eating chips and consuming a high-fat, meaty diet. He develops diabetes and ends up with stroke-related dementia as cholesterol builds up the in the arterial walls of his brain's vessels.

Attention facilitates learning when it is focused definition

As a cog M of C, attention impacts learning. Kids and adults who struggle to pay attention often do not learn as readily because the initial encoding of memories never took place. This is why it is so harmful to learning when a person engages in multi-tasking. Multi-tasking distracts the learner, and studies of memory show that it results in poorer learning, comprehension, memory, and processing speed.

Encoding definition

As a cog M of C, encoding is one way that we process information. Encoding is when a brand new memory initially goes into the short-term memory storage system, and this requires attention. If the person then rehearses and practices the information, it may transfer into long-term memory. Without practice and rehearsal, the brain will prune the unused neural connection, and the memory will be lost. This is why you will learn better if you study small amounts each night, rather than cramming for a test. You will thus retain the learned information much longer because it was better rehearsed, and thus stored in long term memory.

Utilization Deficiency definition

As a cog M of C, utilization deficiency describes common errors in the learning process. Even after a child or adult has learned a new strategy that is more efficient, he or she may continue to bounce back to old, less efficient strategies. Also, the person may not necessarily always transfer what they have learned from one situation to another. For example, a child may revert to counting on his fingers to do math, even though this is a harder method for larger numbers, and even though they have learned to do arithmetic on paper.

Experience-expectant plasticity definition

As a subpoint of D-S, this refers to the fact that the brain is 'expecting' certain normal experiences to occur, and has devoted certain structures to the purpose of specialized skills. For example, the brain has Broca's area and Wernicke's area, both structures that are ready to learn language and speech. EEP refers to experiences that are universal to most human beings. For instance, most human beings around the world will hear language from other adults and from children, and most humans will be able to observe the facial expressions that accompany speech in other humans. Thus, all normally-developing children will show the developmental traits of speech and language unless there is some extreme environmental circumstance leading to brain damage or deprivation.

Automatization definition

As a type of cog M of C, automatization describes how learning becomes solidified through practice. When something becomes so well-learned that it becomes automatic, like driving a car or playing a song memorized on the piano, we don't need to focus our attention on it in the same way in order to do the skill correctly. This means that the skill has transferred over to a form of memory that is the procedural type. For motor skills, this occurs in the cerebellum. If the skill is not well-practiced, it may still require effortful concentration, and it is more prone to error.

Behavioral mechanisms of change definition

B M of C examine how associations, punishments, and rewards impact development. We are likely to repeat the behaviors that led to rewards, and to decrease behaviors that were punished.

Reciprocal determinism definition

Behavior is caused from a complex interaction between environment and our genetically-influenced unique traits.

Beh

Behavioral M of Change -Classical conditioning -Operant Conditioning

Classical conditioning definition

CC is part of how behavioral mechanisms of change work. This occurs when associations are formed between instinctual reactions and benign stimuli. For example, a child learns to associate a fear reaction in the body with a creepy clown face, or a college student learns to associate frozen peas with wisdom tooth extraction pain. CC is an important influence on learned fears, PTSD, aversions (strong dislike), situational panic attacks, classically-conditioned memories, and sexual deviation.

Canal

Canalization

Epigenetics definition

Changes in the phenotype (observable traits) are due to more than just changes in DNA sequencing. Environmental forces affect genetic expression.

Social referencing definition

Children and adults look at others around them to learn how they should react, especially in ambiguous or unfamiliar situations. For instance, a person who is afraid of flying on planes may look at the flight attendant's face during turbulence in order to find out "should I be scared right now?"

Cognitive mechanisms of change definition

Cognition refers to thinking. The way that we develop is impacted by the way that we learn and how our memory functions in response to the environment, and in light of natural tendencies in information processing, based on biology.

Cg

Cognitive M of Change - Attention -Encoding -Automatization -Utilization Deficiency

C vs D

Continuity vs Discontinuity

Main point of continuity vs. discontinuity

Development appears to have both elements, depending on how often we measure the trait in question. Early stage theories (Piaget, Kohlberg, Erikson) were discontinuous. Development may actually unfold in a series of overlapping waves. Gradual development may be more common.

