Race and the Environment Final

Do you think that companies are intentionally inflicting harm upon working class whites and people of color? Why or why not?

"The Political Economy of Environmental Justice" that says "The primary goal of capital when sitting hazardous operations in communities of color is to seek out cheap land, favorable zoning laws, less regulation, good infrastructure, and a community less likely to offer opposition. It is not necessarily to intentionally inflict harm upon working class whites or people of color."

In Chapter 9 of RHEJ, what are the three principles of procedural environmental justice?

Equality Proportionality Plurality Equality is an egalitarian concept and it is when everyone has a voice, vote, and say. Proportionality is achieved when power in environmental decision-making is distributed among people in proportion to their relative stakes in the outcome of the decision. Finally, plurality emphasizes equality and suppresses differences. For this principle, the group rather than the individual is misrecognized by the institutions.

What does Williams mean that man saw himself as "Lord and Commander of these elements?" (Ideas of Nature)

Man saw nature as something that was to be conquered and changed for the betterment of humanity. They noticed that nature could be a selective breeder, that nature had a history. The idea that man could command nature was formed from the very beginning of farming and this idea was again shown in "unnatural landscapes" where we made parks and landscapes but they were still controlled nature

Based on the Procedural Paradigm of Environmental Justice reading, do you think the Aarhus Convention was overall a failure or success in attempting to formally institute ideas supported by the Environmental Justice movement?

The Aarhus Convention is a failure in its actual attempt to implement EJ ideas into policy, but overall it is a success for the potential future implementation of these ideals as it is a starting point to build better systems for their implementation.

Under what act did the city of Chester, Pennsylvania sue a medical waste disposal company and why was this significant?

The Civil Rights Act; it was the first case in the US to sue on the basis of environmental discrimination, which the citizens of Chester argued violated the Civil Rights Act.

How, when, and why was the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) formed?

The EPA was formed in December 1970 by President Richard Nixon through an executive order in response to the mass urbanization of the 1960s that inevitably led to a rise in the pollution that caused negative environmental and health harm. This rise in pollution was caused by increased transportation and further industrialization

Chapter 10 of RHEJ discusses the recognition paradigm of environmental justice, which identifies the failure in societal institutions to acknowledge or respect difference as a source of systematic wrongdoing. How does the EPA's definition of environmental justice fail to acknowledge the recognition paradigm?

The EPA's definition of environmental justice doesn't address the systematic and structural inequalities that exist if regards to environmental justice. While it mentions fair treatment for all people, it does not discuss how "environmental identities and heritages" differ greatly across groups whether it be black people living in Washington, DC or Native Americans living in South Dakota. Recognizing human social difference is one of the key aspects of environmental justice that institutions need to be cognizant of

How does the EPA define EJ?

the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.

According to Verges, understanding the history of the racialized Capitalocene will help us understand that climate change is not about human hubris, but, rather, results from these two things

the long history of colonialism and racial capitalism

What does Rodrick Nash mean by Civilization created wilderness? (The idea of Nature) When we were nomadic, nature was just a habitat, meant to be used for that moment

until we moved on to new areas but things started to change. We started to settle down which led to the idea that one can plant their own food and wait until it was fully grown, we started to domesticate animals like cows and sheep to use as food. We started to build homes and towns which brought the idea of land ownership. This created sharp lines on what was man controlled and what was not. This was the agricultural revolution. Due to the agricultural revolution, there was the idea of controlled and uncontrolled nature - domesticated and the "wild". The wild was aspects of nature that weren't for the benefit of humans, like undomesticated animals, forests, and anything that couldn't be controlled by humans. Humans started to fear what could not be controlled and that the wild was dangerous and dark. We longer saw nature just as nature, nature became something that was meant to be conquered and owned, and if it wasn't possible, then it's the wilderness

This week, we have seen that many activists and organizations define Environmental Justice differently. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) takes a more analytical and policy oriented approach to defining Environmental Justice, whereas the "Justice in Chester" video focuses more on the lived experiences of injustice that Chester community members have firsthand experience with. In order to properly address environmental injustice, we must come up with a definition that encompasses the multifaceted nature of the problem. What factors/experiences do you think should be included in the definition of Environmental Justice?

ust Transition: helping those who will lose their livelihoods as the globe transitions to a more sustainable economy. Ex. helping coal miners find jobs in renewable energy and relearn the craft Safe/healthy working environment: every person has the right to work in an environment that doesn't predispose them to health issues or injury without at least putting proper regulations in place to prevent said health issues Ex. Enforcing regulations for coal miners to wear masks and have proper protective equipment to prevent them from developing black lung disease Safe/healthy living environment: every community member has the right to clean air and water. Those who develop health problems as a result of hazardous facilities should be properly compensated Ex. NIABY (Not in Anyone's Backyard) If a majority of residents don't want a toxic facility in their neighborhood, they have a right to a safe and healthy environment, and the facility shouldn't be built The right to be informed: Residents who are nearby a hazardous facility should be informed of the risk factors before the facility is built and running, and should be given a say of if they are willing to sacrifice health for the local economy Ex. all community members should be invited to community meetings regarding the building of the hazardous facility. As we saw in "Justice in Chester" and in Flint, Michigan, officials tend to downplay or not inform residents of the potential health factors

How was it a positive thing that energy issues were receiving new attention?

