Renaissance

King James Bible

- An English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England, begun in 1604 and completed in 1611; it is named after the king of England who called for it in 1604, James I - The books of this version include 39 books of the Old Testament, a section containing 14 books of the Apocrypha, and the 27 books of the New Testament - The translation is widely considered to be both beautiful and scholarly, although later versions would remove the books from the Apocrypha

Medici Family

- An Italian banking family and political dynasty of the 14th and 15th centuries in Florence, Italy - They used their bank, founded under Giovanni I, to ascend to power in Florence under his son, Cosimo I - The patronage of artists by Cosimo and his grandson Lorenzo, as well as their interest and focus on the knowledge of the ancient Greeks and Romans, is said to have started the Renaissance - The family eventually produced three popes: 1) Leo X (1513-1521) 2) Clement VII (1523-1534) 3) Leo XI (1605) - The first two popes are largely considered catalysts for the Reformation with their questionable religious acts - The family also eventually had two prominent queens of France: 1) Catherine (1547-1559) 2) Marie (1600-1610)

Leon Battista Alberti

- An Italian humanist author, artist, architect, poet, priest, linguist, philosopher, and cryptographer who lived from 1404-1472; he epitomized the Renaissance Man - Although he is often characterized as an architect, that largely minimizes the skill with which he did many different things - Among his concerns was the social effect of architecture, which is demonstrated by his inclusion, at the Rucellai Palace, of a continuous bench for seating at the level of the basement - His One Painting and On Architecture established the guidelines for the creation of paintings and buildings that would be followed for centuries

Nine Circles of Hell

- The splitting of hell into different levels by poet Dante in The Divine Comedy; each layer addresses progressively more egregious sinners - The nine levels include: 1. First Circle of Hell (Limbo) 2. Second Circle of Hell (Lust) 3. Third Circle of Hell (Gluttony) 4. Fourth Circle of Hell (Greed) 5. Fifth Circle of Hell (Anger) 6. Sixth Circle of Hell (Heresy) 7. Seventh Circle of Hell (Violence) 8. Eighth Circle of Hell (Fraud) 9. Ninth Circle of Hell (Treachery)

The Divine Comedy

- A 14th-century epic poem by Dante Alighieri, whose imaginative vision of the afterlife is representative of the medieval world view - It is divided into three parts: 1. Inferno (The most famous part; Dante is guided through the nine circles of hell by the poet Virgil) 2. Purgatorio (A journey through purgatory; Dante is guided by Virgil, then later Beatrice) 3. Paradiso (An exploration of heaven; Dante is guided by his obsession, Beatrice) - Originally titled "Comedy," Boccaccio later added the "Divine" adjective

Venus of Urbino

- A 1538 oil painting by the Italian master Titian; it depicts a nude young woman, identified with Venus, reclining on a couch or bed in a Renaissance palace - It hangs in the Galleria degli Uffizi in Florence - The shape and style of this pose would prove to be highly influential of future reclining nudes, particularly Edouard Manet's Olympia

Niccolò Machiavelli

- A Florentine humanist, diplomat, and politician most known for his work The Prince, which tells how a ruler has to do what is best for him and his country's survival, regardless to whether those actions may be immoral - An adjective form of his name has become associated with ruthless and oft immoral political machinations - Ironically, he did not necessarily believe in the teaching of The Prince, as it was an attempt to get back in the good graces of the Medici popes, and was loosely based on Cesare Borgia - He was the republican leader of Florence between the control of Savonarola and the retaking of the city by Lorenzo's sons; he led the resistance to the Medici forces at Prato that ended disastrously in the sacking of the city

Beatrice Portinari

- A Florentine woman who has been commonly identified as the principal inspiration for Dante's La Vita Nuova; she is also commonly identified with the woman who appears as one of his guides in The Divine Comedy - She guides Dante through heaven in the last book, Paradiso, as well as through last four cantos of Purgatorio; she takes over as guide from the Latin poet Virgil because, as a pagan, Virgil cannot enter paradise - Dante claims to have met her only twice, on occasions separated by nine years; he was so affected by these meetings that he carried his love for her throughout his entire life

