Research Methods final
Pearson's r values
measures the degree to which a set of data points form a straight line relationship, measures the relative strength and direction of the linear relationship (association) between two variables Ranges between -1 and 1 The closer to -1, the stronger the negative linear relationship The closer to 1, the stronger the positive linear relationship The closer to 0, the weaker any positive linear relationship
Concurrent MMR
method 1 + method 2, research gives priority to both quantitative and qualitative data, collects data simultaneously, compares the results from both types of analysis to determine if the two data bases yield similar or dissimilar results
adjacency
neighboring a unit of geography
Continuous variables
numeric variables that are measured (rates, percentages, time)
Causation
only way to know causal relationship between two variable is to to perform a true experiment where subjects are randomly assigned to different conditions to find out if X causes Y or Y causes X
Informal research
process by which we gather empirical research of our reality
Subjectivity
the quality of being based on or influenced by personal feelings, tastes, or opinions
GIS definition
A computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing spatial data, allows us to work with data in a way that is spatially referenced to geography
Applied research
Done with the intention of applying the results of its finding to solving specific problems Ex: Research to improve crop production, Treat or cure a specific disease, Improve energy efficiency of homes, offices, transportation
Six norms for scientific research
1. Compensation for injury 2. Confidentiality 3. Voluntary informed consent 4. Selection of subjects 5. Valid research design 6. Competence of researcher 7. Identification of consequences
List/describe the two criteria for case study design
1. Define the unit of analysis- what exactly am I focusing on? 2. Pick a design type: four different design types based on how many cases and how many different units of analysis
Three research types
1. Descriptive- describes what is prevalent (regarding a group of people, a community, phenomenon, situation, outcome, program, etc) 2. Correlational- establishes or explores relationships, associations, or interdependence 3. Explanatory- explains why a relationship/association/interdependence exists OR why a particular event occurs
List/describe three types of case studies
1. Exploratory- often done to find out more about a largely unexplored area, creates potential for a more detailed, structured follow-up study 2. Descriptive- used to describe what happens in a particular instance (event, process, or natural phenomenon), usually start with specific research questions and do intensive information collection to answer those questions 3. Explanatory- for areas of research that have been examined before- we know the issues and the ways scholars have explored them, existing studies provide a conceptual framework for thinking about the relationship among variables
Scientific research is... (4 things)
1. Generalizable- conclusions drawn from the research should be applicable to the broader population-levels to this depending on method and sample size/characteristics. 2. Replicable- can be done by an independent researcher with similar results 3. Valid- examines/measures what it says it examines/measure 4. Peer-reviewed- research is heavily critiqued and evaluated by other experts in that field (checks and balances)
A valid research question is... (4 things)
1. Justified- is the research original and does it have the potential to contribute to my discipline/research area? 2. Viable- are the variables, phenomena, etc, able to be studied? Is there data readily available on this? If not, can I collect this data somewhat easily? 3. Feasible- Do I have the resources available to collect the data? Can I complete this research within the allotted time? 4. Focused- Can I effectively answer the research question in this single study?
Three main parts of the back-end and identify sub-parts
1. Methods (data and sample, dependent variable, independent variable, other covariates and control) 2. Results (analysis, descriptive statistics) 3. Discussion (reviewing findings/claims, theoretical/empirical implications, limits and recommendations)
List three ways survey research is classified
1. Purpose 2. Time 3. Data collection
List/describe four steps of coding
1. Raw data management- data cleaning 2. Data reduction- chunking, coding 3. Data interpretation- coding, clustering 4. Data representation- telling the story, making sense of the data for others
Three principles for human subjects research
1. Respect for persons- choices of autonomous individuals should be respected, people incapable of making their own choices should be protected, voluntary subjects need adequate information for decision making 2. Beneficence- participation in research is associated with a favorable balance of potential benefits and harms, maximize possible benefits, minimize potential harm 3. Justice- may not exploit or exclude vulnerable individuals who may benefit without good reason
List/describe three errors in survey research
1. Sampling error- when the sample doesn't represent the population 2. Measurement error- when the numbers in your data don't match reality 3. Coverage error- when the sampling frame excludes relevant individuals and includes irrelevant ones
What are research methods? (2 parts)
1. The ways in which research studies are designed 2. The procedures by which data are analyzed
Seven purposes of literature review
1. To define the terms and context of the study 2. Surveys preceding literature on the topic 3. Explores the ways that others have solved similar questions/problems 4. Outlines the relationship between research texts 5. Evaluates the quality and relevance of current literature 6. Establishes gaps or avenues for meaningful contribution 7. Demonstrates your scholarly rigor
Three phases of spatial analysis
1. Visualization (descriptive) 2. Identification of significant spatial processes (confirmatory) 3. Integration of spatial components into statistical models (explanatory)
Action research definition/how it can be used in environmental research