Caused a growing appetite for energy to power our cars, keep our phones, computers and other devices. Have taken abundant energy supplies and low prices as a given.

How much higher are financial penalties for violations affecting predominantly white communities as opposed to minority ones, according to Lavelle and Coyle's study?

500% higher

Last class we discussed the meaning of race being a social construct, why it is constructed, and by who? In the Ideas of Nature video, the narrator states that nature is a social construct. Why is nature constructed and by who?

A takeaway from last weeks discussion on race, is that race is an oppressive tool determined by convenient factors to further a group's interest. Simply put, in America, the factor of skin color was used to create a racial hierarchy which would benefit white landowners. For nature, the idea has been constructed to understand the human relationship, their position to everything else. The ideas of nature has been exploited by humans to construct the dichotomy of civilization and nature, in order to gain material wealth from the land. Nature can also be constructed as an idyllic, peaceful place for human respite, and recuperation. In this scenario, nature serves human not though material wealth but a mental/spiritual wealth.

Anthropocene

A term used to describe the "human dominance of biological, chemical and geological processes on Earth"

If the entire world was considered "civilized", where would our raw materials come from and how would the narrative of nature be defined?

According to both the Ideas of Nature video and article, the social concept of nature was founded on the idea of having a primitive and a civilized; a controlled and uncontrolled. The Anthropocene article discussed the first use of nature for capitalist benefit as the usage of human slaves during the Atlantic Slave Trade. Today, countries around the world exploit nature for capitalist benefit and their environmentally detrimental actions go largely unpenalized. Without this idea of the wild and primitive world, where would modern companies get their raw materials and natural resources? My guess is that there would be a man made alternative. However, this can only go so far. Considering the reliance human nature has on raw resources, our time on this planet is limited. Currently, the US imports most of its raw materials from Canada, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, and Colombia - all of which have large urban areas and economies relying on industry. Our space of raw materials is decreasing by the minute, but there is no action to rewind our thoughts and return to a natural lifestyle. One can claim that the human population would evolve and adapt to a man made natural world, however, without certain ecosystems and materials such as trees, man cannot survive. It is this argument that proves that without nature, we would not survive. So, the problem here is not that more of the world is not industrially developed, rather that the industrial portion of the world does not prioritize and appreciate the countries in which raw materials are the key to their economy. In this case, our narrative of nature would be completely changed. Nature would be defined as technology, and the human recreation of what we once had: the real scientific environment

What is the Coarse Theorem?

Acknowledging the role both sides play in EJ outcomes is a prerequisite to an efficient policy solution

How does the exclusion of humans in the understanding of nature affect the course of environmental issues and actions?

As Williams' Ideas of Nature discusses, in the Agricultural revolution, many of the practical improvements relied on seeing nature quite clearly and coldly as a set of objects of which men could operate. Removing the human quality of nature, depersonalizes the effects of depleting natural resources. This allows for uncared-for consequences on people and resources exploited for agricultural and industrial gain. Combining lack of care for natural resources with lack of care for groups lower in class hierarchy enables those in control to capitalize without regard for environmental equity or natural resources. It is difficult to make people care about issues that do not directly affect them. Excluding humans in the definition of nature depersonalizes environmental issues for the sake of capital gain.

In "Justice in Chester", environmental justice is defined as "every citizens' right to a clean, healthy, and safe environment regardless of whether you are wealthy or poor". How accurate is this definition and what, if anything, would you change to make it accurate?

As with the EPA definition of environmental justice, the EJ principles are absent from the definition. Environmental justice disproportionately affects communities of color. While this definition is not wrong, it is not comprehensive enough to be considered fully accurate. Adding the implications of the principles of environmental justice would aid in making this definition more exhaustive. Additionally, defining what is considered a "healthy and safe environment" would remove the ambiguity in this definition.

What does Faber mean when he says "the path of least resistance" and how does it relate to capitalism and environmental injustice

Because businesses must maximize profits in order to survive in a capitalist system, they will try to cut costs by externalizing the costs of pollution onto society instead of paying to mitigate this. With profit as the only goal, businesses and those with interest in them will follow the path of least resistance by focusing the environmental damages on communities that are less likely to be able to fight back. These communities of working-class people or predominantly people of color are the ones already immensely disadvantaged by other power structures.

How are corporations incentivized to dump their waste and pollutants in marginalized communities?

Because it is unprofitable for corporations to reduce pollution themselves, they're incentivized to externalize the costs of their production (pollution) onto society. These externalities are directed towards marginalized communities, particularly those who are oppressed on multiple axes, who don't have enough political influence to resist the harm that is being done to their environment. As the procedural justice framework teaches us, if oppressed communities don't play a role in the decision-making process for environmental policies, they are likely to suffer greater environmental inequality

why do corporations target communities with little to none political power when placing their hazardous sites?

Because they are less likely to be penalized for their actions and thus face little consequences

Francoise Verges in "Racial Capitalocene" mentions that there are two approaches toward climate change: the "apocalyptic" and the "optimistic". Which perspective is more dangerous?

Both the "apocalyptic" and "optimistic" approaches are dangerous to the efforts to reduce climate change, yet I think that the "optimistic" perspective has larger implications. Since people have thought that scientists will be able to invent a solution to climate change, they were able to justify their senseless destruction of the environment. In addition, once solutions have been discovered, they often have their own environmental impacts that are often overlooked because they present as "green" companies. For example, the Suzano company that was mentioned in the article masks its devastating effects on biodiversity with its advanced technology in growing trees. This "optimistic" outlook allows people to place all of the responsibility on scientists, even when the environment is continuing to suffer.

