Religion 2 Islam

Islam

1.4 billion Muslims in the world today- second only to Christianity in numbers of adherents; most of the world's Muslims live in South and Southeast Asia, not in the Arab-speaking countries of the Middle East; Indonesia= country with the largest Muslim population in the world, followed by Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh; Islam first developed in the Arabian Peninsula; most important believe is the monotheistic belief in the oneness of Allah; Muslims recognize Muhammad, who received the message of the Qur'an from God, as the final prophet in a long line of prophets sent to humanity by God- the Qur'an is believed to be the word of God and is the holy text of Muslims; Muslims also observe the five pillars of worship practice

Sunnah

lit "way of life" or "custom"; specifically refers to example of the life of the prophet Muhammad; important religious source for Muslims

surah

chapter of the Qur'an; there are 114 surahs in the Qur'an

Muslim

in Arabic, "one who submits"

Sufism

the "inner" way to God- the mystical tradition of Islam; the goal of a Sufi is to draw close to and personally experience God, but the Sufis base this spiritual quest on the sources of Islam (like the Qur'an); likely arose in the years after the death of Muhammad as a response to the worldly excesses and materialism of the Umayyad Dynasty (early Sufis were ascetics); one famous 700s Sufi was Hasan of Basra, who was known for preaching asceticism and for his constant weeping out of fear of God; a renowned early female Sufi was Rabi'a al-Adawiyya who was known for her giddy happiness in the love of God; this ideal of intense love for God became a primary focus for Sufis (often expressed in Sufi poetry); Sufis believe that the study of holy texts has two dimensions- the inner and the outer (Sufi readings of the Qur'an have often searched for the inner, or hidden, meaning- focuses on the love of God for creation and the closeness of God to humanity); Sufis consider Muhammad the ideal human- because Muhammad is believed to have personally experienced the presence of God, Sufis consider him to be the first Sufi and the source of the special spiritual knowledge they seek; the night journey to Jerusalem and then heaven considered the greatest of all Muhammad's spiritual experiences; because Muhammad ascended to heaven from Jerusalem, the city holds a special place in islam, and it is one of the three Muslim holy cities, along with Mecca and Medina (in 691 AD, the Dome of the Rock was built over the spot from which Muhammad ascended to heaven- located on the Temple Mount, also important to Jews- this is one of the primary reasons that the status of Jerusalem is so central to the Arab-Israeli conflict today: practitioners of both faiths (as well as Christians) consider the city to be holy, and long to have unfettered access to it; most Sufis agree that an individual needs guidance along the spiritual path to God- as a result, a master-disciple relationship is important in Sufism (the master is called the shaykh and several Sufi orders called tariqas have developed around particular Sufi masters- each order traces a lineage, known as a silsila, of learned leaders back to Muhammad and from Muhammad to God)- Muhammad is believed to have passed his special religious knowledge to his companions, who then passed it down through the generations from master to disciple; the most well-known order in the Western world is the Mevlevi order, which is based on the teachings of Jalalludin Rumi; Sufi orders emphasize the necessity of some type of dhikr ("recollection"), which refers to Sufi meditation in which the believer strives to "recollect" God so completely that he forgets himself (sometimes this is as simple as recitation)- Mevlevi called the "Whirling Dervishes" because their dhikr involves controlled whirling; everything, the Sufi hopes to achieve spiritual union with God; Muslims may participate in Sufi practice without an affiliation to an order- ex. practice of saint veneration, or shaykh (religious learning and spiritual leaders) veneration- in some areas, the tombs of the shaykhs become places where people seek blessing from the saints (common in South Asia)- people of all faiths may recognize the power of a saint; occasional tension has arisen between Sufis and other Muslims- their practice of saint veneration has drawn criticism (although Sufis do not view saints as divine, only as close friends of God who can bestow his blessings on others); historically, Sufis have sometimes been criticized by other Muslims for neglecting the five pillars in favor of more esoteric religious knowledge and practice (some Sufis reject Shari'ah because they claim is served to veil God from believers, not draw him or her closer- not a majority opinion, though)

umma

the worldwide Muslim community

Conclusion

Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world (both through population growth and conversion); Islam is remarkably diverse; the role of Islamic law in modern governments is an issue, as well as the question of Islamic dress in Western Europe (as many schools claim to be secular); a challenge faced by Muslims is the negative perceptions some Westerners hold about the nature of Islam and Muslim life; in many countries, in the "Arab Spring" for example, Muslims are considering the relationship between Islam and democracy; Islam shares a great deal with Christianity and Judaism

The Hijra and the Growth of the Muslim Community

Muhammad and his followers moved north of Mecca to escape troubles- this town became known as Medina (which comes from the term medinat al-nabi, which means "the city of the prophet")- this migration in 622 AD is called the hijra and the hijra marked the beginning of a distinct Muslim community, or umma, with Muhammad as its leader (story about spider weaving web to protect Muhammad); in Medina, Muhammad oversaw political, social and religious matters (the verses revealed to Muhammad in Medina concern regulation of community life); with the aim of providing economically for the community, the Muslims had begin to raid trade caravans bound for Mecca, though, with limited success (raiding was a common and even acceptable economic practice in Arabia at the time)- this increased tensions between Mecca and Medina; in the Battle of Badr in 624 AD, Meccans sent a force to protect a caravan but the Muslims defeated them (reported in Qur'an that the angels helped the outnumbered Muslims win the battle- this is a critical moment in development of the spirit and destiny of the Muslims); Muhammad and Mecca struck an agreement and Mecca eventually surrendered, with Muhammad telling them that they could go free if they converted to Islam- Muslims destroyed the polytheistic idols housed at the Ka'ba, and rededicated building to the one and only God and the religion of Abraham; after death of Khadija, Muhammad married several more wives (like Aisha, the daughter of Abu Bakr and much younger than Muhammad- she is the source of much info about Muhammad's life and was often consulted by other Muslims because of her vast knowledge of religious matters)- Muhammad was buried under Aisha's home in Medina, and to this day, some Muslims visit this site as a place of pilgrimage; Muslim rule spread rapidly acorss the Arabian Peninsula though both nonviolent political alliances and military conquests; Muslims have considered Christians and Jews to be People of the Book, a designation that means they are a people who have received scripture from God and are thus close to the Muslim community- these minority communities of Christians and Jews were governed by dhimmi laws, which allowed non-Muslims in Muslim territories to worship how they chose, provided they paid taxes and submitted to Muslim authority- didn't have same privilege of Muslims, but were entitled to protection

