Research Methods final

Pearson's r values

measures the degree to which a set of data points form a straight line relationship, measures the relative strength and direction of the linear relationship (association) between two variables Ranges between -1 and 1 The closer to -1, the stronger the negative linear relationship The closer to 1, the stronger the positive linear relationship The closer to 0, the weaker any positive linear relationship

Concurrent MMR

method 1 + method 2, research gives priority to both quantitative and qualitative data, collects data simultaneously, compares the results from both types of analysis to determine if the two data bases yield similar or dissimilar results

adjacency

neighboring a unit of geography

Continuous variables

numeric variables that are measured (rates, percentages, time)

Causation

only way to know causal relationship between two variable is to to perform a true experiment where subjects are randomly assigned to different conditions to find out if X causes Y or Y causes X

Informal research

process by which we gather empirical research of our reality

Subjectivity

the quality of being based on or influenced by personal feelings, tastes, or opinions

GIS definition

A computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing spatial data, allows us to work with data in a way that is spatially referenced to geography

Applied research

Done with the intention of applying the results of its finding to solving specific problems Ex: Research to improve crop production, Treat or cure a specific disease, Improve energy efficiency of homes, offices, transportation

Six norms for scientific research

1. Compensation for injury 2. Confidentiality 3. Voluntary informed consent 4. Selection of subjects 5. Valid research design 6. Competence of researcher 7. Identification of consequences

List/describe the two criteria for case study design

1. Define the unit of analysis- what exactly am I focusing on? 2. Pick a design type: four different design types based on how many cases and how many different units of analysis

Three research types

1. Descriptive- describes what is prevalent (regarding a group of people, a community, phenomenon, situation, outcome, program, etc) 2. Correlational- establishes or explores relationships, associations, or interdependence 3. Explanatory- explains why a relationship/association/interdependence exists OR why a particular event occurs

List/describe three types of case studies

1. Exploratory- often done to find out more about a largely unexplored area, creates potential for a more detailed, structured follow-up study 2. Descriptive- used to describe what happens in a particular instance (event, process, or natural phenomenon), usually start with specific research questions and do intensive information collection to answer those questions 3. Explanatory- for areas of research that have been examined before- we know the issues and the ways scholars have explored them, existing studies provide a conceptual framework for thinking about the relationship among variables

Scientific research is... (4 things)

1. Generalizable- conclusions drawn from the research should be applicable to the broader population-levels to this depending on method and sample size/characteristics. 2. Replicable- can be done by an independent researcher with similar results 3. Valid- examines/measures what it says it examines/measure 4. Peer-reviewed- research is heavily critiqued and evaluated by other experts in that field (checks and balances)

A valid research question is... (4 things)

1. Justified- is the research original and does it have the potential to contribute to my discipline/research area? 2. Viable- are the variables, phenomena, etc, able to be studied? Is there data readily available on this? If not, can I collect this data somewhat easily? 3. Feasible- Do I have the resources available to collect the data? Can I complete this research within the allotted time? 4. Focused- Can I effectively answer the research question in this single study?

Three main parts of the back-end and identify sub-parts

1. Methods (data and sample, dependent variable, independent variable, other covariates and control) 2. Results (analysis, descriptive statistics) 3. Discussion (reviewing findings/claims, theoretical/empirical implications, limits and recommendations)

List three ways survey research is classified

1. Purpose 2. Time 3. Data collection

List/describe four steps of coding

1. Raw data management- data cleaning 2. Data reduction- chunking, coding 3. Data interpretation- coding, clustering 4. Data representation- telling the story, making sense of the data for others

Three principles for human subjects research

1. Respect for persons- choices of autonomous individuals should be respected, people incapable of making their own choices should be protected, voluntary subjects need adequate information for decision making 2. Beneficence- participation in research is associated with a favorable balance of potential benefits and harms, maximize possible benefits, minimize potential harm 3. Justice- may not exploit or exclude vulnerable individuals who may benefit without good reason

List/describe three errors in survey research

1. Sampling error- when the sample doesn't represent the population 2. Measurement error- when the numbers in your data don't match reality 3. Coverage error- when the sampling frame excludes relevant individuals and includes irrelevant ones

What are research methods? (2 parts)

1. The ways in which research studies are designed 2. The procedures by which data are analyzed

Seven purposes of literature review

1. To define the terms and context of the study 2. Surveys preceding literature on the topic 3. Explores the ways that others have solved similar questions/problems 4. Outlines the relationship between research texts 5. Evaluates the quality and relevance of current literature 6. Establishes gaps or avenues for meaningful contribution 7. Demonstrates your scholarly rigor