A form of research that generates knowledge for the purpose of taking action, involves collaboration with population under study as equals, collaboration ensures that proposed actions are informed by their knowledge and their perception of needs Can be used in environmental research by taking action on climate change by learning about how it effects communities in certain ways
Hypothesis
A hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion, or idea about something that you don't know
Ordinal
A non-numerical variable that is ordered with no meaningful difference between levels/values
Nominal variable
A non-numerical variable you can organize in more than two categories that does not follow a particular order
Sample
A subgroup of the population that is the focus of your research study
Interval
A variable in which the numeric difference is ordered and meaningful
Formal research
An organized, systematic, data-based critical scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the objective of finding answers or solutions to it
Containment
Being inside a unit of geography
Describe scatterplots
Can be positive or negative, the closer together the points are the closer it is to -1 or 1 (strong or weak), can be linear or curvilinear
Research bias
Deliberate attempts to conceal or highlight research findings and/or use procedures/methods for one's own vested interests
Basic research
Done with the intention to generate more knowledge and understanding of the phenomena that occur and to build theories based on the research results (paves the way for applied research), foundation of everything Ex: How does mold reproduce? What is the rate of photosynthesis in less sunny vs more sunny habitats
Differences between ethnography and other research methods
Ethnography research process is non-linear, involves repeated interaction between theory, data analysis, and data collection, the researcher is the research instrument
Describe first order and second order effects on a map
First order effects- simply mapping your data and "eyeing" the data to find patterns or clusters, subjective Second order effects- developing theoretical explanations for the patterns we see and mapping or coding the map for those explanatory variables
Interpreting beta coefficients
For every 1 unit change of x, y value changes by ___ (use inches of rainfall, actual unit) For every one (whatever the unit is) increase in (X variable), we would expect daily visits to increase/decrease by _______ visits.
operational definition
How a concept is defined in order to be measurable. Valid only for the purpose of your study
Descriptive vs. inferential statistics
Inferential statistics involves testing statements about the population on the basis of a sample... which allows us to make inferences about the population Descriptive statistics summarize and describe our sample
Secondary data
Information used in a study that is already available in another source (eg journal, census, reports)
Indicator
Logical reflectors of concepts that are used to reliably measure that concept
Key to analyzing case studies
Look at variation within or across the cases (variation in circumstances and context/time/space)
Characteristics of survey research
Non-experimental, descriptive, most popular/common research method used, one of the most important areas of measurement in applied social research, encompasses any measurement procedures that involve asking questions of respondents, primarily quantitative, takes less time/money
Discrete variables
Numeric variables that are counted (household income, # of occurrences/places/points, a person's age)
Difference between a research article and an op-ed
Op-ed- usually a short article commenting on current events or issues, reach more of society, form of public science Research articles written for scientific journals have a limited audience- usually students in that discipline and other researchers interested in research in that discipline
Case study process
Plan, design, prepare, collect, analyze, share, arrows go all different ways- iterative
Pros and cons of quantitative research/data
Pro- can reveal generalizable information for a large group of people Con- often fail to provide specific answers, reasons, explanations, or examples
Pros and cons of qualitative research/data
Pro- provides data about meaning and context regarding the people and environments of study Con- findings are often not generalizable because of the small numbers and narrow range of participants
Basic differences between vector and raster data
Vector data- based on the interaction between arcs and nodes, represented by points, lines, and polygons Raster data- cell based data such as aerial imagery and digital elevation models. Characterized by pixel values
Reliability
Refers to research instruments that provide similar results when used repeatedly under similar conditions
Difference between survey research and experiments
Survey research- focuses on naturally occurring phenomena, researcher tries to be as uninvolved as possible Rather than manipulating phenomena, survey research attempts to influence the attitudes and behaviors it measures as little as possible
Sample size
The number of people or other unit of study (ie census tracts, state parks) in your study
Saturation point
The point in a study at which there is little or no new information to be learned from respondents
Dependent variable
The variable in which changes are produced
Extraneous variable
These can affect the relationship between the IV and DV and are random, unknown, or can't be controlled for in the study
Thick vs. thin description
Thick description- the process of carefully documenting the significant features of a culture, full, detailed description to the point of analysis intended to give a mental image of something experienced, provides details that would be meaningful to an outsider or someone unfamiliar with the group, place, or thing being described Thin description- just describes with not a lot of details, like a blink, no meaning behind it
Halo effect
This effect occurs when an observer rates an individual on one aspect based on the way they rated them on another aspect
Type II error
This fault occurs when the researcher accepts a null hypothesis when they shouldn't have
Reactive effect