The History of Islam

Muhammad ibn Abd Allah was born around the year 570 AD in the town of Mecca, a city in the southern Arabian Peninsula- at this time, much of the population were not united and were nomadic herders, known as Bedouins, who lived in remote desert areas- most of the people there at that time were polytheists- Muslims call this period before the revelation of the Qur'an the jahiliyya, of the "age of ignorance"; Muhammad was born into a tribe called Quraysh, a powerful extended family that was influential in Mecca- his father died before he was born and his mother died when he was a young child, and so he went to live with his grandfather and later his uncle (Abu Talib); as a young boy Muhammad was sent out to the desert to live with the Bedouin, who many considered to live the ideal Arab lifestyle; Muhammad was active in business and trade- here he met his first wife, Khadija, a widow about 15 years older than Muhammad- they had several children together; his preaching of the Qur'an was not welcomed, however, and was even controversial in some quarters of Mecca (this was because he criticized both the polytheistic beliefs held by many Meccans and the disregard that wealthy Meccans showed toward the poor) and so his community was persecuted (even by his family tribe, who were very powerful); this persecution inspired some Muslims to flee to Abyssinia (Ethiopia); one well-known Muslim who resisted persecution was Bilal, an Abyssinian slave who had converted to Islam- he was forced to lie in the hot sun with a stone on his chest, but was rescued by Abu Bakr, who purchased him form his tormentor; Bilal is remembers today as the first muezzin- the person who calls the faithful to prayer

miraj

Muhammad's Night Journey from Mecca to Jerusalem and from there to heaven, where he met with God

Khadija

Muhammad's beloved first wife

What is Our Ultimate Purpose?

Muslims believe in the an afterlife and a Day of Judgment- those who have lived righteously will enter paradise and those who have led sinful lives will be cast in to the fire; most Muslims believe humans have free choice and must choose to submit to will of God- their actions and choices will be evaluated on Day of Judgment, when God will judge each person independently

What is Ultimate Reality?

Muslims believe that God is the creator and sustainer of the universe, the world, and all that is in it- some believe that elements of the beautiful natural world are signs of God; humans can learn something about ultimate reality through God's revelations, which are communicated to humanity through prophets; the Qur'an is the source of God's teachings about the nature of ultimate reality and the nature of the world

How Should We Live In This World?

Muslims believe that humans are part of God's creation; people should worship God, be generous to the needy, and live righteously; life of Muhammad serves as an example of how to live; the "five pillars" of Muslim worship practice are the foundation for how Muslims live their faith

The Qur'an in Daily Life

Muslims believe the Qur'an is only authentic in the original Arabic text; in most communities, both boys and girls study the Qur'an (Muhammad encouraged all Muslims to pursue a life of learning); Muslims around the learn to recite the Qur'an in Arabic- even if they do not speak or understand the language; Muslims do not normally regard recitation as entertainment or singing

The Hadith Literature

Muslims have knowledge of Muhammad's life through a literary tradition known as the hadith- Hadith is a form of literature that records in brief reports the details of the life of the prophet, including his sayings and deeds; they come from the observations of Muhammad's companions; a hadith consists of two parts: the isnad, or the chain of transmission of the hadith and the matn, the report itself; the matn relates Muhammad's words and deeds and the isnad names those people who transmitted the hadith from the time of the prophet (like Muhammad's wife, Aisha); hadith qudsi (sacred sayings): believed to be words of God- Muhammad is believed to have occasionally transmitted direct words of God that were not intended to be part of the Qur'an

The Opening/Al-Fatihah

Muslims regard the Qur'an as eternal and unique, meaning that it could not be created by a human and that it has existed forever

Nation of Islam

Nation of Islam has played an important role in US Muslim community- founded by Wali Fard in the 1930s- he established the Temple of Islam in Detroit, and he preached that all black people were originally Muslims- Elijah Muhammad succeeded him as its leaders- Nation of Islam differs from Islamic principle, though: followers regard Fard as God incarnate and Elijah is considered his prophet, suggests the natural supremacy of black people and encourages the rejection of white society- when Elijah died, the organization split: one group, led by his son Warith Deen Muhammad, moved toward maintain Sunni Islam and became known as the American Muslim Mission and is the largest organized group of African American Muslims today 2) the other group was led by Louis Farrakhan, a radical preacher controversial for his espousal of black supremacist ideas and politics, and retained the name Nation of Islam, for many years

Sufi

a follow of the mystical tradition of Islam, Sufism, which focuses on the believer's personal experience of God and goal of union with God