Johannes Gutenberg

- A German printer from the middle of the 15th century; he is most notable for creating a printing method using moveable type that was used until the 20th century without any important changes made to it - Some of the unique elements of his invention: 1) A mold with punch-stamped matrices with which type could be cast precisely and in large quantities 2) A type-metal alloy 3) A new press derived from those used in wine making, papermaking, and bookbinding 4) An oil-based printing ink - None of these features existed in Chinese or Korean printing, the existing European technique of stamping letters on various surfaces, nor woodblock printing - This invention was highly influential in world history, helping movements such as the Protestant Reformation to gain traction

Della Rovere Family

- A family that lived in relative obscurity in Savona, near Rome, until Sixtus and Julius, two members of the family, managed to become pope - On the backs of nepotism from these connections, they rose to a position of prominence that they were able to retain even after the papacy of Sixtus and Julius ended

The Last Supper (Tintoretto)

- A famous painting by Tintoretto that shares its name with a work by Leonardo Da Vinci - He decided to take a much more emotional take on the scene; in his version, many servants, preparing both the food and the foot-washing that is to come, surround the apostles - It is a much darker painting, with light actually emanating from Jesus; it also makes a strong use of chiaroscuro - The painting was completed between 1592-1594 and is housed in the Basilica di San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice

The Last Judgement

- A fresco by the Italian Renaissance master Michelangelo, executed on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel in Vatican City - It is a depiction of the Second Coming of Christ and the final and eternal judgement by God of all humanity - Michelangelo originally accepted the commission for this important painting from Pope Clement VII, with the subject being resurrection, but after the pope's death, his successor Pope Paul III felt this was a more fitting subject for 1530s Rome instead - The work took four years to complete, and was done between 1536 and 1541; additionally, Michelangelo began working on it 25 years after having finished the Sistine Chapel ceiling

Vulgate

- A late 4th-century Latin translation of the Bible that became, during the 16th century, the Catholic Church's official Latin version - The translation was largely the work of St. Jerome, who, in 382, was commissioned by Pope Damasus I to revise the Vetus Latina (Old Latin) collection of biblical texts - The Catholic Church affirmed it as its official Latin Bible at the Council of Trent

Cesare Borgia

- A military leader and son of Pope Alexander VI, and, at times, thanks to his father's nepotism, an archbishop and cardinal - He likely had his older brother killed to take over his territory; he father had to then negotiate an annulment of the king of France's marriage in order to give him those titles - He also had his sister's husband killed, because her husband was an obstacle in the way of his allegiances to France - He fell out of power with his father's death and the rise of Pope Julius II, who used his influence to become pope, then turning on him - He was the basis for Niccolo Machiavelli's The Prince - Ironically, it is a portrait of him by Giorgione that would go on to be the model for the face of Christ for the next 500 years

Counter-Reformation

- A movement of reform in the Catholic Church, largely considered to be a response to the Protestant Reformation, though the Catholics argue that it started earlier; whatever the case, it gathered more steam in the face of the Protestant Reformation - In 1545, the leaders of the Catholic Church assembled in the northern Italian city of Trent for an emergency conference to reclaim the moral high ground and the superiority of the Church in the wake of the Protestant challenge

Protestant Reformation

- A movement that questioned whether the Catholic Church was the only conduit to God, especially after the questionable morality of many of the medieval popes - In northern and central Europe, reformers like Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Henry VIII challenged papal authority and questioned the Church's ability to define Christian practice - It argued for a religious and political redistribution of power into the hands of Bible and pamphlet-reading priests and princes - The disruption triggered wars, persecutions, and the so-called Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church's delayed but forceful response to the Protestants

