RTV 3001 Quiz 1

What is asynchronous media versus synchronous media? What are examples of each?

- Asynchronous media: There is a delay between when a message is sent and when it is finally received. Examples: Newspapers, books, magazines, CDs, DVDs, films. - Synchronous media: There is no perceptible delay between the time the message goes out and the time it is received. Examples: messages from television, radio and telephone.

What is localism and how is it apparent in broadcasting?

- Broadcast radio and television stations have been licensed as local media. They are licensed to local communities, and the FCC has long required broadcasters to serve the needs and interests of the communities to which they are licensed. - Still an important concept in radio because radio has no equivalent to television cable systems. Radio station signals remain local because of the nature of how they are broadcast and received. Localism is an advantage for radio and may be a factor in keeping local radio stations in business. - A radio station serves its community with local- interest entertainment programming, news, weather, sports, and community affairs and information.

What did Johannes Gutenberg invent? What was the significance of the printing press?

-The Printing Press -For the first time, one individual with a printing press could reach many people with print instead of handwritten copies of a book or manuscript, but more important, the printing press could make many more copies and did so much more quickly than was possible for even the most prolific scribe.

What is the self-righting principle associated with John Milton? What is the marketplace of ideas?

1.) "Let [Truth] and Falsehood grapple; who ever knew Truth put to the worse in a free and open encounter?" - (Self-Righting Principle) states that society can make adjustments and put itself on the right path if its citizens have many ideas and opinions from which to choose. In other words, 'truth' will win out over 'untruth' in a free and responsible society. 2.) Marketplace of Ideas: a society in which ideas appear uncensored for consideration by the public, just as goods are presented in a marketplace. In the marketplace of ideas, people sample from the various sources of information and opinions, and because people are both rational and inherently good, they eventually find the truth.

What is meant by the term convergence? How does being connected to the Internet via a broadband connection represent convergence?

1.) Convergence: The blurring of boundaries between the different types of electronic communication media. 2.) When connected to the Internet via a broadband connection, listeners can access an online radio station, retrieve email, listen to iTunes music, download a book, or use instant messaging to have a real-time conversation (including both audio and video) with others.

What is meant by digitization and what are its advantages (first paragraph page 10)?

1.) Digitization is transforming the media and ways consumers use the media. Translating analog signals (continuous waves) into binary or discontinuous signals compresses (reduces) data so they are more easily stored and sent. In binary format, large amounts of information are archived and retrieved. 2.) Advantages: - Users no longer have to search through torn pages or garbled video and audiotapes to find the information they are seeking. - Digitized material fits onto miniature but powerful portable devices, such as laptops, smartphones, iPods, and electronic books. - A digitized dictionary, encyclopedia, and 10 years of The New York Times can all be stored on a small device and slipped into a back pocket for use anytime, anywhere.

How has digitization affected storage? What does the cloud refer to?

1.) Digitization removes the need for paper, videotapes, and DVDs. Small memory devices have the capability of storing large amounts of digital data from television, radio, newspapers, and film. 2.) The cloud is used to store programs and other data without taking up physical space in production studios, businesses, and private homes. All it means is that huge amounts of data are stored on multiple powerful computers, often in multiple locations. Cloud users can access their information from anywhere, using any computer.

What is feedback? What has changed this concept?

1.) Feedback: An individual audience message sent back to the source of the mass communication. 2.) Digital technology

What are the three primary types of online shared game playing and what are examples of each?

1.) Identity and self-presentation. Ex: filling out a personality test; grading their parents on the originality of their name; posting their horoscope or tarot readings; sharing movie preferences; playing games in which they reveal their personality sets a public persona. It is a way to let friends know who you are, or at least who you want them to think you are. 2.) Collective identity: friends define their friends with questions such as: "What's the best way to make [friend's name] happy?" "How would you describe [friend's name] sense of style?" "How would [friend's name] occupy him or herself if he or she was thrown in jail?" Social organization tools that identify the most loyal Facebook followers and other group memberships reveal a collective identity. 3.) Phatic communication: a type of expression that is used only for social reasons instead of for the purpose of sharing information. For example, "How are you?" and "Fine, thanks" is phatic communication, because it is mostly used as a polite recognition and not as a conversation starter or information exchange. The same can be said for some types of games and online interactions, such as sending someone a heart icon or a hug or updating one's latest game accomplishments through Facebook.