The Muslim Brotherhood

a key goal for many twentieth century reformers involved finding a part to economic development for Muslim countries that did not follow Western models (a path that allowed that to maintain their Muslim identity while embracing certain ideas and technologies originated in the West); the Brotherhood is based in Egypt and its founder was Hassan al-Banna, who organized the movement in 1928 to revitalize Islam from within from focusing on a return to the Qur'an and the Sunnah; he was opposed to Western imperialism, which he saw as contributing to decline of Islamic societies; the Brotherhood has had a fractured relationship with the Egyptian government as they tried to assassinate a President in the 50s; Sayyid Qutb, an influential member, was an outspoken critic of Western world and aimed to revitalize Islamic world solely through Islamic principles- he was executed by the Egyptian government, but his writings have continued to influence Islamic activists and extremists (like Osama bin Laden)

Mosque

a place that is designated for prayer; a mosque can be as simple as an unadorned room in a commercial building or even a clearing in the woods; all mosques have a prayer space, and most have a fountain so people can perform the required ablutions; the direction of prayer, known as the qibla, is marked inside a mosque by a niche called a mihrab; the floors of a mosque are often completely covered with colorful rugs or woven mats; there are usually no seats or pews; many mosques also have a tower called a minaret (especially those mosques in North Africa/Middle East), which is used to broadcast the calls to prayer; visitors of all faiths are welcome to enter mosques- usually visitors will be asked to removed their shows, so no outside dirt will enter the mosque and violate the ritual purity of those who have made the proper ablutions for prayer; Friday is designated as the day for congregational prayer, known as salat al-jum'a and it is incumbent upon Muslim men to attend the midday prayer together; when Muslims prayer together, it is important that one person acts as the imam, or prayer leader, who regulates the prayer session and ensures that all believers are praying together; the Friday prayer often features a sermon; Friday should not be confused with the Christian or Jewish Sabbath- rather than a day of rest, it is day when group prayer is necessary; the five daily prayers are announced in the words of the adhan, or the call to prayer; the adman is delivered by a person called a muezzin, who calls the faithful to prayer from the door of the mosque or the minaret, sometimes using a loudspeaker- the adman is usually called in a rhythmic, recitation fashion

The Umayyads and the Abbasids

after Ali died, Mu'awiya claimed the caliphate and thus began the Umayyad Dynsasty, which lasted from 661 Ad to 750 AD and the center of the empire was in Damascus in Syria- reign of Umayyads was controversial because many saw them as favoring Arab Muslims over non-Arab Muslims and because the leaders were not from Muhammad's bloodline; with the support of the Shi'a, Husayn (Ali's son), eventually challenged the Umayyads for authority, though he was slain in 680 AD - this is referred to as the "martyrdom of Husayn" and is solemnly commemorated by Shi'a today as his sacrifice for the Muslim people- with the death of Husayn, the number of Muslims who believed that leader of the umma should be from the family of the prophet grew; it was at this point that the Shi'a formally broke away from the Sunnis and established a line of successors to the prophet that remained within Muhammad's family; Muslims opposed to the Umayyads became known as the Abbasids, taking the name of Muhammad's uncle and in 750 AD the Abbasid Revolution succeeded in removing the the Umayyads from power; the first caliph of the Abbasids was a man named Abu al-Abbas, the Abbasids moved their capital from Damascus to Baghdad- Islamic arts and sciences flourished here and it became known as the classical period of the Islamic civilization; most famous Abbasid caliph= Harun al-Rashid; time when many Islamic doctrines were developed into forms that are still accepted today (ex. legal schools of thought); not all Muslims were united under Abbasids and the rule of the Abbasids ended in 1258 AD when Baghdad was sacked by a Mongol army from the east led by the grandson of Genghis Khan; often, Islam was introduced largely through traveling preachers and traders- the teachings of wandering Sufis, those who follow the mystical tradition of Islam, were key in gradually winning converts in South and Southeast Asia

Abbasids

an important Muslim empire from 750-1258 AD

Aisha

beloved wife of Muhammad who is known for transmitting many hadith

Umayyad Dynasty

controversial Muslim dynasty from 661-750 AD

Pilgrimage to Mecca

final pillar, the hajj, the holy pilgrimage to Mecca in Saudi Arabia; every year, millions of Muslims descend upon the city of Mecca in a spectacular display of devotion; the hajj is required of all Muslims who are physically and financially able to make it- it only needs to be performed once in a lifetime; the hajj must be undertaken at a particular time of year- this is during the second week of the month Dhu al-Hajj, which is the final month in the Islamic calendar; one may not borrow money to make the pilgrimage, but it is appropriate to accept financing for the trip as a gift (the money set aside for the hajj must also be purified by paying zakat on it); curious tourists are not allowed to partake in the experience; when making the hajjl pilgrims must leave behind indicators of their social and economic status to properly enter a state of ritual purity- this state is called ihram, and all men must wear special clothing, also called ihram- this consists of two very simple pieces of white cloth- one is worn above the waist and one is worn below; the state of ihram also emphasizes the equality of all Muslims before God; the pilgrimage involves a number of highly specific, ritualized acts; most important focus of the hajj is Ka'ba, a cubical building about 30 ft by 30 ft, and Muslims believe it was originally built and dedicated to Allah by Abraham and his son Ishmael- today, the Ka'ba is covered by a cloth embroidered with gold thread that is replaced every year by the Saudi government- when a pilgrim first arrives in Mecca, he enters the Great Mosque that encircles the Ka'ba - then he circumambulates the Ka'ba seven times in a counter-clockwise direction (known as a tawaf)- this is an act of devotion that is believed to be in imitation of the angels circling God's throne- the tawaf is performed three times during the course of the pilgrimage; sa'y= this rite commemorates the story of Hagar, mother of Ishmael, who frantically searched for water in the desert by rushing seven times between two hills- this route is enclosed as part of the Great Mosque; an important part of the hajj involves a journey to the plain of Arafar, where a tent city is established every year to house millions of pilgrims from around the world- it is here that Muslims recollect a story about Abraham's sacrifice of his son because Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his beloved son is regarded as a model of faith in Islam, and this is a solemn, reflective time of the hajj (the pilgrims perform the "standing ceremony", in which they remain standing from noon until sundown in praise of Allah); the hajj ends with the most important holiday of the year, the Feast of Sacrifice