The School of Athens

- A painting that is part of a four-painting series on the walls of the office of Pope Julius II, painted by Raphael between 1509-1511 - The other three walls give homage to poetry, law, and theology, while this one is philosophy - It represents all the greatest mathematicians, philosophers, and scientists from classical antiquity, gathered together, sharing their ideas, and learning from each other; the two thinkers in the very center, Aristotle on the right and Plato on the left, represent two sides of philosophical thought - Plato points up, because in his philosophy, the changing world that we see around us is just a shadow of a higher, truer reality that is eternal and unchanging - Aristotle holds his hand down, because in his philosophy, the only reality is the one that we can see and experience by sight and touch - Also pictured are Pythagoras, Socrates, Diogenes, and Euclid, as well as scholars modeled after the likeness of Michelangelo, Leonardo Da Vinci, Donatello, and Raphael himself

Humanism

- A philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively - It generally prefers critical thinking and evidence (rationalism/empiricism) over acceptance of religious dogma or superstition - Generally, it refers to a perspective that affirms some notion of human freedom and progress - In modern times, these movements are typically aligned with secularism, looking for scientific reasoning as opposed to religious answers

Borgia Family

- A powerful family in Renaissance Italy, producing two popes, despite their name being more associated with questionable deeds and ethics - Originally a noble Spanish dynasty, they switched to Italy when Alfonso, living from 1378-1458, was made a cardinal in 1444; eleven years later, he was appointed as Pope Callixtus III - In turn, he helped his nephew Rodrigo; in 1492, Rodrigo kept the family tradition going and also succeeded to the papacy as the hugely controversial Pope Alexander VI - Their second pope, Alexander VI, began to accumulate a vast amount of land and power for himself and his illegitimate children; his children, Cesare and Lucrezia, also became notorious

Mannerism

- A style that bridged the gap between Renaissance art and Baroque art - It emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520, lasting until about 1580 in Italy, when the Baroque style began to replace it - Where High Renaissance art emphasizes proportion, balance, and ideal beauty, this exaggerates such qualities, often resulting in compositions that are asymmetrical or unnaturally elegant

Peace of Augsburg

- A temporary settlement within the Holy Roman Empire of the religious conflict arising from the Protestant Reformation - Each prince was to determine whether Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism was to prevail in his lands - Dissenters were allowed to emigrate, and the free cities were obligated to allow both Catholics and Lutherans to practice their religions - Calvinists and other were ignored; under a provision termed the ecclesiastic reservation, the archbishops, bishops, and abbots who had become Protestant after 1552 were compelled to forfeit their offices and incomes

Renaissance Man

- Also knows as a polymath, they are a person whose expertise spans a significant number of different subject areas; such a person is known to draw on complex bodies of knowledge to solve specific problems - The term is often used to describe great thinkers of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment who excelled at several fields in science and the arts, most notably Leon Battista Alberti and Leonardo da Vinci

Lucrezia Borgia

- An Italian noblewoman and daughter of Pope Alexander VI, she had a notorious reputation, perhaps unfairly, being linked to the crimes and debauchery of her family - Her three marriages into influential families helped build her family's political power: 1) The first was annulled when she was six months pregnant 2) The second ended with her husband's death, which was likely executed at the hands of men hired by her brother 3) In the last of the three, she was able to move away from Rome to Ferrara and get free of her family - Historians debate whether or not she was an active participant in her family's crimes, but she definitely inspired countless works of art, books, and films

The Inquisition

- An ecclesiastical tribunal established by Pope Gregory IX around 1232 for the suppression of heresy; it was active chiefly in northern Italy and southern France, becoming notorious for the use of torture - In 1542, it was reestablished to combat Protestantism, eventually becoming an organ of papal government - It spread to multiple Catholic countries, most notably Spain, where it had a particular fascination with Jews and Muslims and their potential conversions, do largely in party to the particular history of that area of the world and its former subjugation under Muslim rule