What is linear listing of programming versus recommendations and random access?

1.) Linear Listing: Created to attract and keep an audience listening by stacking shows that might appeal to the audience members who had an inclination to watch particular programs, often of the same genre, such as situation comedy. Programmers had to decide which programs attracted a large audience that would stay tuned for the next program and the next. 2.) Random Access: Video on demand. Audience members can select any program available and view it at any time. 3.) Recommendations: Friends on social media and recommendations from the video provider. Watch a program on Netflix and Neflix will recommend many other shows to try. Recommendations are becoming a strong predictor of audience program selections rather than relying on linear program schedules supplied by a network, satellite, or cable channel.

Know the following early pioneers and their contributions to the development of electronic media & radio: a. Samuel F.B. Morse b. Alexander Graham Bell c. James Clerk Maxwell d. Heinrich Hertz e. Guglielmo Marconi f. Reginald Fesseden g. Lee De Forest h. David Sarnoff (pgs. 22, 24)

1.) Samuel F.B. Morse: A well-known American painter and inventor, was the first to send an electromagnetic signal through wires. He invented what he named the 'electric telegraph' in 1835. The instrument used pulses of current to deflect an electromagnet, which moved a marker to produce a written code on a strip of paper. The next year, he changed the system so that it embossed paper with a system of dots and dashes, which later became known as Morse code. Morse patented the telegraph in 1840. 2.) Alexander Graham Bell: Came up with a better method of two-way communication that could be used by individuals without special training. He invented the electrical telephone, which combined two scientific principles to achieve electrical conduction of sound wave patterns that were converted to electrical patterns and sent through a wire. On March 10, 1876, Bell made the first 'telephone call' to his assistant. One year later, the first telephone line was constructed between Boston and Somerville, Massachusetts. 3.) James Clerk Maxwell: As early as 1864, predicted that signals could be carried through space without the use of wires. In 1873, he published a paper that described invisible radiant waves. These waves, which were later called radio waves, were part of electromagnetic theory that suggested that wireless signals could travel over distances and carry information. The theory used mathematical equations to demonstrate that electricity and light are very similar and both radiate at a constant speed across space. 4.) Heinrich Hertz: a physicist from Germany, expanded Maxwell's electromagnetic theory to build a crude detector of radiated waves in 1886. Hertz set up a device that generated high- voltage sparks between two metal balls. A short distance away, he placed two smaller electrodes. When the large electric spark jumped across the gap between the two large balls, Hertz could see that a smaller spark appeared at the second set of metal balls. It was proof that electromagnetic energy had traveled through the air, causing the second spark. Hertz never pursued the idea of using the waves to transmit information, but his work is considered crucial to the use of electromagnetic waves for communicating. Unit of electromagnetic frequency, the hertz, was named after him. 5.) Guglielmo Marconi: Is generally credited with the first practical demonstration of the wireless transmission of signals. After reading about Hertz's experiments, Marconi used electromagnetic waves to transmit Morse code signals. But he also noted that having an antenna above ground improved signal trans- mission. Marconi also improved Hertz's wave detector and discovered that an antenna could strengthen signal transmission. Towards the end of the 1890s, Marconi carried out a series of demonstrations showing that his wireless radio system could work over short ranges. In 1899 he successfully sent a signal across the English Channel, the longest distance yet. 6.) Reginald Fesseden: A Canadian electrical engineer, Reginald Fessenden, and an engineer from General Electric, Ernst Alexanderson, constructed a high-speed alternator (a device that generates radio energy) to carry voice signals. On Christmas Eve, 1906, Reginald Fessenden transmitted the first radio broadcast using modulated continuous electromagnetic waves carrying sound wave patterns instead of Morse code. 7.) Lee De Forest: In 1899, American inventor Lee de Forest earned a Ph.D. from Yale University. His dissertation investigated wireless transmissions. One year later, he developed a wireless system to compete with Marconi's by constructing the audion tube that could amplify sound transmission. De Forest added a third element to the diode tube to make a triode tube, which became the audion. The audion amplified sound so it could be heard easily using radio waves. De Forest led for a patent for his invention in 1906. 8.) David Sarnoff (pgs. 22, 24): He claims to have picked up Titanic's distress signals and the responses from Carpathia. Sarnoff says he stayed at his wireless station for the next 72 hours, receiving information about survivors. Sarnoff relayed the events of the sinking to other wireless operators and newspapers. As news of Titanic spread, the government ordered that the airwaves be cleared of other wireless operators, leaving Sarnoff as the only one to send messages to coordinate rescue traffic and to pass along exclusive information to New York American daily newspaper. By 1916, he became commercial manager of the American Marconi (a subsidiary of British Marconi). Radio box.