The Declaration of Faith

first pillar, "shahadah"- this is the statement of belief: "There is no God but God and Muhammad is the messenger of God"; it is much more a statement of belief than a ritualized religious practice; to become a Muslim, all one must do is utter the shahadah with utmost sincerity in the presence of witnesses, rather than embarking on a complicated process of conversion

Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905)

follower of al-Afghani; born in Egypt and was an advocate of Egyptian nationalism; he saw no conflict between religion an science; he though the Qur'an should be interpreted in light of social changes (ex. polygamy may have been okay long ago but not today)

Fasting during Ramadan

fourth pillar, sawm; the mandatory fast during the month of Ramadan; Ramadan is the ninth month in the Islamic calendar, and is considered a sacred month by Muslims because it was during Ramadan that the Qur'an was first revealed to Muhammad; all Muslims are required to fast during Ramadan from dawn to sundown, as well as refrain from eatings, drinking, and sexual activity; all adolescent and adult Muslims are generally expected to fast, although some exceptions are made- if one misses fasting days, they are expected to make them up; in Muslim communities, the rhythm of daily life changes significantly during Ramadan (most Muslims find Ramadan to be a time filled with religious meaning, joy, and sociability); Muslims often break the fast with dates before performing the evening prayer and eating the fast-breaking meals- this is because eating dates is Sunnah: Muhammad broke the fast with dates; During Ramadan, Muslims may try to achieve the goal of reciting the entire Qur'an during this special month; during the last few days of Ramadan, the Night of Power occurs- this is the night when Muslims believe the Qur'an was originally revealed to Muhammad- many Muslims believe that a wish may be granted during this special night; the end of Ramadan is marked by an important feast day called Id al-Fitr, the feast of fast-breaking; fasting demonstates an individual's dependence on God and allow Muslims to become more sympathetic to the plight of the poor and the hungry; fasting also brings a sense of community to Muslims worldwide

Husayn

grandson of Muhammad who was killed while challenging the Umayyads

Muhammad and the Revelations

in Muslim belief, all prophets are solely human- not divine'; Muhammad was the religious and political leader of the early Muslim community- Muslims consider Muhammad to be "al-insan al-kamil", the ideal human; he lived the life of a normal man; when he was 40 (in 610 AD), the angel Gabriel visited Muhammad while he was praying in an isolated cave outside of Mecca and commanded him to "Recite!"- Muhammad hesitated 3 times b/c he was illiterate but he eventually recited what would come to be the first verse of the Qur'an (the rest of the Qur'an was revealed to him over the next 23 years); Muhammad confided in his wife Khadija, a wealthy businesswomen, about the revelations- she is thought to be the first convert to Islam; Muhammad then began a life of preaching in Mecca, where he taught about the oneness of God, about morality, social justice for the poor and downtrodden, and the inevitability of the Day of Judgment; Muhammad is the "seal of the prophets", as he was the final prophet and the revelations to Muhammad came at a time when it was necessary to reawaken understanding of God's message to humanity

tafsir

interpretation of or commentary on the Qur'an; there are several types of tafsir, which aim to explain the meaning of the Qur'an

The Holy Qur'an

it is the sacred text of Islam and considered the literal word of God; the word Qur'an means "recitation"; hafidh ("keeper of the Qur'an")- knows the entire Qur'an by heart and printed copies of the Qur'an have his stamp of approval; language of the Qur'an is classical Arabic and stylistically it resembles the beauty of the Bedouin poetry of the time in which it was revealed; not a narrative text; it consists of 114 chapters, each of which is called a surah- each surah consists of several verses and they are arranged roughly from the longest to the shortest (with the exception of the opening verses); the most well-known surah is the first one, which is called the fatihah, or the "opening", a common prayer- it evokes the oneness of God, the all-powerful nature of God, the Day of Judgment, and God's guidance for a righteous life

Prophecy

it is through the messages revealed to the prophets that humanity comes to know the desires of God and the divine laws that govern the universe and creation; the belief in revealed scripture goes hand in hand with the belief in prophecy; the Qur'an names Jesus as an important prophet (and indeed says that Jesus will return to herald the Day of Judgment) and the Gospels are considered part of God's revelation to humanity; Muslims believe that Jesus was born of the virgin Mary- however, Muslims do not believe that Jesus was divine or the son of God; Moses received the Torah as guidance for humankind, and the teachings of Jesus are regarded as a major message from God; human beings were created to worship God, and the nature of humanity is to obey God and to give thankfulness for God's blessings; Muslims believe that humans should also act as responsible members of society and stewards of the natural world- all human beings, unlike other living creatures, have free choice, and thus must choose to submit to the will of God

Jihad

jihad comes from an Arabic term meaning to "struggle" or "strive" and has had historically complex meanings (often distorted by Western media); the term jihad means exerting oneself in the name of God (it is not frequently referred to in the Qur'an and it was only in early Islamic history tat the term became associated with defensive military endeavors against the enemies of growing Muslim community; some Muslim groups both today and throughout history have called for a military jihad against nonbelievers, even out of the context of defense of the Muslim community; Muslims refer to the greater jihad as one's struggle to become a better person by striving against one's own sinful tendencies and to live in accordance with the will of God- although we often see the term jihad translated into English as "holy war", Muslims regard the military connotations of the term as the lesser jihad

caliph

leader of the Muslim community after death of Muhammad

Malcolm X

leader of the black power movement in the 1960s; the most famous American Muslim, and the most famous member of the Nation of Islam- raised Christian but converted and replaced last name "Little" with "X" in protest of practice of naming slaves after masters- he eventually took the name Malik al-Shabazz; after he made the hajj to Mecca in the 1960s, though, he moved toward mainstream Islam and eventually separated himself from the Nation

jihad

lit. "striving"; sometimes, the greater jihad is the struggle with one's self to become a better person; the lesser jihad is associated with military conflict in defense of the faith