What are the intentions of Francoise Verges in "Racial Capitalocene" in writing "...whether slave traders, slave owners, bankers, or multinational CEOs"?

By equating the historical traders and owners of people that were enslaved with modern bankers and CEOs, Verges suggests that our modern capitalist society is not nearly as progressive or equitable as it is marketed to be. The author wants us to recognize that the unsafe working conditions, wage gaps, and significant imbalance of power instill bankers and CEOs with authority and control over humans, much like the traders of people that were enslaved of the past. The author utilizes this juxtaposition to illustrate how there needs to be continuing "decolonization efforts" to achieve equality and justice

In what ways have political-economic structures created a cyclic process that creates environmental injustice in minority communities?

Capitalistic principles that incentivize firms to maximize profits while cutting costs drive them to seek the least path of resistance in siting environmental waste and harm. Thus, political-economic processes serve to (1) locate ecologically hazardous industries into disempowered communities of color and working class, (2) restrict the mobility of the disempowered to move out of dangerous neighborhoods, (3) facilitate the movement of disempowered communities out of ecologically vitalized communities, and (4) limit their ability to transition into safer occupations and jobs (Faber 63)

What was Christianity's view of nature? (Ideas of Nature)

Christianity viewed nature as something that should be feared, that God's word was king and nature was his minister. That nature was something that he used to punish and curse. Much of the 18th century art and literature reflected the idea that nature was primitive and some artwork even went as far as painting it demonic, that the wild nature contained beasts. But on the other hand, the garden of Eden was used as the ideal world, a world where nature was controlled and not feared. That control was a gift from God and that disobedience led to wild nature like dark forests and dry deserts

What do some critics argue against the Tanner Act mentioned above?

Committees are often unrepresentative of the immediately affected population because committee selection is determined by larger government unit which may be motivated by economic benefits

What kind of issues do communities have dealing with toxic waste?

Communities were getting dumped on and is a huge civil rights issue. In Huston there was a landfill dumped in the middle of a predominantly black community. Studies found that 100% of all the city's own land fields were in predominantly black communities. All communities are not created equal, if a community seems to be poor they receive the things that the upper class do not want.

What is the Cerrell Report?

Document produced by a consulting firm advising the California Waste Management Board not to place trash incinerators within 1-5 miles of middle- and higher-class neighborhoods

How did the notion of man as separate from Nature fuel the Industrial Revolution and enable the continued exploitation of land and labor (Williams)?

During the eighteenth century, nature increasingly became the "wilderness" untouched and unspoiled by humankind. This conception of nature meant that burgeoning capitalists could exploit the land and natural resources under the protection that industry has tainted these areas, so they are no longer natural. Capitalists could continue extracting raw materials to sustain the capitalist scheme that saw all inputs as objects. This definition of nature became a loophole that enabled capitalists to continuously exploit natural resources under the pretext that once an industry reaches it, it is no longer "natural" or worth protecting

Explain the concept of Environmental Gentrification in your own terms.

Environmental Gentrification involves community redevelopment and sustainability efforts leading to increased housing prices and rent in that area, making the neighborhood less accessible and economically displacing low-income residents and people of color.

What is "environmental gentrification" and why does it present a paradox for the environmental justice movement?

Environmental gentrification is the tendency property prices to rise following an improvement in local environmental conditions. It presents a paradox for environmental justice activists because it is very difficult to improve environmental conditions for low-income people without triggering an unsustainable increase in their cost of living.

Why are minority's put in such bad environmental locations?

Environmental racism is a site of struggle and The Reagan Administration cut the budgets of the federal environmental agencies. Three out of every five Black and Hispanic Americans live in communities with uncontrolled toxic waste sites. Being raised in those conditions it would be hard to move your family out because you are not set with the foundation and opportunities to get a good job with your background. Minorities are not in the best position to succeed and they continue to fight for the safety of their community.

What is environmental racism? (Verso)

Environmental racism is when communities of color are targeted for waste disposal sites, trash sites, anything that could contaminate the water and/or air. It can also mean lack of green space and food deserts. No care is put in protecting the health and wellbeing of the communities and instead profit is put first

What other factors do you think need to be considered in the definition of Environmental Justice?

Extra question in doc

True or False: Researchers have found that regulators detect violations at a faster rate and impose stronger penalties on violators in vulnerable communities

False, research shows that regulators detect violations slower and impose lighter penalties on violators in vulnerable communities

True or False. Is this a principle of EJ? Does Environmental Justice protect the right of victims of environmental injustice to receive partial compensation and reparations for damages as well as quality health care

False, the victims of environmental justice receive full compensation and reparations

What does the 1986 Tanner Act mandate?

Governments must develop local assessment committees reflecting the makeup of the community that would interact with hazardous facilities early in the siting approval process

Justice in Chester: CRCQL's environmental attorney, Jerome Walter, filed a lawsuit against the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection for granting another permit for a contaminated soil incineration facility in Chester. What historic legal strategy did he use to directly connect EJ to racial discrimination?