What are the five Communication Models represented on pages 4 & 5? Know in general how these are depicted and different from one another.

1.) Shannon and Weaver Mathematical Model (1949): - model based on message transmission that helps explain the process of communicating. That model, also known as a linear model, works well to explain telephone communication. Elements of that model are the information source (person), the transmitter (telephone), the channel (telephone wires), and the destination (a person). 2.) Schramm-Osgood Communication Model (1954) - Simplified model to explain communication. Using only three basic elements—a message, an encoder, and a decoder—this model demonstrates the reciprocal nature of communication between two people or entities. It shows how communication is a two-way process in which the participants act as both senders and receivers of messages. 3.) Schramm Mass Communication Model (1954) - one source to represent an organization that sends out many identical messages to the audience composed of many individual receivers, who are connected to groups of others and pass along information about the messages from the initial receiver. The dotted lines in the model represent feedback from the receivers, which is delayed and not explicit. The organization must then infer the meaning of the feedback (such as ratings for a program) and act accordingly. 4.) Mass Communication Model - Elite sender, many receivers, little feedback. This model has an elite sender in the middle that distributes communication to many at once with little feedback from the audience to the sender. The model represents broadcasting or newspapers. 5.) Internet Model - One or many senders, many receivers, much feedback in many directions. This model represents the Internet, it is typical of digital/ Internet communication: there are many senders, many receivers, and much feedback in many directions.

What are the three reasons given for why video games may be more influential than television (p. 312)?

1.) They are more interactive, which increases involvement 2.) A large percentage of games involve violence as the main activity, and players are encouraged to 'kill' and 'injure' as many of the 'enemy' as possible to win 3.) The games' portability makes them somewhat of a companion, as they can be played almost anywhere on a mobile device.

What is vertical integration? What is horizontal integration? What are examples of these concepts?

1.) Vertical Integration: When a company expands its business into areas that are at different points on the same production/distribution path, such as when a broadcast network owns its production studios (e.g., NBC owns Universal Studios) to create programs for its network, cable channels, and Web site. Helps companies reduce costs and improve efficiency by decreasing distribution expenses and simplifying negotiation, among other advantages. 2.) Horizontal Integration: The process that a company follows to increase its audience share and revenue by increasing the number of outlets. The broadcast networks not only have bought numerous television stations, but some actually own more than one network. CBS is also part owner of the CW Television Network and owner of the Showtime cable channels.

What is agenda setting? What is gatekeeping?

Agenda setting refers to the mass media's power to influence the importance of certain news events. In other words, the more airtime and Web space that is devoted to an event, the more important it seems to the audience. Gatekeeping: Process that news media practice daily. Because of the time and space constraints of radio and television, news producers select (or 'gatekeep') stories and events to cover and then present them on the air and on their Web sites. These stories and events become increasingly important to the audience with repetition and consistency across various media.