Islam

lit. "submission"; specifically, the religious tradition based on the revealed Qur'an as Word of God

shari'ah

lit. "the way to the water hole"; specifically, Islamic law

hadith

literary tradition recording the sayings and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad

Who are the Shia?

make up 20% of Muslims worldwide; in the majority in Iran and Iraq, and they form significant minorities in other countries, like Pakistan and India; believe that Muhammad designated Ali to be his successor and that Muhammad passed on special religious knowledge to his relatives though Ali (and, as such, only Muhammad's family and their descendants should lead the Muslim community)- the rightful leaders of the Muslim community are known as imans, the same term used for someone who leads prayer- the iman in Shia Islam is both the political and the religious leaders of the community (Ali was the first iman), but the iman is not a prophet; the authority of Shia imans have a special role in Shia law that we do not see in Sunni approaches to Islamic law- they do not recognize consensus as a source of law, but focus instead on the infallibility of the iman- Islamic scholarship is also highly important in Shia tradition (in a manner of more formally religious authority than that in Sunni Islam); the Shia community itself has several branches- they differ in how they trace down the line of imans from Ali (the largest branch is known as the Twelvers, who believe that the twelfth iman is in "occultation", or hiding and that he will eventually return- in the meantime Islamic scholars are considered responsible for leadership of Muslim community- important in Iran); another branch of Shiism is the Ismailis, who believe that there has been an unbroken lines of imans from Ali until the present time (they take there name from the seventh man, Ismail, whom the Twelvers do not recognize as an iman)

Who are the Sunnis?

make up about 80% of Muslims worldwide; the Sunni and Shi'a split began over the controversy surrounding the leadership of the Muslim community after the death of Muhammad; the Sunnis thought that Muhammad had not chosen a successor and so supported Abu Bakr as the next leader; the word "sunni" comes from the emphasis on the Sunnah of the Prophet (which was a holy document and represented an example to follow); in Sunni Islam, however, an additional source of law is the consensus of the community- the community in question consists of the ulama, or legal scholars; among the Sunni, there are four different schools, and all schools recognize the validity of the other

Marriage and Family

marriage is generally regarded as incumbent upon all Muslim men and women when they reach adulthood; celibacy is not normally encouraged, and sexual pleasure is considered a gift from God to be enjoyed within a marriage; in some areas, marriages for young people are arranged by their parents, while in others, women and men select their own marriage partners; dating is not an acceptable practice; adult children in many Muslim families live with their parents until they marry, even if they are financially able to live on their own; young men and women may reject a marriage partner they deem unsuitable, and the consent of both the bride and the groom is necessary for the marriage to take place; marriage is considered a contractual relationship- for the marriage to be valid, the bride, the groom, and witnesses must sign a marriage contract, which designates the mahr, which is a gift a bride will receive from the groom an his family (the gift can be cash or other property)- the mahr varies with the community and with one's wealth; according to shari'ah, the mahr is solely the property of the bride (although, in many cultures, a bride's parents may take some of the mahr); on the wedding day, the bride and groom are separated for most of the festivities- wedding celebrations are often large affairs; in many communities, men and women celebrate entirely separately- this is because some Muslims do not consider it acceptable for men and women to socialize together; Muslim men are allowed to many up to four wives, although this is only under certain conditions, and only if he can support all his wives and treat them equally (so most Muslims have considered polygamy legal though the practice varies tremendously throughout the world); one type is divorce by male unilateral repudiation, write the man writes a formula (this type of divorce does not require the approval of the wife or legal authority)- this type of divorce is in many places no longer permissible and both must file fore divorce; women may seek divorce from Islamic judges on a variety of grounds (like if he marries another wife)- there are be much or no stigma attached to divorced

Sayyid Ahmed Khan (1817-1898)

modernist thinker; best known for his educational reforms in South Asia and his support of the British- he attempted to bring Western ways of thought and education to India; he was criticized by other reformers of his time as being too sympathetic with the British; he advocated reinterpretation of the Qur'an in a rational way in light of social changes and embossed developments in science

Islam and Nationalism

move toward secular nationalism in the 20th century; a man called Mustafa Kemal, better known as Ataturk, the founder of modern Turkey, argued that Turkey should follow the path of Western European nations and separate religion from politics (did not completely eradicate Islam from public life, though) and now some people advocate reintroduction of Islam in public life); Pakistan was created as a Muslim homeland for the millions of Muslims who lived in South Asia- Muhammad Iqbal, an important thinker, argued that Muslims need a separate country to protect them from the majority Hindus in India- East Pakistan became the country that is now known as Bangladesh and today, Pakistan and Bangladesh are among the largest Muslim-majority countries in the world; Iran had a shah that embraced Western ideals for a while, but he was seen by some as a corrupt leader who was entranced with the Western world- the revolution staged in 1979 deposed the shah and used in the leadership of Islamic clerics- a religious scholar known as Ayatollah Khomeini headed the new government (ayatollah means "sign of God" and refers to Shi'a religious scholars who have achieved a very high level of religious learning) and his new govt instituted strict reforms, which they argued reflected Islamic rules of behavior- for example, women were required to dress in a full-length black garment called a chador- today, thought there is much protest about this govt and people took to the street in 2009 to protest the disputed reelection of the president, Mahmoud Ahmedinajad (this protest has been called the Green Movement after the color adopted by the oppositional presidential candidate)