He used the Civil Rights Act, specifically Title 6, to argue that the permit granting process disproportionately impacted African American residences and constituted discrimination on the basis of race.

Name one of the risks from the "quadruple exposure effect," a term for the increased environmental health risks faced by low-income and minority communities.

Higher rates of "on the job" exposure to dangerous substances used in production Greater neighborhood exposure to toxic pollutants Faulty cleanup efforts implemented by the government or the waste treatment industry Greater exposure to toxic chemicals in the household, commercial foods, and a variety of consumer products

What are the four aspects of the "quadruple exposure effect?"

Higher rates of on-the-job exposure to dangerous substances in the production process Greater neighborhood exposure to toxic pollutants (faulty cleanups often magnify these issues) Greater dislocation, health problems, and job loss because of energy and natural resource extraction More exposure to toxic chemicals in the home, in commercial foods, and in other consumer products

Cumulative effects

How did Zulene describe the effects of heavy industry, that aren't typically considered when granting permits or determining health and environmental risk factors?

In chapter 11 of RHEJ, the scholar Sen "does not dismiss the idea of the environment having a value in its own right, and emphasizes humans' responsibility to other, less powerful species, it is the services to humans both present and future that he is most interested in." Do you agree with this statement? Do you think that the environment has a value separate from that of humanity?

I agree with the statement because humans ́ responsibility towards the environment is a sort of relationship between humanity and nature. For humanity to reach its full potential as the guardians of our planet, we must recognize that the earth depends on us to make the right decisions regarding the needs of the environment.

The Principles of Environmental Justice were discussed and published in 1991, detailing the Environmental Justice movement's goals and values. Thirty-one years have passed since then, do you believe that the principles need to be updated to reflect the current state of our nation? Why or why not?

I believe that the principles laid out in Principles of Environmental Justice still reflect the needs of the people in areas affected by environmental injustice today. However, this is only because of the little success the movement has achieved in 30 years in the government with implementation of policies to promote environmental justice, and if more progress was made then the policies would have needed to be updated to reflect a less thorough description of their beliefs and demands.

Both Sen and Nussbaum's developments of the capabilities approach are helpful to the concept as a whole, but, "Neither, however, provide, or aim to provide, a full account of justice." Do you think that the capabilities approach will ever provide a "full account of justice" on behalf of the people?

I don ́t believe that the capabilities approach will ever provide a full account of justice on behalf of the people because our government is not interested in what people are capable of doing if given the chance, but rather in instant results. As long as our leaders are not concerned with the EJ movement seriously, a capabilities approach will be obsolete in making any headway in justice for the people affected by environmental injustices.

Raymond Williams refers to several schools of thought about the past existence of humans in nature: do you think it was Seneca's "golden age" or Hobbes's "brutish" state (Williams 76)?

I think that it was the "golden age" Seneca referred to, since it was before the creation of systems of hierarchy and the social constructs of race and class. I think that the unequal distribution of wealth and acts of prejudice in our society today is significantly more "brutish" than life before our society was organized. There is a tendency to refer to early humans as "savages" and "brutes", but the aggressive competition under capitalism in the United States has its own savage tendencies. The cutthroat competition between various vendors and individuals is reminiscent of how cruel the natural world can be. We are existing under a new, more twisted form of "survival of the fittest" in our society.

What are the implications of Raymond Williams referring to Nature as the "absolute monarch"?

I think that referring to Nature as the "absolute monarch" gives Nature power, intention, and individuality. Williams questions the phrase "natural selection", asking if it suggests that Nature has the authority to select the "fittest" species. Since an "absolute monarch" is omnipotent, there is the implication that Nature does have this power over plant and animal species. Even though Williams ponders if humans are included under Nature's umbrella, I think that we are, since we are subject to the same natural disasters and forces that other species are. The phrase "absolute monarch" has the implication that Nature is the ultimate judge of all events and behaviors, and that humans are its pawns. Even though we can try to control Nature, I think that our efforts will ultimately fail, since we cannot match the power of the natural world. Further, there is often only one "monarch", which enhances Williams's point about there being only one nature. The "absolute monarch" title leads one to think of Nature as the singular unifying force that determines all life

Personification/ Personification of Nature

Ideas of Nature: Williams. Williams discusses this habit of referring to nature as "Mother Nature" or "the selective breeder" as visibly weakening except in formal uses (p. 74/75)

How does disguising the harmful effects of human impacts on the environment as "by-products" allow for the continuation of environmentally destructive practices? (Williams)

If the deleterious effects of human activities are known, then it is impossible to say that they are unintentional by-products of the activities. By saying that the toxic waste was a by-product of mining while the ore was the product justifies the harmful practice by presenting the pollutant as an inevitable consequence that humans have no ability to prevent. In reality, humans knew that the waste was just as surely going to come out of the mine as the ore, so labeling it a by-product simply allows polluters to justify their continued inaction

From Ideas of Nature: How does the Christian influence on conceptions of nature relate to the role of land ownership in a capitalist system?

Images like the Garden of Eden demonstrate how controlled, pastoral landscapes were associated with beauty and goodness while uncontrolled wilderness was considered barbaric and amoral. This cultural perspective created a relationship between humans and nature based on dominance, allowing people to view land as a resource (and a right) for them to manipulate and manage for self-benefit. The idea of being in control of an area is extremely relevant to contemporary capitalist society, where owning property is one of the most essential methods of gaining power and mobility

Principles of Environmental Justice

In October 1991, the Delegates to the First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit drafted and adopted this document, which became a defining document for the growing grassroots movement for environmental justice: 17 principles that cover basic philosophical beliefs to methods for making change through education legislation, consumer habits.