D-S

Domain-specific M of C -Experience-expectant plasticity -Experience-dependent plasticity -Sensitive Periods

Subpoints for Ind D

Evoc E Pass E Reac E Recip D

Evoc E

Evocative effects

Continuity definition

Expresses the idea that development is gradual, like the image of a tree slowly growing bigger.

Discontinuity definition

Expresses the idea that development occurs in sudden spurts or stages, where there is a qualitative change in the phenomena. The metaphor is of a caterpillar turning into a butterfly.

Sens P: A sensitive period means that there is an optimal time to acquire a skill. definition

For instance, the sensitive period for language occurs during the first 3 years of life. The sensitive period for attachment happens during the first two years of life. If we don't study a second language until high school, we are already past the sensitive period, and it will be much harder to learn.

Norm of reaction definition

Genes set limits around the range of possibilities in the phenotype, rather than merely controlling the complete outcome. For example, only certain people have the genetic potential to become an NBA player or an Einstein, but even traits like height or intelligence can be thwarted by environmental deprivation, malnutrition, abuse, etc... Apples that have the possibility of being huge (genetically-speaking), may end up quite tiny if the tree is not watered enough and does not receive adequate light and soil.

G.Par

Guided participation

Subpoints for SCC

Imi Scaf G.Par S.Ref

Imi

Imitation

Scaffolding definition

In the same way that a scaffold allows a carpenter or painter to reach higher levels of a building, a parent, teacher, or adult helper can assist a child into their next stage of development (the zone of proximal development), which is right beyond where they current are.

In.D.

Individual Differences

M o C

Mechanisms of Change

operant conditioning definition

Part of how behavioral mechanisms of change work. The reinforcements (or lack of reinforcements) following behaviors cause these behaviors to become stamped in over time. Operant-cond. reinforcements can include things like rewards, praise, attention, or the times when we are rewarded for stopping an unwanted behavior.

Pass E

Passive effects

N vs N

Nature vs Nurture: -This is an interaction, not a dichotomy. The either-or dichotomy is outdated. We now consider the relative contributions of both genes and environment, based on twin, adoption and familial studies.

Norm R

Norm of reaction

experience-dependent plasticity definition

Only children or adults who have a particular kind of experience (an experience that not everyone has—it is not a universal experience), will develop the skills affected by EDP. For example, not every child or adult will take violin lessons and practice the violin every day. Only people who have these violin experiences will also experience the changes in the brain that result from becoming proficient at this instrument. These changes in the brain will include the formation of new dendritic spines, new synapses between neurons, and long-term potentiation (chemical changes at the cellular level when a memory becomes permanent) in brain areas related to auditory memory, fine motor skill, sequencing, and analytic skills needed for mastery of music theory. These changes to the brain won't occur unless the person has the experience of becoming a good violinist. Thus, the plasticity (brain changes) are dependent on the particular and unique experience of violin lessons and practice.

Evocative Effect definition

Our genes influence our constitutional traits and temperaments, which elicit (evoke) reactions from those around us. These reactions further shape our development. For instance, a child who is highly athletic, intelligent, or attractive will be more likely to be popular with peers and well-liked by adults.

Reactive effects definition

Our genetically-influenced traits cause us to react to our environments in ways that either help or hinder our development. For instance, a highly emotional child may react to difficulties with greater stress than a child who is by nature calmer and less reactive. The former child will thus suffer more from these difficulties. Reactive effects are about how the child or adult reacts to circumstances, while in contrast, evocative effects refer primarily to how others respond to us, based on our traits.

P.S.

Psychological selection

P.V.

Psychological variation

Reac E

Reactive effects

Recip D

Reciprocal determinism

Research to benefit human well-being definition

Research is not merely an academic process—it has pragmatic benefits. In developmental psychology, research is used to improve the lives of children and adults, and to allow for earlier detection of developmental concerns. For example, if learning disabilities are discovered earlier due to research in neuropsychological assessment methods, the child can receive early intervention, which can be instrumental in improving their brain function during sensitive developmental periods.

R

Research to benefit human well-being

Scaf

Scaffolding

Canalized definition

Some traits are so hard-wired into the brain that they will naturally emerge unless there are significant environmental forces preventing their development. For instance, all kids with normal genes and typical environments will learn to walk, but if a child is tied to a chair for prolonged periods of time, walking could be acquired much later, or not at all, especially if this abuse happens during a sensitive period in development.