In Praise of Folly

- An essay written in Latin in 1509 by Desiderius Erasmus; it is a satirical attack on superstitions and other traditions of European society, as well as on the Western Church - Erasmus revised and extended the work, which he originally wrote in the space of a week while sojourning with Sir Thomas More at More's estate - It is considered one of the most notable works of the Renaissance and has played an important role in the beginnings of the Protestant Reformation

Pope Julius II

- Born Guiliano della Rovere and living from 1443-1513, he is credited with ushering in the High Renaissance during his reign as pope from 1503-1513 - He was a fiery man who did not hesitate to don full military armor over his vestments; in turn, his contemporaries called him "il papa terrible," or "the pope who inspires terror" - He is responsible for calling both Raphael and Michelangelo to Rome to complete papal projects - Some of his positives: 1) Helped expand the church in the New World 2) Cracked down on simony 3) Held Papal Mass frequently - Some of his negatives: 1) Held many military campaigns 2) Had sexual relationships with various youths 3) Fathered many illegitimate children 4) Held multiple benefices - His modern-day legacy can be seen mostly in the large amount of art he commissioned, making him one of the first Renaissance popes

Masaccio

- Born Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Simone and living from 1401-1428, his name literally means "Messy Tom" - According to Vasari, he was the best painter of his generation because of his skill at recreating lifelike figures and movements, as well as a convincing sense of three-dimensionality - He died at 26, but he had a profound influence on other artists - He was one of the first artists to use linear perspective when painting, employing techniques such as a vanishing point in art for the first time - He moved away from elaborate ornamentation to a more naturalistic mode that employed perspective and chiaroscuro for greater realism

Martin Luther

- Born in modern-day Germany in 1483, he became one of the most influential figures in Christian history when he began the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century - He called into question some of the basic tenets of Roman Catholicism, and his followers soon split from the Catholic Church to ultimately begin the Protestant tradition - He spent his early years in relative anonymity as a monk and scholar, but in 1517 he penned a document attacking the Catholic Church's corrupt practice of selling indulgences to absolve sin - His 95 Theses notably sparked the Protestant Reformation - Known for sparring with the Medici popes Leo X and Clement VII and standing up to Leo X when excommunicated, saying that it was actually the pope that was headed for Hell

Fifth Circle of Hell

- For those accused of the sin of Anger - Their punishment was to be forced to fight each other on the surface of the river Styx

Eigth Circle of Hell

- For those accused of the sin of Fraud - Divided into 10 Bolgias (stony ditches with bridges between them): 1. Panderers and seducers 2. Flatterers 3. People who practiced simony 4. Sorcerers and false prophets 5. Corrupt politicians 6. Hypocrites 7. Thieves 8. Evil counselors and advisers 9. Divisive individuals 10. Alchemists, perjurers, and counterfeiters

Third Circle of Hell

- For those accused of the sin of Gluttony - Their punishment was to be overseen by Cerberus as they lie in a vile slush produced by a never-ending icy rain

Fourth Circle of Hell

- For those accused of the sin of Greed - Their punishment was to be overseen by Pluto as they are divided into teams of those who hoarded and those who lavishly spent and are forced to battle each other by pushing weights - Some residents include many clergy and popes

Sixth Circle of Hell

- For those accused of the sin of Heresy - Their punishment was to be condemned to eternity lying in flaming tombs - Some residents include Epicurus and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II

Second Circle of Hell

- For those accused of the sin of Lust - Their punishment was to be blown back and forth by strong winds that prevented rest - Some residents include Cleopatra, Tristan, and Helen of Troy

Ninth Circle of Hell

- For those accused of the sin of Treachery - Although all residents are frozen in an icy lake, those who committed more severe sins are placed deeper within the ice - Divided into four rounds according to the seriousness of the sin; they are named after individuals who personify the particular sin: 1. Caina (Named after Cain, who killed his brother Abel in Genesis) 2. Antenora (Named after Antenor of Troy, who was Priam's counselor during the Trojan War) 3. Ptolomaea (Named after Ptolemy, son of Abubus) 4. Judecca (Named after Judas Iscariot, the apostle who betrayed Jesus with a kiss)