Why is it that middle income (50-60k a year) minority families are more likely to live in neighborhoods with pollution then much lower income white families?

Institutional racism makes it difficult for minority families to rise economically. It essentially keeps them in those communities. The housing dynamics also allow lower income white families to move into cleaner neighborhoods. This is not the case for minorities

Justice in Chester: According to the documentary, what happened during the "Christmas massacre" in Chester, Pennsylvania?

It was the first time that African American protesters in the city of Chester, who were part of CRCQL (Chester Residents Concerned For Quality Living), protested against incoming waste trucks, in hopes of abolishing/mitigating the poor environmental living conditions that they have had to endure during their lives. It is called the Christmas massacre because it took place "right before Christmas" according to Horace Strand

What was the 1992 Earth Summit?

It was the largest international diplomatic conference ever held which attracted representatives from 179 nations (including 118 heads of state), more than 8,000 journalists covered the event, and representatives from more than 7,000 nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) attended a concurrent Global Forum at a nearby site in Rio. These kinds of meetings have been instrumental in setting the global environmental agenda and building political consensus for action

Faber describes how the "export of ecological hazards" to other countries takes place in four different circuits of global capital (money, productive, commodity, waste). Describe the process of exporting ecological hazards and describe how it takes place on one of these circuits.

Just as polluters follow the path of least resistance in putting environmental burdens on disadvantaged communities within the U.S., transnational corporations often find it easier to export these burdens on countries in the Global South. Other countries have the natural resources these corporations want but have less environmental regulation and may be economically desperate. In the productive circuit of global capital, corporations export polluting facilities to the Global South while the profits go to the North

Name a positive and negative effect of environmental gentrification

Positive: Increased property values, increased consumer purchasing power at local businesses, reduced vacancy rates Negative: homelessness due to loss of affordable housing, unsustainable property prices

What are four ways the U.S. and European countries displace environmental harm on marginalized communities outside of their own countries?

Money circuit of global capital Productive circuit of global capital Commodity circuit of global capital Waste circuit of global capital

What are some of the scientists' solutions to addressing environmental problems? And why?

Need for an interdisciplinary "sustainability science" New federal body that might transcend bureaucratic boundaries Why? They are concerned that scientific work may not be understood by the public and policy makers

Dr. Robert Bullard said in his interview with C-SPAN that race remains the most potent trait for environmental injustice and that the 1979 case he worked on was filed by a middle-class black suburban neighborhood. How does this relate to the mirage of the black middle class?

Not only do black Americans have to contend with historical dispossession and significant barriers to social mobility such as needing to be an economic safety net for aging parents and paying disproportionate amounts on housing, but another negative externality that is not accounted for in their incomes and expenses is the negative side effects of environmental injustice. Environmental injustice manifests in health side effects, economic devaluation of homes and properties, and the development of children. All of these are obscured if one just uses the term "middle class" with no concern for race.

Robert Bullard's defintion on environmental justivce as well as the advocates who spoke on the environmental injustice in Chester, both used more personal, passionate terms to describe the movement, than the EPA's formal definition. What do you consider the benefits of having the EPA's definition as the default?

Of course, environmental justice is a personal matter, it affects your body, your mind, as well as the people who surround you. Issues of the environment are so deeply entwined with each individual's life, each person's defining of environmental justices focuses on different aspects. The EPA's defintion, which could seem soulless, actually contains language that then these different individuals and communities can grab onto and extrapolate into their own definitions. The clarity and fundamental terms convey the concept in a way that is not personal, but allows for the personal to branch off of.

What was one of the big first catalysts of the environmental movement?

One of the first big catalysts of the environmental movement was the book Silent Spring by marine biologist Rachel Carson. In it she outlines the impact of pesticides and the toxic chemicals they are composed of.

Describe one way that disempowered people are prevented from leaving hazardous neighborhoods or workplaces.

One way that disempowered people are prevented from leaving hazardous neighborhoods is discriminatory housing policies. Through a process called redlining, people of color are given fewer home purchase loans except in a few select areas. The places where people of color are given the most loans tend to be environmentally hazardous

True or False: Policymakers prioritizing community member involvement in environmental policy creation is one of the best ways to ensure equitable policy agendas and environmental justice. Is the proximity of hazardous waste facilities to communities of color stem from:

Placement of hazardous waste facilities in these communities

Extra unanswered questions

Principle 7 of the Principles of Environmental Justice states, "EJ demands the right to participate as equal partners at every level of decision-making, including needs assessment, planning, implementation, enforcement, and evaluation." Based on what we've learned so far about race and socioeconomic class systems, do you think this principle is achievable under the certain structure of American society? Why or why not? What are some actions that need to be taken in America for the Principles of Environmental Justice to be met, in your opinion? How might the equal right to participate in environmental decisions exclude members of minority populations? As defined in our textbook in chapter 10, "a paradigm refers to some criterion whose fulfilment in a social situation can be used to identify that an injustice, that is, a systematic wrongdoing, is occurring." What is an example of a paradigm that exemplifies an environmental injustice in the world? In your own words, what is the main purpose of Martha Nussbaum's ten "central capabilities" and how do they relate to environmental justice?