Reform and Women's Status

one of the most famous of these early, upper-class Muslim feminists was Huda Sha'rawi (1879-1947), who founded the Egyptian Feminist Union and symbolically removed her face veil and advocated for women's rights throughout the Arab world; in the later years of the twentieth century, many Muslim feminists have sought paths to equality that diverge from Western models- many women in recent decades have, in a sense, reembraced modest dress as a feminist statement; Zaynab al-Ghazali is an Egyptian feminist who advocates increasing women's rights and improving women's status through Islam; Nawal al-Sa'dawi, also Egyptian, is a woman who advocates that women can only achieve equality by rejecting what she views as the patriarchal tendencies of religion

Sunni

one of the two main branches of Islam; the Sunnis believed that the Muslim community should decide on a successor to lead after the death of Muhammad

Shi'a

one of the two major branches of Islam; the Shi'a believed that 'Ali should have succeeded as leader of the Muslim community after the death of Muhammad

Wahhabism

originated by scholar named Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab (died in 1792) and it is still influential today; he disapproved of Muslim practices that he perceived as falling outside of the Qur'an and Sunnah- it was especially critical of saint veneration and tomb visitation (which had supposedly contributed to decline of Islam)- his followers raised many saints' tombs and shrines; followers formed significant ties with the ruling family of Arabia (the movement is still influential in Saudi Arabia, for example); followers of the movement call themselves Muwahiddun, though they are commonly called Wahhabis in the news media; the movement is often characterized as very conservative and fundamentalist; the Wahhabi movement is often portrayed today very negatively in the Western media because of the influence of the movement on notorious extremists like Osama bin Ladin (not all embrace, though, a political version of Islam)

Women and Islam

patriarchal cultural norms are sometimes justified in terms of religion; when we consider historical context in which it was revealed, the Qur'an actually introduced many legal rights and privileges to women that they had not perilously enjoyed (ex. right to divorce husbands); according to Islamic belief, women and men are viewed as equals in the eyes of God, and will be judged on their own accord; women may outside the home, though this is still uncommon in some areas; all of woman's earnings remain her property- it is the man's legal duty to provide for his family; the place of women in Islam, despite this, has occasionally been interpreted in very strict fashion (ex. Taliban)- this strict interpretation of religious texts and traditions is far from mainstream, however; men and women may mix freely or be secluded (seclusion of women is called purdah in South Asia); the Qur'an encourages both men and women to dress and behave modestly; women dress modestly for many different reasons

mosque

place of prayer, from the Arabic term "masjid"

iman

prayer leader; in the Shi'a tradition, one of the leaders of the Muslim community following the death of the Prophet Muhammad

Jamal al-din al-Afghani (1838-1897)

reformer who sought to inspire Muslims by convincing them that the roots of revitalization were within their own faith and their own history; he traveled extensively in the Middle East and Central Asia and advocated that all Muslims should come together with the goal of revitalizing the umma and defeating Western imperialism; often considered the originator of the anti-imperialist sentiment among many Muslim thinkers of the time, and he argued that Islam was the religion most amenable to scientific knowledge; he was an activist for the poor and he called for social reform; often considered the father roof pan-Islamism

Resisting Colonialism

reformist movements developed during colonization that focused on revitalizing the umma; one reformer was Muhammad Ahmed ibn Abdallah (1844-1885), more commonly known as the Sudanese Mahdi- he organized a powerful military uprising against the Egyptian and British forces that occupied the Sudan in the nineteenth century- he convinced people that he was indeed the Mahdi heralding the end of days- his movement emphasized social equality and he entirely revamped the five pillars (he included jihad as a pillar, as well as a declaration of himself as Mahdi in the shahadah ,and he dropped the hajj as a necessary duty)- this was highly controversial but his aims were more political than religious and he took city of Khartoum successfully in 1885

zakat

regulated almsgiving; one of the five pillars of Islam

Daily Prayer

second pillar, salat; devout Muslims perform five daily prayers at specific times of the day- they must do them at the required times; the first prayer should be done at dawn, followed by the noon prayer, the late afternoon prayer, the sunset prayer, and the final prayer in the evening; number of prayers is established not in the Qur'an but in hadith literature- during a journey to heaven (a miraj), Muhammad came into the presence of Allah, who told him to instruct people to pray 50 times per day (but this was too much, Moses told him, and the number was settled at five, with God saying that each prayer would count for ten); dua= individualized prayers requesting aid from God or giving thanks (not part of the salat); salat prayers are formalized- for each prayer, specific verses of the Qur'an are recited and special body movements accompany the recitations; before beginning the prayers, a Muslim must enter a state of ritual purity- this purification consists of ablutions, called wudu', which involve cleansing the hands, head, face, and feet; the body should be covered for prayer; the prayer begins with the takbir, or the declaration Allahu Akbar, which means "God is great"; the prayer faces in the direction of the Ka'ba in Mecca, the holiest site in Islam; in prayer, a Muslim stands, kneels, and bows his head to the floor (these cycle of movements along with proper recitation are called raka and vary in number according to the prayer); most Muslims believe that proper intention is necessary- the intention of the believer is what validates and legitimizes the action of prayer- many Muslims believe that the intention of the prayer is even more important than the prayer itself; the prayer closes with a greeting of peace; prayers can be done anywhere, but most perform them at a mosque

jahiliyya

the "age of ignorance", which refers to the time before the revelation of the Qur'an

Allah

the Arabic term for God

Islamic Reform Movements

the British and French colonized much of Muslim Africa and the Middle East, the British and the Dutch controlled Muslim lands in South and Southeast Asia