Seventh Circle of Hell

- For those accused of the sin of Violence - Divided into three rings: 1. Outer Ring (For murders; their punishment was to be sunk into a river of boiling blood and fire; some residents include Alexander the Great and Guy de Montfort) 2. Middle Ring (For those who committed suicide; their punishment was to be turned into trees which were fed upon by harpies) 3. Inner Ring (For blasphemers and sodomites; their punishment was to be stuck in a desert of burning sand with burning rain falling on them)

Council of Trent

- Held in northern Italy between 1545-1563, it established the basis for a Catholic counter-attack to the Reformation - Decrees were issued covering every aspect of Church authority, from the holding of multiple offices to the chastity of priests and monastic reform - The Index of Forbidden Books was published, naming and shaming 583 heretical texts, including most translations of the Bible, as well as the works of Erasmus, Calvin, and Luther - New churches were ordered, with space for thousands of worshippers and acoustics designed for vernacular sermons

Rucellai Palace

- In 1446, Leon Batista Alberti designed this private dwelling, often considered the first of its kind designed in the Renaissance style - Constructed as part of the "building boom" after the Medici family; built in their own palace, it was created in an effort to emphasize measure and harmony - The higher you moved upwards, the more intricate and fancy it became, as smaller stones were used on higher floors - The building had four floors: 4) The servant quarters (designed to be hidden) 3) The family's apartment 2) The guest rooms and area 1) The family's center of business - Like the Colosseum, each floor had a different design style: Tuscan, Ionic, then Corinthian

Lorenzo Ghiberti

- Living from 1378-1455, he was a Florentine Italian artist of the Early Renaissance best known as the creator of the bronze doors of the Florence Baptistry, called the Gates of Paradise - He won a contest for the right to design those doors, beating out contemporary Filippo Brunelleschi - Trained as a goldsmith and sculptor, he established an important workshop for sculpture in metal

Desiderius Erasmus

- Living from 1469-1536, he was a humanist and the greatest scholar of the Northern Renaissance; his most famous work was an essay called In Praise of Folly - He helped lay the groundwork for the historical-critical study of the past, especially in his studies of the Greek New Testament and the Church Fathers - By criticizing ecclesiastical abuses while pointing to a better age in the distant past, he encouraged the growing urge for reform, which found expression both in the Protestant Reformation and in the Catholic Counter-Reformation

Titian

- Living from 1488-1576, he was a student of Giorgione's and the second of three great Venetian artists of the Renaissance - Well-renowned for his use of color, his best works include Assumption of the Virgin and Venus of Urbino - He also taught Tintoretto at the start of Tintoretto's career

Pope Alexander VI

- Living from 1492-1503, he was a corrupt, worldly, and ambitious pope whose neglect of the spiritual inheritance of the church contributed to the development of the Protestant Reformation - He was first made cardinal by his uncle, Pope Callixtus III, and used his church position to amass a fortune and patronize various arts - Fathering a number of children for whom he provided livings, mainly in Spain, he four subsequently legitimized offspring: Juan, Cesare, Jofré, and Lucrezia - Divided up the world into Portuguese and Spanish territories with the Line of Demarcation in 1493, which was moved in 1494 with the Treaty of Tordesillas - Upon his death, the next pope, Pope Pius III, forbid the paying of a Mass for him, saying "It is blasphemous to pray for the damned"

John Calvin

- Living from 1509-1564, we was a Swiss preacher who created a more extreme version of Protestantism than Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli - In 1536, he published the landmark text Institutes of the Christian Religion, an attempt to standardize the theories of Protestantism - His religious teachings emphasized the sovereignty of the scriptures, as well as predestination, a doctrine holding that God chooses those who will enter heaven based on foreknowledge of their good deeds