How are procedural and distributive environmental justice related?

Procedural and distributive EJ are intrinsically linked because without procedural EJ, then distributive EJ is not able to take form as it should.

What are the three types of justice involved in environmental justice?

Procedural and distributive justice. Procedural justice is the justice concerned with how decisions are made and distributive justice is how rights, goods, and bads are distributed

How would you define "Procedural Environmental Justice" in your own words?

Procedural environmental justice can be defined as what goes on behind the curtain of government as it relates to environmental justice. To have policies implemented to promote EJ, first there must be officials in place with the intent to create laws and systems. The system of government itself must be changed to reflect the needs of the people, but oftentimes the majority of policy makers are not involved in the EJ movement

What information was written in Rachel Carson's 1962 book Silent Spring, and what impact did this book have on the environmentalist movement?

Rachel Carson's Silent Spring was one of the first catalysts of the environmental movement; it sparked the first public outcry in the United States over how the government and society eas treating the environment. The book talked about the negative health/environmental impacts of the chemicals used in pesticides, and almost immediately after the book was published, Carson (a marine biologist) came under heavy criticism by the scientific community as well as the chemical industry

Which basic policy type attempts "to reduce or expand the choices available to citizens and corporations to achieve a social goal?"

Regulatory

The Idea of Nature. How did humans perceive nature after the introduction of civilizations?

Roughly 12,000 years ago, after the Agricultural Revolution took place, and civilizations were created, humans were able to live in co-dependent communities that allowed easier access to food security and safety. As many of them lived comfortably in these conditions, humans began to consider nature to be wild and dangerous; a place filled with beasts that could easily take their lives and one in which they could get lost and remain away from their homes and loved ones. This way nature stopped being tangible reality and became a social construct. Some people, however, considered certain parts of nature to be pastoral and calming, as they appreciate the tranquility and beauty of natural settings, as well as how different these scenes are from urbanizations.

How does a lack of localized health data affect communities like Africatown impacted by environmental injustices?

Since there are no localized cancer data reports for Africatown, it is difficult to present a strong case about how pollutants are affecting residents. Without localized data, we run into the issue of whether residents' reports can be considered data. Non-empirical data is generally less likely to be taken seriously while evaluating policies and procedures to address environmental injustices.

Political Opportunity theorists argue that before social movements can mobilize, "there must be some type of political opportunity that gives...actors hope that they can succeed (Tarrow 1994)." Do you agree with this statement? What are some potential drawbacks?

Social movement theorists in general have been criticized for putting too much focus on large, successful social movements; this particular analysis might be a product of that. The social movements that tend to be successful are the ones that formed under more favorable cirucmstances; this does not mean that favorable circumstances (political opportunities) are a precondition for social movements.

How do the Principles of Environmental Justice recognize that the environment is a labor issue as well as an environmental and racial issue?

The Principles "affirms the right of all workers to a safe and healthy work environment," and recognizes that many workers are forced to choose between a paycheck and their health because of their dangerous working conditions. It also connects labor with the home, because many people work at home and deserve protection from environmental hazards. Finally, the Principles stand against the devastation caused by multinational corporations, who also often provide bad working conditions for their workers.

How do the Principles of Environmental Justice characterize the land and our relationship to it?

The Principles of Environmental Justice describe the land as "sacred" and see it as an entity that demands respect and stewardship. Furthermore, the right to enjoy the benefits of land and be free from environmental degradation is seen as a human right. The principles affirm "the sacredness of Mother Earth, ecological unity and the interdependence of all species, and the right to be free from ecological destruction."

What were the political conditions under which the Acts that we looked at were created?

The acts were created during the 60's, when there was bipartisan support, however the long term results of these acts were found during the Reagan administration.

Why is the apocalyptic narrative of climate change harmful? In other words, who does it blame for climate change? (Verso)

The apocalyptic narrative is harmful because it blames climate change on anything but the structures of power, it doesn't address environmental racism and that things just don't happen randomly but that events lead to certain things occurring. Like how the 1% is destroying the environment by throwing chemicals into the water, cutting down trees, etc. which leads to rapid climate change. But the apocalyptic narrative shows it as if it just came out of nowhere

What methods did big companies use in order to get away with environmental injustices? How does what happened in Chester directly violate the EJ principles?

The big companies chose a community of color that was lower income. They did this because they knew they would be less likely to have the funds or the political backing to fight back. The people closest to the pollution were not given invitations to meetings. When the community began to band together, the companies used intimidation to keep them silent. There was not much fuss over this because no one was paying attention to that demographic. Permits continued to be granted to those companies despite the clear pollution and pushback. The community was predominantly people of color. The citizens of that community were taking trash from all other communities but were the only people having to deal with the toxic byproducts.

From Racial Capitalocene, what did capitalism fundamentally depend on?

The concept and success of capitalism depends on the notion that nature is a cheap, endless resource. From this notion came slavery as we understand it - that the bonded work force is renewable, and separate from the whites. The bonded work force was seen as renewable resources given by nature, in addition to plants, animals, and geological products. This idea has spread in the current day, into an economic system that places capital and profit over the work force, and natural resources.