Psychological Selection definition

Similar to natural selection in Darwinian theory, psychological selection posits that, those traits and behaviors that lead to better adaptation to the environment are likely to be repeated over time. For example, smiling, complimenting others, and being extroverted are rewarded in American culture. Thus, we tend to select these behaviors over time and repeat them. E.g., it could be said that survival and reproduction are greater for those who learn better social skills.

S.Ref

Social Referencing

S-C-C

Sociocultural Context

Domain-specific mechanism of change definition

The brain is genetically hard-wired to expect certain types of experiences. There is a readiness to acquire certain developmental skills at particular points in time (sensitive periods). For instance, the brain is expecting to be exposed to language, and the normally developing child will become fluent in the native language, even if we don't specifically teach them language. Without adequate stimulation, the brain may prune the unused neural connections, and the skill may lost. The Wild Child of Avignon lived in the woods throughout childhood, and was not exposed to language. Thus, he never learned to speak.

Active Child- Active Person definition

The child and adult are both active in shaping the ongoing course of their development. They seek out certain types of experiences, avoid other experiences, and express preferences. They engage in behaviors that are either healthy or unhealthy. They expose themselves to events that either help or hinder development. This theme directs our attention to the element of choices, both intentional and unintentional, upon the process of ongoing development.

Individual Differences definition

The things that make us unique, such as out genetically-influenced temperament and our personalities, affect how we respond to the environment. These temperamental qualities can have a major impact on how others respond to us, as well. For example, a hyperactive child is more likely to face social rejection and constant punishment, as is a child who has under-developed frontal lobes and is thus highly impulsive and cannot delay gratification.

Mechanisms of Change definition

There are many interacting forces that lead to developmental changes, as shown by the subpoints. Thus, development is impacted by adaptation to the environment in light of diversity (PV, PS, D-S), reinforcement (Beh), association (Beh), learning tendencies and memory strategies (Cg), and genetic-readiness (D-S).

Nature Definition

This includes all biological elements upon development and personality, such as: genetics, size and functionality of brain structures, hormones, neurotransmitters and other neurochemicals, cellular functioning in the brain and body, disease processes, levels of activation in the brain as shown by regional blood flow and glucose metabolism, brain wave activity, prenatal exposure to teratogens and the effects of this on the developing person, effects of toxins or drugs on the brain, perinatal birth trauma and its effects, and effects of internal organ functioning on mental status.

Passive effects definition

We receive genes and environment as givens, which impacts ongoing development. For example, parents who read often to their children and have many books in the home are more likely to have kids who read earlier and with greater skill. The kids didn't choose the parents' intelligence or the books, they passively received these things.

Tropism definition

biological changes occur in response to environmental stimuli, particularly as related to growth. These changes can either be health-benefitting or health-destroying, depending on the environmental forces that the person seeks out or accidentally encounters.

Main point of Nature vs. Nurture

biological determinism (BD) for psychological traits is not supported by the evidence. BD would state that, given a certain set of biological conditions, nothing else could have occurred. This implies that our genetic heritage is set in stone and cannot be changed. Psychological traits do not follow simple patterns of Mendelian inheritance, but are rather the result of complex interactions between multiple genes (polygenetics) and multiple environmental forces (multi-factorial genetic influences), creating merely a probability of a phenomena in the phenotype. Research in behavioral genetics (the study of interactions between behavior and genetics) implies malleability. The idea "I was just born that way" appears to be an over-simplification when discussing psychological traits.

Bronfenbrenner's social ecological model

is relevant to the sociocultural context. This particular example relates to how the social environment could affect the production of anti-social behaviors (truancy, aggression, stealing, lying, cheating, exploiting others, etc..). The next image shows the model more broadly, applied to any developmental issue. For example, if the parent is stressed out at work and unhappy in her job, it can affect how she treats her children and her husband. In contrast, a family with limited economic means cannot provide the same opportunities that an upper middle class family can (i.e. expensive club sports, private schools, tutors, tennis lessons, special classes to improve ACT scores, etc...).

The SCC definition

ncludes the influence of culture, historical era, and social systems upon development. A useful way to understand the SCC is Bronfenbrenner's social-ecological theory (see end of doc), where the child or adult is encircled by a series of nested eggs, such as the immediate family, school, church, community, and nation. Cultural practices can impact many forces of development, including motor skills, educational affordances, gender typing, sexuality, etc...