Three phases of spatial analysis

1. Visualization (descriptive) 2. Identification of significant spatial processes (confirmatory) 3. Integration of spatial components into statistical models (explanatory)

Action research definition/how it can be used in environmental research

A form of research that generates knowledge for the purpose of taking action, involves collaboration with population under study as equals, collaboration ensures that proposed actions are informed by their knowledge and their perception of needs Can be used in environmental research by taking action on climate change by learning about how it effects communities in certain ways

Hypothesis

A hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion, or idea about something that you don't know

Ordinal

A non-numerical variable that is ordered with no meaningful difference between levels/values

Nominal variable

A non-numerical variable you can organize in more than two categories that does not follow a particular order

Sample

A subgroup of the population that is the focus of your research study

Interval

A variable in which the numeric difference is ordered and meaningful

Formal research

An organized, systematic, data-based critical scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the objective of finding answers or solutions to it

Containment

Being inside a unit of geography

Describe scatterplots

Can be positive or negative, the closer together the points are the closer it is to -1 or 1 (strong or weak), can be linear or curvilinear

Research bias

Deliberate attempts to conceal or highlight research findings and/or use procedures/methods for one's own vested interests

Basic research

Done with the intention to generate more knowledge and understanding of the phenomena that occur and to build theories based on the research results (paves the way for applied research), foundation of everything Ex: How does mold reproduce? What is the rate of photosynthesis in less sunny vs more sunny habitats

Differences between ethnography and other research methods

Ethnography research process is non-linear, involves repeated interaction between theory, data analysis, and data collection, the researcher is the research instrument

Describe first order and second order effects on a map

First order effects- simply mapping your data and "eyeing" the data to find patterns or clusters, subjective Second order effects- developing theoretical explanations for the patterns we see and mapping or coding the map for those explanatory variables

Interpreting beta coefficients

For every 1 unit change of x, y value changes by ___ (use inches of rainfall, actual unit) For every one (whatever the unit is) increase in (X variable), we would expect daily visits to increase/decrease by _______ visits.

operational definition

How a concept is defined in order to be measurable. Valid only for the purpose of your study

Descriptive vs. inferential statistics

Inferential statistics involves testing statements about the population on the basis of a sample... which allows us to make inferences about the population Descriptive statistics summarize and describe our sample

Secondary data

Information used in a study that is already available in another source (eg journal, census, reports)

Indicator

Logical reflectors of concepts that are used to reliably measure that concept

Key to analyzing case studies

Look at variation within or across the cases (variation in circumstances and context/time/space)

Characteristics of survey research

Non-experimental, descriptive, most popular/common research method used, one of the most important areas of measurement in applied social research, encompasses any measurement procedures that involve asking questions of respondents, primarily quantitative, takes less time/money

Discrete variables

Numeric variables that are counted (household income, # of occurrences/places/points, a person's age)

Difference between a research article and an op-ed

Op-ed- usually a short article commenting on current events or issues, reach more of society, form of public science Research articles written for scientific journals have a limited audience- usually students in that discipline and other researchers interested in research in that discipline

Case study process

Plan, design, prepare, collect, analyze, share, arrows go all different ways- iterative

Pros and cons of quantitative research/data

Pro- can reveal generalizable information for a large group of people Con- often fail to provide specific answers, reasons, explanations, or examples

Pros and cons of qualitative research/data

Pro- provides data about meaning and context regarding the people and environments of study Con- findings are often not generalizable because of the small numbers and narrow range of participants

Basic differences between vector and raster data

Vector data- based on the interaction between arcs and nodes, represented by points, lines, and polygons Raster data- cell based data such as aerial imagery and digital elevation models. Characterized by pixel values

Reliability

Refers to research instruments that provide similar results when used repeatedly under similar conditions

Difference between survey research and experiments

Survey research- focuses on naturally occurring phenomena, researcher tries to be as uninvolved as possible Rather than manipulating phenomena, survey research attempts to influence the attitudes and behaviors it measures as little as possible

Sample size

The number of people or other unit of study (ie census tracts, state parks) in your study

Saturation point

The point in a study at which there is little or no new information to be learned from respondents

Dependent variable

The variable in which changes are produced

Extraneous variable

These can affect the relationship between the IV and DV and are random, unknown, or can't be controlled for in the study

Thick vs. thin description

Thick description- the process of carefully documenting the significant features of a culture, full, detailed description to the point of analysis intended to give a mental image of something experienced, provides details that would be meaningful to an outsider or someone unfamiliar with the group, place, or thing being described Thin description- just describes with not a lot of details, like a blink, no meaning behind it

Halo effect

This effect occurs when an observer rates an individual on one aspect based on the way they rated them on another aspect