This occurs as a result of the way a survey or interview question is worded that informs the respondent of the existence or prevalence of a variable under study
Hawthorne effect
This occurs when individuals being observed realize that they are being observed and change their behavior
Graph
This type of chart shows the mathematical relationship between variables
Action research
This type of research involves addressing practical problems while including people who are facing those problems directly in the research process
Longitudinal study
This type of study involves repeated observations of the same variables over short or long periods of time
Cross-sectional study
This type of study is useful for getting a snapshot of a phenomenon or relationship at a given point in time
Control variable
This variable is limited or held constant in a research study to prevent bias
Difference between traditional and spatial analysis
Traditional analysis- assumes spatial independence Spatial analysis- assumes spatial dependence/spatial effects and tests the two null hypotheses, control for the fact that these two things are spatially related
Ethnography research process
Triangle of theory, data collection, and data analysis
Purpose of spatial analysis
Uses information on spatial variation to allow us to characterize the spatial extent of environmental problems and the spatial relationships among variables
Concept
Words that are difficult to measure as is and can vary in understanding from person to person
positionality statement
a description of the author's identity in society, especially as it relates to a particular project. We are admitting that no research can ever be 100% objective, but that our background gives us a particular lens through which we can see the world. We also acknowledge that the same information could have different meaning for someone of a different identity
Critical reflexivity
a method of identifying and reflecting critically on how personal bias affects research findings
Pilot study
a small-scale preliminary study conducted to evaluate feasibility, duration, cost, adverse events, and improve upon the study design prior to performance of a full-scale research project
Ethics
about creating a mutually respectful relationship with the research population, subjects are pleased to participate, community regards the conclusions as constructive
Case study definition
an intensive study of a single or small number of instances of individuals, events, entities, or processes that may use a wide variety of types and sources of information
Measure
an item in a research study to which a participant responds
Mixed methods research
combines quantitative and qualitative methods to offer a more comprehensive description or explanation of phenomena
Tables
data structures that organize information in rows and columns
Objectivity
the quality of being based on observation or experience
Photovoice definition
femininst analysis, a type of participatory action research in which people- usually those with little power- use photographs and/or video to picture their environment and experiences and to express their thoughts about them
Primary data
information collected for the specific purpose of a study
Ratio variable
interval variables (ordered, meaningful difference) that have a clear definition of 0
qualitative research
involves non-numeric data (words, picture, videos, sounds, meanings, drawings), can tell us what, where, when, AND why, how, usually involves some broad expectations, but not always necessary
Quantitative research
involves numeric data and statistical, mathematical, or computational analysis, can tell us what, where, and when, usually involves concrete hypotheses
Interview definition
involves verbal conversations between people with the objective of collective empirical information relative to the research topic
Mixed methods definition
research design involving the collection and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data to more fully address, explain, and/or explore the research problem or topic
Exploratory MMR
research emphasizes qualitative data rather than quantitative data, has a sequence to data collection that involves collecting qualitative data followed by quantitative data, plans on the quantitative data to build on or explain the initial qualitative findings
Explanatory MMR
researcher places priority on quantitative data collection and analysis, collects quantitative data first, then uses qualitative data to refine the results of the quantitative data
Proximity
spatial distance to an event or location
Correlation
tells us two variables are related/associated, but does not necessarily mean x causes y/what direction Positive correlation: as one variable increases, the other increases, closer to line is closer to +1, further from line is closer to 0 Negative correlation: as one variable increases, the other decreases, closer to line is closer to -1, further from line is closer to 0
Induction
the data leads the researcher, start by collecting data then spotting a pattern, building a hypothesis, test the hypothesis Ex: What is the next number in a pattern 1, 2, 4, 8, 16? In the last 5 years, the temperature has increased every year. Therefore, global warming is occurring
Sampling
the process of selecting a number of respondents/observations from a larger population to become the basis of the study
Deduction
the researcher arrives at a conclusion and collects data to confirm their conclusion, start by developing a theory, then building a hypothesis, collecting data, test the hypothesis Ex: All even numbers are divisible by 2, and 38 is divisible by 2, therefore 38 is an even number, summer days are hot, therefore 4th of july will be hot
Ethnography definition
the study and systematic recording of human cultures or the descriptive work produced from such research
Independent variable
the variable that spurs change in another variable
Type I error
this fault occurs when the researcher rejects the null hypothesis when they shouldn't have
Limitations
those factors of your research design or methodology that impact the interpretation of your findings
Coding definition
transforming data from one form to another, usually to a more concise form appropriate for analysis, involves a process of labeling and organizing your qualitative data to identify themes and the relationships between them