Tintoretto

- Living from 1518 and being tutored briefly by Titian, hew is the third of three great Venetian Renaissance artists, though some of his pieces bordered more on Mannerism than Renaissance - His name is actually Jacopo Robusti, but he took on this nickname, which means "Little Dyer," referencing his family's line of work - Perhaps his best-known work is his version of The Last Supper, which adds much more emotion than Leonardo Da Vinci's version - He also had a bit of an ego; the words over his door loosely translated to "The color of Titian, and the drawing of Michelangelo"

Dante Alighieri

- Major Italian poet of the Late Middle Ages, living from 1265-1321, whose Divine Comedy is widely considered the greatest literary work composed in the Italian language - A key defender of using vernacular in literature, he used the basic Italian of the common man rather than the more elevated Latin - As a result of his example, Petrarch and Boccaccio would also use Italian, helping to elevate it to the national language; this led him to be called the "Father of the Italian Language"

First Circle of Hell

- Not for any particular sin; this is the Limbo level - The realm of "virtuous pagans," it was an inferior version of heaven for people who existed before Christianity, and thus had no knowledge of it - Some residents include Homer, Socrates, Aristotle, Julius Caesar, Cicero, and Hippocrates

Hapsburgs

- One of the principle sovereign dynasties of Europe from the 15th to the 20th century; their name is derived from a translation of Hawk's Castle, the family estate built in 1020 in what is now Switzerland - The family dominated the Holy Roman Empire, continually holding its throne between 1438-1740, becoming the most dominant of all royalty in the time period - Living from 1745-1780, their last ruler and only female ruler, Maria Theresa, marked the end of their domination of Europe

95 Theses

- Popular legend has it that on October 31, 1517, Martin Luther defiantly nailed a copy of these to the door of the Wittenberg Castle church; he more likely hung the document on the door of the church matter-of-factually to announce the ensuing academic discussion that he was organizing around it - Also known as the "Disputation of the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences," they were written in a remarkably humble and academic tone, questioning rather than accusing - They centered on two beliefs: 1) The Bible is the central religious authority 2) Humans may reach salvation only by their faith, not by their deeds

Dante's Satan

- Portrayed as a giant demon, frozen mid-breast in ice at the center of hell - He has three faces and a pair of bat-like wings affixed under each chin; as he beats his wings, he creates a cold wind which continues to freeze the ice surrounding him - Each of his three mouths chews on the three main traitors, Judas, Brutus, and Cassius - Also known as Lucifer, he was formerly the Angel of Light, being demoted, banished from heaven, and condemned to an eternity in hell when he tried to usurp the power of God - This is a less powerful version of him than most standard depictions; he is slobbering, wordless, and receives the same punishments in hell as the rest of the sinners

Indulgences

- The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes one as "a remission before God of the temporal punishment due to sins whose guilt has already been forgiven, which the faithful Christian who is duly disposed gains under certain prescribed conditions though the action of the Church, which, as the minister of redemption, dispenses and applies with authority the treasury of the satisfactions of Christ and the saints" - What they became, however, were a way for the Catholic Church to fund the overspending of many of their corrupt popes by selling free passes into heaven for yourself or your dead relatives - The two most popular indulgences included: 1) Remission for a certain type of sin for the rest of your life 2) Forgiveness for a dead relative's sin who died without going to confessions, with the intent of shortening their time spent in purgatory - Ironically, the Catholic Church insists that one could never actually shorten time in purgatory or forgive future sins with them; however, this didn't stop them from abusing it

Simony

- The buying or selling of something spiritual or closely connected with the spiritual - More widely, it is any contract of this kind forbidden by divine or ecclesiastical law - The name is taken from Simon Magus (in Acts 8:18), who tried to buy the power of conferring the gifts of the Holy Spirit from the Apostles - It was virtually unknown in the first three centuries of the Christian church, but it became familiar when the church had positions of wealth and influence to bestow