Type II error

This fault occurs when the researcher accepts a null hypothesis when they shouldn't have

Reactive effect

This occurs as a result of the way a survey or interview question is worded that informs the respondent of the existence or prevalence of a variable under study

Hawthorne effect

This occurs when individuals being observed realize that they are being observed and change their behavior

Graph

This type of chart shows the mathematical relationship between variables

Action research

This type of research involves addressing practical problems while including people who are facing those problems directly in the research process

Longitudinal study

This type of study involves repeated observations of the same variables over short or long periods of time

Cross-sectional study

This type of study is useful for getting a snapshot of a phenomenon or relationship at a given point in time

Control variable

This variable is limited or held constant in a research study to prevent bias

Difference between traditional and spatial analysis

Traditional analysis- assumes spatial independence Spatial analysis- assumes spatial dependence/spatial effects and tests the two null hypotheses, control for the fact that these two things are spatially related

Ethnography research process

Triangle of theory, data collection, and data analysis

Purpose of spatial analysis

Uses information on spatial variation to allow us to characterize the spatial extent of environmental problems and the spatial relationships among variables

Concept

Words that are difficult to measure as is and can vary in understanding from person to person

positionality statement

a description of the author's identity in society, especially as it relates to a particular project. We are admitting that no research can ever be 100% objective, but that our background gives us a particular lens through which we can see the world. We also acknowledge that the same information could have different meaning for someone of a different identity

Critical reflexivity

a method of identifying and reflecting critically on how personal bias affects research findings

Pilot study

a small-scale preliminary study conducted to evaluate feasibility, duration, cost, adverse events, and improve upon the study design prior to performance of a full-scale research project

Ethics

about creating a mutually respectful relationship with the research population, subjects are pleased to participate, community regards the conclusions as constructive

Case study definition

an intensive study of a single or small number of instances of individuals, events, entities, or processes that may use a wide variety of types and sources of information

Measure

an item in a research study to which a participant responds

Mixed methods research

combines quantitative and qualitative methods to offer a more comprehensive description or explanation of phenomena

Tables

data structures that organize information in rows and columns

Objectivity

the quality of being based on observation or experience

Photovoice definition

femininst analysis, a type of participatory action research in which people- usually those with little power- use photographs and/or video to picture their environment and experiences and to express their thoughts about them

Primary data

information collected for the specific purpose of a study

Ratio variable

interval variables (ordered, meaningful difference) that have a clear definition of 0

qualitative research

involves non-numeric data (words, picture, videos, sounds, meanings, drawings), can tell us what, where, when, AND why, how, usually involves some broad expectations, but not always necessary

Quantitative research

involves numeric data and statistical, mathematical, or computational analysis, can tell us what, where, and when, usually involves concrete hypotheses

Interview definition

involves verbal conversations between people with the objective of collective empirical information relative to the research topic

Mixed methods definition

research design involving the collection and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data to more fully address, explain, and/or explore the research problem or topic

Exploratory MMR

research emphasizes qualitative data rather than quantitative data, has a sequence to data collection that involves collecting qualitative data followed by quantitative data, plans on the quantitative data to build on or explain the initial qualitative findings

Explanatory MMR

researcher places priority on quantitative data collection and analysis, collects quantitative data first, then uses qualitative data to refine the results of the quantitative data

Proximity

spatial distance to an event or location

Correlation

tells us two variables are related/associated, but does not necessarily mean x causes y/what direction Positive correlation: as one variable increases, the other increases, closer to line is closer to +1, further from line is closer to 0 Negative correlation: as one variable increases, the other decreases, closer to line is closer to -1, further from line is closer to 0

Induction

the data leads the researcher, start by collecting data then spotting a pattern, building a hypothesis, test the hypothesis Ex: What is the next number in a pattern 1, 2, 4, 8, 16? In the last 5 years, the temperature has increased every year. Therefore, global warming is occurring

Sampling

the process of selecting a number of respondents/observations from a larger population to become the basis of the study

Deduction

the researcher arrives at a conclusion and collects data to confirm their conclusion, start by developing a theory, then building a hypothesis, collecting data, test the hypothesis Ex: All even numbers are divisible by 2, and 38 is divisible by 2, therefore 38 is an even number, summer days are hot, therefore 4th of july will be hot

Ethnography definition

the study and systematic recording of human cultures or the descriptive work produced from such research

Independent variable

the variable that spurs change in another variable

Type I error

this fault occurs when the researcher rejects the null hypothesis when they shouldn't have

Limitations

those factors of your research design or methodology that impact the interpretation of your findings

Coding definition

transforming data from one form to another, usually to a more concise form appropriate for analysis, involves a process of labeling and organizing your qualitative data to identify themes and the relationships between them