Press/Radio War and Biltmore Agreement

As radio gained in popularity, newspaper readership and the number of daily newspapers in the United States began to decline. The newspapers started the press/radio war by getting the wire services to align with them and against the radio stations. The newspapers also refused to print radio program schedules without charge. The radio industry retaliated by hiring more freelance reporters to help its small news staff gather and report the news. Biltmore Agreement: Named after the hotel in New York where the agreement was signed. This agreement limited network radio in the ways listed below: 1. Two newscasts per day: one before 9:30 a.m. and one after 9:00 p.m. (to protect the morning and evening editions of newspapers) 2. Commentary and soft (features and stories that are not necessarily time sensitive) news rather than hard (e.g., crime and time-sensitive) news reporting 3. Use of the Press-Radio Bureau, which would supply the networks and stations with news through subscriptions 4. No radio news-gathering operations 5. No sponsorship of news shows 6. A required statement at the end of each radio newscast: "you can read more about it in your local newspaper." Biltmore Agreement was short-lived.

How does the Bandura study on filmed violence demonstrate moderate effects?

Bandura and other researchers demonstrated that children and adults learn from observation and model their own behavior after what they see, whether in real life or in films or on television. Further, the media teach people how to behave in certain situations, how to solve problems and cope in certain situations, and in general present a wide range of options upon which to model their own behavior, thus lending support for media as a strong in influence.

What is a theory?

Basically an explanation of observed phenomena. Although researchers offer varying definitions of this term, one simple explanation states, in part, "Theories are stories about how and why events occur" Mass communication theories are explanations, or stories, of the relationship between the media and the audience and how this relationship influences or affects audience members' everyday lives.

What is meant by the scarcity theory/principle in broadcasting?

Because broadcasting uses parts of the electromagnetic spectrum and because the space on the spectrum is a limited natural resource, Congress retains the right to protect it on behalf of all of the people.

What are the general differences between behavioral, affective and cognitive effects?

Behavioral: Viewers take behavioral cues from the media and apply them to their own lives. For instance, media content such as song lyrics and television violence influence the way we behave, whether positively or negatively. The following types of behavioral effects have been documented. Affective: Everyone experiences some sort of emotional reaction to a mediated image, even if that reaction has become blunted due to overexposure. But it is the negative images that get the most attention. Cognitive: The media also influence how and what viewers think about the world. Mediated images influence perceptions of real life. Portrayals of minorities, women, families, and relationships influence social and cultural attitudes.

Reason Westinghouse got involved in broadcasting

By mid-1920, Frank Conrad had convinced his superiors at Westinghouse that the company could make money by selling pre-manufactured radio sets that could pick up programming from a radio station operated by Westinghouse. In 1920, Westinghouse was manufacturing and selling radio sets and was looking for ways to increase radio set sales. The company promoted and broadcast a program each evening in the hope that people who were listen- ing at their neighbor's house would consider buying their own radios and get into the habit of listening nightly. The real goal for Westinghouse was to sell receivers and promote the name of the company. At this point in time, Westinghouse was aggressively marketing radio sets to the masses. It encouraged local appliance and department stores to sell its radios.

Significance of KDKA in relation to broadcasting

Considered the first commercial broadcast station because it was the first one formally licensed by the Secretary of Commerce. Dr. Frank Conrad, an engineer at Westing- house, formed KDKA in 1916.

Why hotels and department stores ran broadcast stations

Department stores and hotels set up radio stations on their properties to draw customers. Large stores and hotels were especially active in radio because they often owned tall buildings that provided good locations for antennas.

What is monetization?

Electronic media companies are scrambling to find ways to make up for lost advertising revenue by attempting to monetize content or generate revenue from the newer delivery systems (e.g., Web sites, podcasts).

How is the power effects perspective different than the magic bullet theory (p. 305)?