The Islamic Year and Holidays

the Islamic calendar begins with the hijra, the migration of Muhammad and the early community from Mecca to Medina, in 662 AD; the Islamic calendar is lunar and the Qur'an designates the names of the twelve months of the year- four of these months are considered sacred; the Feast of Sacrifice, or Id al-Adha, is the primary holiday of the Muslim year: the feast takes place at the end of the hajj season, and it is celebrated by all Muslims- not just those who made the pilgrimage that year- it commemorates Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son at God's command- in commemoration of the ram that was sacrificed instead of Ishmael, Muslims are expected to slaughter an animal to mark the holiday (however, because this is not always possible, Muslims may make charitable donations as a substitute); the second most important holiday in the Muslim calendar is Id al-Fitr, the Feast of Fast-Breaking, which marks the end of the month of Ramadan- a time of joy and forgiveness; the Prophet's birth is also an occasion for celebration in many parts of the Muslim world and it is known as Mawlid al-Nabi, and takes place around the twilight day of the third month of the Islamic calendar (some criticize this celebration b/c it risks elevating Muhammad to a God- why Saudi Arabia does not celebrate this); the month of Muharram is especially significant to Shi'a Muslims- the martyrdom of Muhammad's grandson Husayn is recalled on the tenth of the month- this date is called Ashura, and the entire month of Muharran is recognized as an important and somber time- Husayn's story is told through passion plays and street processions, called Ta'ziya- for Shi'a Muslims, the tombs of the prophet's family are sites of very important pilgrimages (Kabala, where Husayn was martyred and is said to be buried, is an important pilgrimage site in Iraq)

Later Islamic Empires: the Ottomans, the Mughals, and the Safavids

the Ottoman empire spanned over 600 years, from the Middle East and Mediterranean to Africa; the city, now called Istanbul, became the Ottoman capital and an important seat of Islamic learning and Islamic power (the empire ended after WWI); the Mughal empire rose in South Asia (ruled much of India), even though the Muslim population was in the minority- also saw a growth of literature and art- the empire died out in 1857; to the west of the Mughals, the Safavid empire in Iran flourished- and Shi'a Islam was established as the religion of Iran and saw development in Shia religious and philosophical thought

The Day of Judgment

the Qur'an teaches that all believers, men and women alike, will stand alone in front of Allah, and will be judged according to their actions in life; after death, a person resides in the grace in a sleeplike state until the end of days, at which time the judgment will take place; on Judgment Day, each person will have a book, which details the deeds of his life- the book held in the right hand indicates a righteous life, and the book held in the left hand indicates a sinner; some believe a person known as Mahdi will usher in the end of days (although this is not explicitly stated in the Qur'an); those who are judged to be righteous will enter paradise- in the Qur'an, paradise is described as a lush garden will bountiful blessings of food, drink, and beautiful young men and women; those who have had sinful lives will be cast into hell, which is often referred to simply as "the fire"- those doomed to hell include non-believers and Muslims who have rejected their faith by failing to live up to prescribed duties and moral standards; some Muslims believe that sinners will eventually be forgiven and taken to paradise

hajj

the annual pilgrimage to Mecca, one of the five pillars of Islam

adhan

the call to prayer

Mecca

the city in which Muhammad was born; place of pilgrimage for Muslims

Medina

the city to which Muhammad and his early followers migrated to escape persecution in Mecca

salat

the daily prayers, which are one of the pillars of Islam

shahadah

the declaration of faith: "There is no God but God and Muhammad is the Messenger of God"; the first of the five pillars

Angels and Jinn

the existence of angels- angels are part of God's creation, without body or gender; humans are said to be made of clay, and angels from light; angels serve as important messengers and assistants to God- the most famous angel is Gabriel, or Jibril; there are also supernatural beings called jinn, which are said to be created from fire- they can be both good and evil and Muslim and non-Muslim; English term "genie" derives from Arabic word jinn

The Five Pillars

the five pillars form the basis of Muslim worship practice; these pillars are: shahadah (the declaration of faith), salat (the daily prayer), zakat (almsgiving), Sawn (fasting during the month of Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca); all the pillars are equally important and generally required of all adult Muslims; however, individuals are sometimes excused from performing the pillars (like those who are ill, pregnant, or nursing)

Commentary on the Qur'an

the general Arabic term for commentary on the Qur'an is tafsir, which is translated in English as interpretation; the goal of original tafsir was to clarify the meanings of the words of the Qur'an; speculative tafsir is the idea that Muslims should use their own reason and rationality as believers to interpret the meaning of the verses

Qur'an

the holy text of Muslims; the Word of God as revealed to Muhammad

The Shari'ah: Islamic Law

the literal translation of "shari'ah" is "road" or "way" but also "law" in English, and Muslims believe that God, as creator of the universe and humanity, established a wide-ranging set of guidelines for human beings to follow; the shari'ah regulates almost every aspect of daily life for believers; in Islamic belief, God is the sole legislator- so humans cannot legislate or make new laws; the Qur'an is the primary legal source; the Sunnah is an additional legal source (the Sunnah is important because the Muhammad is the person closest to God and his words and actions became an important legal source as a model for human behavior); many scholars agree that if a legal matter is not addressed in the Qur'an or the Sunnah, it is appropriate to use human reason to find an analogous situation; today, many Muslim-states include Islamic law and courts in the state legal systems (however, in most countries where it is applied, Islamic courts handle only matters of family, law, and only for Muslims); Islamic law regulates what a believer should eat and drink- for example, Muslims are prohibited from consuming pork and alcohol

sawm

the mandatory fast during the month of Ramadan; one of the pillars of Islam

hijra

the migration of early Muslim community from Mecca to Medina in 622 AD- the Islamic calendar dates from this year