Which paradigm of environmental justice does the following statement refer to: race and class determine whether some US citizens face greater environmental risks and worse health outcomes than other US citizens

The correct answer is the distributive paradigm. The procedural paradigm occurs when "US citizens who bear environmental and health burdens are also those who lack opportunities to change their situations in US law, policy, and democratic processes." For the recognition paradigm, "injustice occurs when differences are not acknowledged or respected ... as a source of systemic wrongdoing."

Based on the Recognition Environmental Justice reading, what do you think is the distinction between distribution and procedural justice and justice through recognition

The difference between justice through recognition and distributional & procedural justice is a level of subjectivity and empathy. Justice through recognition centers on recognizing complexities and cultural differences as opposed to the other forms discussed which are more objective forms of justice

What are the main differences between the original form of the Clean Air Act passed by Congress in 1963 and the amended version that is used today?

The original version of the Clean Air Act passed by Congress in 1963 was much more conservative, really only providing federal funding for research into air pollution and creating a federal public health program in response to the negative health effects of polluted air in the 1960s. The modernized and amended version of this legislation that is used today, on the other hand, has been expanded to require the state governments to actively work with private actors and government agencies to develop and enforce technology-based solutions to our nation's biggest air pollution problems. In fact, in one of the congressional amendments to the legislation, Congress required the EPA to regulate toxic air pollutants that were shown to cause cancer, reproductive harms, or birth defects; another amendment to the law created more concrete motor vehicle emissions standards as well as penalties for violating these standards. It is important to note, however, that this act only sets the bare minimum for air pollution, and many state governments have passed more stringent legislation.

How do natural disasters caused by climate change reflect the inequalities caused by centuries of environmental injustice?

The people that are most vulnerable when natural disasters strike are often already marginalized because of some aspect of their identity, such as race, class, or disability. These are the people who are least able to leave their homes quickly, or have somewhere else to go if the need to evacuate arises. And after the disaster has hit and the recovery process has begun, the government and philanthropic funds that are meant to aid this process often go to the most powerful people, rather than the neediest

When did the turning point take place concerning the environmental racism struggle in the United States? (Vergès)

The publication in 1987 of "Toxic waste and race in the united states" showed that toxic waste facilities in the united states were placed using race as the main factor in the location of them and that the local, state, and federal policies helped place them in communities filled with people of color and it was determined that 3 out of every 5 black and hispanic americans lived in uncontrolled toxic waste sites. This was all determined by the United church of christ who later on said that racial and ethnic disparities were prevalent throughout the country because 20 years later, a majority of people living in host neighborhoods within 3 km of the nation's hazardous waste facilities were people of color only. In October 1991, the Delegates to the First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit drafted and adopted the "Principles of Environmental Justice," that became a document helping the growing movement for environmental justice.

How can environmental revitalization in neighborhoods serve to displace lower class residents?

These initiatives can draw in new construction projects and raise the property value of the area and thus the rent. Poor residents are then forced to move somewhere else with lower property values, which often mean somewhere less environmentally safe.

This video discussed the idea that "controlled" nature was beautiful, but that "wild" nature was to be feared. The idea of "controlled" nature being cultivated and fenced in agriculture that is lined with cattle, in comparison to "wild" nature, similar to a rainforest, or wilderness that has rough terrain. What are some similarities that we see between Western civilizations' desire to "tame" nature, and their divinely ordained responsibility, per Manifest Destiny, to displace Indigenous peoples and enslave Black peoples?

These verses reinforced the idea that white men had a duty to tame everything that was considered uncivilized, from nature to people of color. The West's insatiable desire to "tame" nature and the god-given responsibility to displace and exploit Indigenous and Black people all have capitalism as its foundation. Capitalism is based on colonialism. The foundational forms of capital as a system of production were the: Theft of Indigenous lands and resources, The enslavement and exploitation of Indigenous and Black people to grow, Crops as commodities. Land thus became capital, and the human obsession with consumption became a permanent facet of Western society. Missionaries would cut down forests to convert pagans (people who may have just valued nature more). In this way, white men's need to convert and evangelize to all non-christians aka "the uncivilized" was directly connected to their duty to destroy or cultivate nature to make it more palatable to the needs of white men. Stripping nature as a means to civilize the uncivilized, and nature being an indicator of primitivity.

How is Raymond Williams' concept of "human nature" viewed by those who take an apocalyptic view of climate change and those who take an optimistic view?

Those with an apocalyptic view of climate change generally seems that they would have a negative view of "human nature." Nature altered by humans is seen as one of the factors in climate change. For example, as referenced in the Verges article, genetically modified eucalyptus trees are known to contribute to the depletion of water, desertification of soils, and loss of biodiversity. Those with an optimistic view of climate change would probably see "human nature" as both good and bad. While "human nature" has led to climate change, it can also be a solution to help fix climate change. For example, the reintroduction of wolves to to areas where they have historical been hunted and gone extinct can help control population of animals that are destroying the ecosystem.

If the Capitalocene is caused primarily by the crises of racial capitalism and colonialism, what is the responsibility of the Western nations who were the main culprits of these systems to address climate change? (Vergès)

To begin, the Western colonialists still owe unpaid reparations to the nations they built their wealth off of, which will allow those nations to better respond to the effects of climate change. As Vergès notes, world citizenship and an end to borders is a necessary decolonizing method, although one that is unlikely to happen imminently. In the short term, Western nations should be responsible for dramatically cutting their emissions output at a rate far greater than the nations in the Global South whose economies are still recovering from the effects of imperialism and colonialism.