Enough is known about the influence of the mass media to know that not all people respond in the same way to the same message. The powerful-effects model is complex, and the circumstances must be right for certain effects to occur. Most young viewers today have grown up watching an enormous amount of violent television, yet they are not all aggressive and violent, as suggested by the magic bullet theory. Rather, some viewers may be in influenced and might become more aggressive than others under some circumstances.

Development of FM radio in the 1960s

FM broadcasting started out slowly, faltered, and then got a new life beginning in 1961 when the FCC authorized FM stereo broadcasting. When listeners started to notice the superior sound quality of FM, and inexpensive receivers from Germany and Japan became readily available, the FM audience grew. The demand for new radio stations in the 1960s prompted the FCC to push new licensees into the FM band. However, car manufacturers were slow to include radios with FM receivers in their new models. Therefore, in the 1960s (with FCC urging), Congress passed legislation requiring all car radios to have FM receiving capability. At that same time, the FCC turned down a proposal for AM stereo, signaling the long, slow decline of AM as a music broadcaster and the rise of FM music. AM radio was better suited for talk than for music and FM radio for music rather than talk. The counterculture of the 1960s, the rise of rock 'n roll, and high-fidelity stereo systems boosted FM listenership. The rise in audience popularity did not immediately translate into profitability for FM stations, however. Although revenues climbed from the early 1960s into the mid 1970s—from $10 million in 1962 to $308.6 million in 1975—more FM stations were losing money than making money.

Formation of Radio Corporation of America (RCA)

General Electric (GE) bought a controlling interest in American Marconi, but soon thereafter GE decided that its strength and expertise were in manufacturing, not radio communication. It then formed RCA in 1919 to conduct its radio business. RCA took over the radio stations that were formerly owned by American Marconi. In the next few years, much legal wrangling occurred among AT&T, RCA, and GE over which company controlled broadcast equipment patents. From 1919 through 1921, GE, RCA, Westinghouse, and AT&T signed agreements to pool their patents, leading to a consortium of companies that would move the technology and business of broadcasting to a national level. By 1922, GE, Westinghouse, AT&T, and United Fruit Company (a small company that held desirable patents for radio equipment) had become the corporate owners of RCA. Approximately 2,000 patents for radio equipment were pooled, and an effective manufacturing and market- ing plan was enacted in which radio receivers would be manufactured by GE and Westinghouse but sold exclusively by RCA; in turn, AT&T would be allowed to charge for messages that were sent over its wires.

Why has HD Radio Broadcasting been slow in gaining appeal?

HD radio has been slow to make inroads, as the lack of a mandated change has presented broadcasters and listeners with a 'chicken or egg' quandary. Although 78% of all radio listening is on stations broadcasting with HD radio, many listeners are unaware of the difference between analog radio and HD radio because all of the main channels for radio can be received on any radio receiver, HD capable or not.

Development of WEAF and toll broadcasting in 1922

In 1922, WEAF—the AT&T-owned station in New York— came up with a novel way to generate revenue. Using part of the economic model for making money from the telephone system, WEAF acted as a common carrier, a company that transports goods or services for the public, and sold time to advertisers. Toll Broadcasting: Was similar to that used when a long-distance call was made and charged to the caller. Like the caller, the advertiser would pay a toll for the time used on the air. This concept was a critical part of the new economic model for supporting radio. It provided funds to the broadcaster to pay expenses, helped the advertiser reach an audience to sell a product or service, and kept broadcast programming free to the audience.

Development of Satellite Radio in 2000s

In 2001, XM Satellite Radio began sending a satellite signal to cars and homes equipped with special satellite receivers. XM was formed with the help of investors from automobile manufacturing, broadcast radio, and satellite broadcasting, namely, General Motors, American Honda, Clear Channel (the nation's largest radio group), and DirecTV. XM's only competitor, Sirius Satellite Radio, also entered the market in 2001. Both services provide hundreds of channels of audio service, including commercial-free music and news, sports, talk, and children's programming. Slow subscriber rates led to the merger of SiriusXM in 2008. The combined company is now known as Sirius XM Radio. Auto manufacturers did not begin to install satellite radio-capable receivers in new cars until 2003. All other cars had to be retrofitted with a new receiver or adaptor of some sort to receive the signal.