Pope Sixtus IV

- The first Della Rovere pope, he was born Francesco della Rovere and lived from 1414-1484 - He first drew the attention of Pope Paul II from his religious writings at the university in Perguia, where was was studying theology - Pope Paul II would go on to make him a cardinal; later, in 1471, he would succeed him as a proven controversial pope - Some of his positives: 1) Restored a mostly antiquated Rome to its former glory at the "Eternal City" 2) Renovated roads 3) Extended aqueducts 4) Built new churches - Some of his negatives: 1) Made questionable alliances 2) Promoted at least six nephews to prominent positions 3) Seized a great deal of power for the papacy

Giorgione

- The first of three great masters of the Venetian Renaissance; he lived from 1477-1510 - He helped shape the Venetian style, which has highly geometric forms combined with idiosyncratic characteristics, though is perhaps more known for teaching Titian - His painting of Cesare Borgia was the basis for most depictions of Christ over the next 500 years

Inferno

- The first part of Dante's The Divine Comedy, it is followed by Purgatorio and Paradiso - Tells of Dante's journey through hell as he is guided by the ancient Roman poet Virgil - In this poem, hell is depicted as nine circles of suffering located within Earth; it is "the realm...of those who have rejected spiritual values by yielding to bestial appetites or violence, or by perverting their human intellect to fraud or malice against the fellowmen"

William Tyndale

- The man who attempted to make the Bible accessible to the common English man by translating it into English when it was outlawed; he had 6,000 copies printed in Germany and smuggled into England in 1524 - This put him at odds with Henry VIII, who was still married to Catherine of Aragon and was still considered Catholic - He tried to hide on the European continent, but he was eventually caught and executed in England in 1536 by strangulation and having his corpse burned at the stake

Vanishing Point

- The point in a work of art at which imaginary sight lines appear to converge, suggesting depth - In the most reproduced work of all time, The Last Supper by Leonardo Da Vinci, this point lands just above the head of Christ, in the space of a window at the center of the painting

Pope Clement VII

- The second of the Medici popes, he was born Giuliano de Medici, the illegitimate son of Lorenzo's younger brother, Giulio de Medici; he was adopted by Lorenzo after Giulio's death - He lived in the shadow of Lorenzo's son Giovanni II for most of his early life, being promoted to cardinal later during his brother's reign as Pope Leo X - He became pope two years after his brother's death, in 1523, and at the height of crisis for the Catholic Church, which was bankrupt amidst the rise of Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation - While he commissioned great works of art, like Michelangelo's The Last Judgement on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel, he is more known as the pope who was forced to flee Rome when the Protestants sacked it in 1527

Pope Leo X

- The second son of Lorenzo de Medici, he was named Giovanni after his great grandfather, the founder of the Medici bank - When his father Lorenzo realized that his empire was faltering, he used his money and influence to send his son to the church; with his father's backing, he became a cardinal at just age 14 - After his father's death, he and his brother Giuliano (later Clement VII) got the backing of Pope Julius II, using the pope's forces to sack the city of Prato and retake Florence - He became pope upon the death of his mentor, Julius II, declaring "God has given us the papacy; let us enjoy it" - His great excesses and endorsement of the sale of indulgences ultimately led Martin Luther to start the Protestant Reformation

Moveable Type

- The system and technology of printing and typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters of punctuation), usually on the medium of paper - The world's first printing press technology for printing paper books made with this was made of ceramic porcelain, being invented in ancient China around 1040 by the Han Chinese innovator, Bi Sheng - Around 1405, Johannes Gutenberg made another version in Europe; in this version, the more limited number of characters needed for European languages made it more successful

Raphael Sanzio

- Usually referred to as simply "Raphael," he was an artist born in Urbino in 1483; he was famous for his work in Rome under Pope Julius II, most notably his great work, The School of Athens - He was known for his close association and friendship with Pope Julius; in fact, The School of Athens is painted in a private study of the pope's, along with three other works on the other walls representing poetry, law, and theology - The only one of the four artists who had a Ninja Turtle named after them that wasn't based in Florence