True or False: Pollution abatement devices and restoration mandated by environmental policies in the advanced capitalist countries usually increase costs and reduce productivity, and are considered to be an added expense that business is resistant to absorb?

True

True or False: The Clean Water Act of 1972, which outlined a national pollutant discharge elimination system, was a direct policy response to the Cuyahoga River fires and the Santa Barabara oil spill?

True

True or false? Did the movement of public health awareness coincide with the goals of the Environmental Protection Agency, making the EPA a public health agency as well?

True

True/False Based on the Robert Bullard interview, he mentions that environmental justice embraces the idea that all communities have the right to equal protection under environmental law. It is the idea that no community deserves to be dumped on or polluted, that it is basically a civil rights, human rights issue.

True

Williams states that "...those who had most often and most fully mixed their labor with the earth were those who had no property." How might the current environmental justice movement be animated by this dynamic?

Under feudalism (and, subsequently, racial capitalism), society was structured so that marginalized populations were unable to own land; however, their labor and livelihood was simultaneously entangled with the very land that they were unable to own. The aftereffects of this economic system are still felt today, as the descendants of enslaved laborers here in the "U.S." still face extensive barriers to property ownership and indigenous peoples continue to have their land stolen by companies and governments throughout the globe

Which of the following United States communities was not selectively victimized to environmental health abuses as a result of the lack of protection they recieved from government legislation?

Undocumented immigrants. Chicano farmers. Indigenous peoples. Middle-to-upper class White communities

Faber uses the term "control capacity" to describe how power structures centered on things like class, gender, race, ethnicity, and citizenship create multiple axes through which one can be disadvantaged. Give an example of how control capacity along one of these axes could shape someone's environmental situation

Undocumented workers face greater environmental hazards due to their lack of citizenship. Undocumented workers due not have the same legal protection as citizens and can be subject to more hazardous work conditions. They are also unable to freely resist these conditions because of the risk of deportation.

Françoise Vergès describes a concept known as "green capitalism." What are your thoughts on green capitalism, why is it a beneficial or detrimental feature of society?

Vergès presents a negative perspective of green capitalism calling it "seductive." Generally, he takes a stance against green capitalism because it is associated with capitalism, something which he greatly blames for the current climate crisis. I believe that green capitalism can be a beneficial addition to society because it allows us to work more swiftly and efficiently. We can work faster with green capitalism because it is simply a variation of our current capitalist system. We do not have much time to control the climate crisis and attempting to completely rework our entire society and economic system would waste precious time and be almost impossible. Green capitalism offers a solution in which we can operate within our existing frameworks to tackle climate change. Capitalism certainly has its drawbacks and it would be important to eradicate certain issues within it and to reduce the exploitation of women and countries in the global South. Green capitalism would promote the creation and distribution of vital products, technologies, and sustainable energy systems. These are all vital elements to change our current capitalist society into a sustainable one. If we simply greenwash capitalism in its current form, it will not be beneficial to society or the fight against climate change. But if we work to fix a few of its key flaws, capitalism and green capitalism can be our near-term key to slowing climate change.

Raymond Williams discusses different conceptions of what nature is in "Ideas of Nature," but focuses mostly on Western imaginations of the natural world. Why might this be detrimental to the environmental justice movement? Do you know of any non-Western imaginations of the environment, and if so, how and why do they differ?

Western imaginations of the environment are largely based on Christian thought and capitalism, and thus they focus on the environment as something to be exploited for natural resources - something that we, as God's creatures, deserve to use as we please. These views of the environment are explicitly human-centric and specifically cater to those in power, making it more difficult to imagine the environment as a space that all living creatures deserve to share. This, of course, is a major detriment to the environmental justice movement, which focuses on how we can live in harmony with nature in such a way that doesn't favor the powerful over minorities. In contrast, some indigenous cultures view nature as something that humans are just one small part of. This approach is far more egalitarian than many Western conceptions of nature, as these cultures view nature as something to be shared and taken care of by all beings.

In the Procedural Environmental Justice reading, the authors suggest that to address gross power disparities we should provide "weaker parties" with economic support. Do you think this is an effective or feasible solution?

Yes, reparations should be implemented for disadvantaged groups as political power is tied directly to resources. Providing "weaker parties" with economic support will allow them to better voice their concerns and thus give them more power to prevent them being taken advantage of.

What types of issues were focused on in the so-called "first generation" of environmental policy?

air & water pollution control, and the preservation of natural resources such as parks, wilderness, and wildlife.

To what extent do you think Raymond Williams in "Ideas of Nature" is correct in stating that "we make no pretensions to control" nature (Williams 71)? How would you characterize how we interact with nature?

disagree with Williams, since I think that humans have been trying to control nature for centuries. From the efforts of scientists in creating genetically- modified organisms, to the advancements in the technology used in surgeries, such as pig hearts, to the intentional burning of forests, I think that people are constantly trying to overcome nature. While I agree with him that we are no match for natural disasters, I think that people will nevertheless try to defeat them. Therefore, I would characterize our interactions with nature as a power struggle, with humans striving to overpower the environment

Williams makes the distinction that what makes a hedge different from other kinds of nature is that it is a product of

humans/human design/human labor