Popularity of Internet radio (streaming music) among all smartphone owners (p. 34)

In a study done in 2016, it was found that two-thirds of all smartphone owners stream music daily (Washenko, 2016, March 11). This finding points to a dilemma faced by traditional radio stations. Unless people are in their cars, a large portion of the listening audience is getting audio service through their smartphones.

Provisions of the Radio Act of 1927

In early 1927, Congress passed the Radio Act of 1927, which formed the Federal Radio Commission (FRC). The FRC was charged with organizing and administrating radio in the United States. Its specific responsibilities included issuing licenses, redesigning the use of the electromagnetic spectrum, and providing 107 channels for radio stations. Each station was then assigned its own frequency and power level, which significantly reduced interference among stations. The FRC established licensing criteria. A station had to prove that it could provide enough funding to operate, and to be able to design and create its programming, a station also had to prove it was not attempting to form a monopoly and that it was not owned by a telephone company or trying to control a telephone company.

How many hours does the average preschooler watch television and videos per week (p. 313)?

More than 20 hours

What is nomophobia? On average, how many minutes per day (according to Time Magazine) do adults spend on their smartphones?

Nomophobia: (for no-mobile-phone phobia), the fear of being disconnected from the virtual world. 144 minutes per day using a smartphone.

Titanic and why the Wireless Ship Act of 1910 wasn't enough

One ship, the U.S.S. California, was less than ten miles away and could have rescued survivors from the icy waters, if only its wireless operator had been on duty ten minutes longer. Because the Wireless Ship Act of 1910 failed to require 24-hour staffing of wireless systems (as agreed to in the 1906 international agreements), California had no one on duty to receive Titanic's SOS. Only one operator, on the ship Carpathia, picked up the SOS signal and sped to Titanic. Although Carpathia was able to rescue more than 700 passengers, over 1,300 perished when Titanic went down.

What types of communication were the telegraph and telephone designed to facilitate? How is this different from printing press or broadcast?

Person-to-person (or one-to-one) communication over distances. This is different from the printing press or broadcast because the printing press and broadcast are consider one-to-many communication, it sent messages to a mass audience.

What is propaganda? What is persuasion?

Propaganda is "when someone judges that the action which is the goal of the persuasive effort will be advantageous to the persuader but not in the best interests of the persuadee," Persuasion is when the goal is perceived to have greater benefits to the receiver than to the source of the message.

Formation of National Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) in 1926 and NBC Blue & NBC Red

RCA, GE, and Westinghouse together formed the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), which was established as a programming network. NBC's main purpose was to provide programs to stations. NBC then bought AT&T-owned WEAF, which essentially took AT&T out of the ownership and chain broadcasting business and gave NBC a programming monopoly. Instead of just supplying stations with programs they could air at any time, NBC came up with the idea of establishing station affiliation. Stations would affiliate with NBC and agree to broadcast programs simultaneously. NBC initially affiliated with 19 stations. NBC's first live network program featured live orchestras and singers. The broadcast was carried by the affiliated stations and reached millions of listeners. By the end of 1926, NBC was successfully operating two major networks. The original NBC network was renamed NBC Blue, and the newly acquired AT&T WEAF chain broadcasting system was named NBC Red. NBC Blue and NBC Red—along with their later-formed lone network competitor, CBS—dominated broadcasting for the next 15 years.

Which 20th Century medium enjoyed its place as the only instantaneous and electronic medium for more than 30 years?

Radio

Provisions of Radio Act of 1912

Required the licensing of radio operations used for the purpose of interstate commerce. It also required licensed operators to be citizens of the United States and stated that licenses must be obtained from the U.S. Secretary of Commerce and Labor, who had jurisdiction over commercial radio use in this country. The act also required that ships had to be equipped to send out a distress signal at any time and that all ships must monitor distress frequencies continuously.