Ramadan

the month in which Muslims must fast daily from dawn until dusk; the fast is one of the five pillars of Islam, the month in which the Qur'an is believed to have been revealed to Muhammad

The Oneness of God

the most important principle of Islamic belief is the oneness of God- God is eternal, uncreated, all-knowing, and all-powerful, and it is God alone who created the universe and humankind; God is merciful, just, and good; he is transcendent but also present in the lives of believers; Muslims believe that God is the same God of the Jews and the Christians; denying or compromising this oneness is the greatest sine- this sin of associating anything or anyone else with God is called shirk; the natural world is mentioned throughout the Qur'an and elements of nature of referred to as ayat, or signs of God- Muslims view the natural world and the entire cosmos as a type of revelation from God; Muslims should have faith in God's purpose, even though they cannot truly know it

muezzin

the person who calls the adhan

Muhammad

the prophet who received the revelation of the Qur'an from God; the final prophet in a long line of prophets sent by God to humanity

Adhan

the salat is incumbent upon all Muslims, both male and female; in much of the Muslim world, it is more common for men to pray in mosques than women (although this is not always the case, for example in countries like urban Egypt and Indonesia); although females may serve as imam for other women, most Muslims believe that they may not do so for men; the genders are separated in the mosque; many Muslims feel closest to God during prayer; the five prayers a day and the fact that people must stop all activity to remember God indicates that submission to God is the most important part of life for a devout Muslim; prayer also draws the community of Muslims together in worship of God (the umma= the global community of Muslims)

The Sunnah: The Example of the Prophet

the second most important source of Islamic teachings is in the Sunnah, which refers to the "tradition" or way of life of the prophet Muhammad- it encompasses Muhammad's actions and words; Muhammad is the model of the best way to live

shirk

the sin of idolatry, of worshipping anything other than God, the one unforgivable sin in Islam

Almsgiving

the third pillar, zakat; the rules about zakat are very specific, and the amount of zakat is figured as a percentage (about 2.5%) of the value of certain types of property, including cash- zakat is therefore something like a tax; some describe zakat as a means of purifying Muslim property; it expresses a Muslim's commitment to improving his or her community in a real and concrete way- this is because the proceeds from zakat are normally distributed to the poor or are used to maintain public institutions like mosques and schools; sometimes the government collects and redistributes zakat, sometimes it is left to the community

The Crisis of Succession and the Rightly Guided Caliphs

this controversy of succession of the leadership of the Muslim community is often known as the crisis of succession, and it led to the development of the two major branches of Islam: the Sunni and the Shi'a; the majority group was the Sunni and the minority the Shi'a, which refers to the term shi'at Ali, meanings "party of Ali" and they believed that Muhammad had chosen his cousin and son-in-law Alito lead after his death; most Muslims in Medina agreed with the selection of Abu Bakr to lead community (although not the Shi'a- the Shi'a believed not only that Muhammad had designated Ali as his successor but also that the members of the family of the prophet had an intrinsic quality that made them the only appropriate leaders of the umma); the leaders after Muhammad were not prophets but caliphs, who ruled as the representatives of God and the prophet and had both religious and political authority (govt was called a caliphate); designation of Abu Bakr led to a period known as the time of the Rightly Guided Caliphs (which included Bakr, Uman, 'Uthman, and, finally, 'Ali); Abu Bakr sought to strengthen relationships with the communities and tribes of Arabia who had formed alliances with Muhammad; Umar was also confronted with the problem of some communities wanting to break away from Muslim rule, though he managed to preserve unity and expand Muslim rule; 'Uthman continued he rapid political expansion that 'Umar had begun but had issues with cultural and linguistic diversity because the umma now extended beyond Arabic-speaking lands- considered to practice nepotism and discriminate against non-Arab Muslims and was killed by insurgents; 'Ali's time saw the fractures in the Muslim community- some were upset Ali hadn't punished Uthman's murderers; Battle of the Camel was first to pit Muslims against Muslims, and Ali defeated an army led by the prophet's wife Aisha and other prominent Meccans; Mu'awiya, Uthman's son challenged Ali, and this resulted in the Battle of Siffin in 657 AD (where Mu'awiya asked Ali for an arbitration and he accepted- many viewed this as a surrender, and they separated themselves as Kharijites, which means "those who seceded" and one of them killed Ali in 661 AD)

Muslims in North America

today, over 6 million Muslims live in the US and about 1 million in Canada- the populations are growing rapidly, primarily through immigration- they live in both cities and rural areas; the African-American Muslim population grew significantly in the twentieth century- many slaves forced to convert to Christianity, and then recently they see Islam as tie to ancestors and some Muslim leaders claims that Islam was a more "authentic" religion for African Americans because it was not the religion of slave-holders-today, perhaps 1/2 of the Muslims in the US are African-Americans; in the late 1800s, many single, uneducated Muslims moved to the US for economic reasons, and this resulted in much intermarriage between these Muslim newcomers and people of varied cultural and religious backgrounds; many immigrants in this most recent wave have had less interest in assimilating to a mainstream American culture, instead hoping to preserve their cultural and religious heritage; in 2006, the US saw the election of the first Muslim member of Congress (Keith Ellison of Minnesota); the tragic events of 9/11 brought Islam to the forefront in many American minds- but it is perhaps best to understand as acts of political violence that perpetrators have attempted to justify with religion; in the aftermath of 9/11, North American Muslims faced suspicion and hostility- despite this, though, American have expressed interest in understanding other faiths and cultures- particularly Islam and Muslims in America have attempted to educate other communities about their beliefs and to explain that the vast majority of the world's Muslims regard terrorist acts as distinctly un-Islamic with no basis in the faith