How is Mercury Star Theater's radio recreation of War of the Worlds an example of limited effects?

Research about The War of the Worlds panic and other studies show that the media are not as all powerful as once thought. Audience members do not all react in the same way to the same mediated stimulus, because other factors in their lives filter messages such that they interpret them in their own ways. The findings from this line of research led to the limited-effects perspective, which states that media have the power to influence beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors, but that influence is not as strong as once thought. Moreover, the media are not just evil political instruments but have positive effects as well. The fact that the media's influence is limited by personal characteristics, group membership, and existing values and attitudes makes us less vulnerable and not easily manipulated by what we see and hear. Some people loved it and understood it, some people thought aliens were coming.

What is selective exposure? What is selective perception? What is selective retention?

Selective exposure: the tendency to expose ourselves to media messages that we already agree with and that are consistent with our own values and beliefs. Selective perception: the tendency to change the meaning of a message in our own mind so it is consistent with our existing attitudes and beliefs. Selective retention: the tendency to remember those messages that have the most meaning to us.

What represents a paradigm shift for radio (pgs. 36-37)?

Smartphone apps, however, may be the answer broadcasters are looking for to reach the mobile audience. One such app, TuneIn Radio, lets users access local stations or distant stations with a few taps on their phones. Some industry observers predict that broadcast companies may choose to start a business that competes directly with Pandora. This represents a paradigm shift for radio, from a linear programming model and a passive audience to a random-access model and an interactive audience. One study found that 68% of the respondents who own a smartphone streamed music daily and spent almost 45 minutes each day listening (Washenko, 2016, March 11).

Which medium became a powerhouse in the 1950s?

Television

What do the hyperdemic needle/magic bullet theories suggest?

That the media could penetrate people's bodies and minds and cause them to all react the same way to a mediated message. This concept of an all-powerful media was a widely held and frightening belief.

What did the U.S. Surgeon General's Advisory Committee on Television and Social Behavior conclude in 1969?

That there was enough evidence to suggest a strong link between viewing televised violence and engaging in anti-social behavior and that the link was not limited just to children who were already predisposed to aggressive behavior.

Provisions of the Communications Act of 1934

The Communications Act of 1934 incorporated most of the Radio Act of 1927 but made several updates. A new governing body, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), replaced the FRC. The act established that the president of the United States would appoint seven FCC commissioners, no more than 4 could be from any one political party, and each would serve a 7-year term. Included a section devoted to regulating political programming on the radio. Section 315 of the act stated that any radio station that allowed a candidate for an elected office to use the station's time for political purposes had to allow all bona de candidates for the same office an equal opportunity for airtime. It meant that opposing candidates must have the opportunity to buy an equal amount of time. News and public-affairs programs were excluded from this provision. The Communications Act of 1934 simplified government regulation of radio in the United States. But because it was enacted before the introduction of television, cable, satellite, microwave transmissions, and the Internet, the act required numerous additions and revisions over the next 60 years. Regardless, it was the single most important piece of legislation in terms of how it shaped the development of electronic media until the 1996 Telecommunications Act rewrite.

When may indecent material be broadcast (by radio or TV stations) without penalty (fine)?

The FCC asserted that children were less likely to be in the audience between 10:00 p.m. and 6:00am

Which medium is considered to be a paradigm breaker? Why is this the case?

The Internet. It has grown more rapidly than any other medium in history.

Why Radio Act of 1912 didn't work for broadcasting

The Radio Act of 1912 was adequate for regulating point- to-point radio as it existed from 1912 to about 1922. But when radio went beyond point-to-point communication and also provided point-to-multipoint communication, or broadcasting, this early legislation was no longer adequate to regulate commercial radio. The government was unprepared to deal with the proliferation of radio stations in the early 1920s.

What is meant by the term media literacy?

The ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media in a variety of forms, and the understanding not only of the meaning of the content of the media but also of the power of the media, the intent of the media, and the influence of the media.

Development of radio during World War I

The government's action led to two important developments in radio: First, operating a station during the war required the government to train many people to work as radio operators and technicians, and second, the government took control of all patents related to wireless communication and placed them in a 'patent pool' for all scientists and engineers during the war. This pooling of patents helped the war effort by stimulating the technological development of radio for military purposes. In turn, these developments helped stimulate the growth of the radio industry after the end of the war.

What does distribution refer to?

The method used to carry information to receivers.

What is Moore's law?

The number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit doubled approximately every 2 years. In everyday applications of the law, the quality and computing ability of microprocessors in computers improves dramatically in short periods of time. Another obvious application of the law is seen in the capacity of digital memory devices.

What is the two-step flow theory? Who would you want to influence under this theory?

Two-step flow theory explains that messages flow from the media to opinion leaders and then to opinion followers. Influence the opinion leaders.

World War II and its impact on radio broadcasting

Upon entering World War II, the U.S. government immediately took steps to support the overall war effort. Amateur radio transmitters were shut down to prevent the possibility that military information would be sent to the enemy. Regular broadcasting at some stations in the western U.S. was curtailed to prevent enemy aircraft from using the broadcast signal to locate west coast cities. All shortwave stations capable of sending a signal overseas were brought under government control, and manufacturers of radio parts and equipment were required to convert from manufacturing consumer equipment to producing equipment that would directly aid the military. The building of new radio stations stopped. Materials that had been used to construct stations were deemed 'scarce resources' by the government. A small number of new stations got on the air between 1942 and 1945, but the government curtailed most of the growth of the industry. Despite the hardships faced by Americans during these years, radio continued to be popular. It was free entertainment to those who owned radios, and it kept listeners aware of what was happening in the world. Radio provided entertainment and relaxation in a time of tension and, hence, drew large and devoted audiences.

Development of chain broadcasting (network) in 1923

WEAF also pioneered interconnecting its stations. Just after the beginning of 1923, WEAF sent a musical performance over the telephone lines (owned by AT&T, its parent company) to a station in Boston, and both stations broadcast the program simultaneously. This interconnection was called chain broadcasting, and though this term is not commonly heard today, it still appears in legal documents. The more common term used now is 'network,' but until 1926 it was referred to as chain broadcasting. Both terms refer to stations that are inter- connected for the purpose of broadcasting identical programs, simultaneously.

What is meant by media consolidation?

When one media company merges with or acquires another media company

What does the uses and gratifications approach examine?

examines how audiences use the media and the gratifications derived from this use. The uses and gratifications model is used to answer such media use questions as these: Why do some people prefer listening to television news to reading the newspaper? Under what conditions is an individual more likely to watch a sitcom rather than a violent police drama? What satisfactions are derived from watching soap operas or reading blogs?

Under cognitive effects, why are stereotypical depictions of minorities, women, families and relationships harmful?

harmful because they objectify, depersonalize, and even deny individuality. In addition, television and the other mass media may provide the dominant or perhaps the only view of certain groups in society.

What is the third-person effect?

individuals claim that they are not as susceptible to mediated messages as others, often leads to an emphasis on others' viewing habits rather than on our own.

What is meant by cultivation? As an example, what is the mean-world syndrome?

television content to real-life situations to viewers' perceptions of actual life. Research does indeed show that our cognitive perceptions are shaped by tele- vision. Moreover, the influence is especially strong on viewers who watch television more than the average number of hours. Mean-world syndrome: in which viewers believe that the world is a mean and scary place to live and alter their behaviors accordingly, all based on television's warped depiction of real life.

What is the general consensus today about the impact of television violence (p. 306)?

viewing too much violent or objectionable content might, under some circumstances, have serious social and personal consequences. Thus, the argument centers on what, if anything, should be done to curb violent images.