Soc. 105 Ch. 6

mutual aid societies

1860s and 70s With the growing alienation of Mexican workers, the decline of labor guilds, and the isolation of the Mexican population, new forms of self-help societies and fraternal organizations sprang up among the workers and the middle class. Mutualistas, or mutual-aid societies, were among the most popular self-help groups. (Mexican immigrants were familiar w/ such organizations that sprung up during Mexico's economic transformation of the late 19th century when workers and skilled tradesmen struggle to cope) these societies and organizations helped Mexican workers integrate into the existing immigrant community This sense of mutualismo often grew out of shared race, religion, national origin, or some combination of these. A sense of unity and ethnicity, and the desire to share in and strengthen that sense, was at the heart of mutual-aid efforts and fraternal associations. mutualistas differed according to work environment: in the mines for ex. they often served as forums for labor activities The American Protective Association that har- bored white nativists had an aggressive anti-Mexican agenda. 1894 - Tucsonenses formed La Alianza Hispano Americana in response to the anti-immigrant assaults, worsened by the Depression of 1893 - Ignacio Calvillo, a founder of La Alianza, remembered, "In those days the English and Spanish-speaking had a hard time getting along. The element opposed to the Spanish-American people in the Southwest had organized itself into the American Protec- tive Association." La Alianza (organization) expanded in members & was popular in the mining camps of Arizona- primer mover was Carlos I. Velasco

Alliance of Elites

1870's - Tucson and the rest of Arizona was becoming culturally "American" - large # if EA's; population growth - # of Mexican elected officials declined w/ the changing demographics and fewer Spanish surnames appeared the Mexican population kept a vibrant social and cultural presence in the pueblo By the late 1870s, upward social and economic mobility among Mexicans was even slower as busi- nesses became capital-intensive enterprises and as Mexicans' access to available capital became less and less probable.

Expansion of Capital

A decade before (1880), Arizona had no banks—merchants provided banking services, and thus the territory had a weak financial infrastructure. as the Arizona market expanded San Francisco and New York bankers came into the territory and established monopolies *copper was king in Arizona* - demands of emerging technology prompted its prominence (efficient conduit for the AC system [alternating current] was copper - pg. 121) the railroads/ new tech/ and engineering drove the mining boom in the 1880s - Telegraph and electrical wires required copper, and the copper mines of southern Arizona lured investors from San Fran- cisco and the eastern United States, as well as attracting foreign capital. The demand for large quantities of wood for the mineshafts spread the economic boom to northern Arizona. In all, the territory's population increased from 40,000 in 1880 to 90,000 seven years later, with Euro-Americans outnumbering Mexicans. Arizona was booming as the market value of property increased to $26 million.

The war of the races

Arizona was a lawless and violent place (wars of races seemed imminent) Misson camp shootings (1870) 3 Euro- Americans killed by Mexicans in a dispute over the alleged theft of furniture and 5 horses; 1 of the suspects fled to Sonora - Arizona authorities demanded his extradition ; suspect and his cohorts claimed that the employer had severely beaten one of them and they had acted in self-defense; On the U.S. side, vigilantes rode to the ranch of Francisco Gándara (brother of the former governor of Sonora), shot him in front of his wife and children, and stole his valuables. Without proof, Gándara was accused of stealing a mule and killing a Euro-American during that same decade that Gándara was killed, other Mexicans fell victim to mob violence (Mexicans were the majority in the territory) racial tensions worsened w/ the arrival of cowboys which generally meant Texans who fanned the antagonism b/w Mexicans and EA's The town of Tombstone harbored the worst of the Texas outlaws, and racism thrived, as owners of businesses and mines would not hire Mexicans for fear of inciting the cowboys who controlled the town. the cowboys used Tombstone as a base in which they formed gangs that raided defenseless Mexican villages on the other side of the border (they showed little respect for women and children) Racial harmony surely would have deteriorated beyond repair if it were not for the Euro-Americans' fear of the Apache, who continued to threaten Arizona settlements during the 1870s. This vulnerability often necessitated cooperation with the Mexican elites.

Industrialization of Arizona

Arizona, like the rest of the Southwest, was underdeveloped before the introduction of the railroad, which made possible the large-scale exploitation of the territory's resources. improved transportation brought industrialization and more Euro- Americans and along with them, eastern and foreign capital the railroad incorporated Arizona into the rest of the country dramatically transforming its economy - The Southern Pacific, for example, could haul goods from Yuma to Tucson for 11/2 cents a pound and in one day, whereas freighters charged 51/2-14 cents per pound, and took up to 20 days to deliver their cargo. *the railroad ushered in the era of the "three C's" - cattle, copper, and cotton - and a changing Mexican identity, as fewer Mexicans controlled production*

Land - Grant Grab

As elsewhere in the Southwest, Mexicans in Arizona fought the land-grant battle, although on a smaller scale. Congress in 1870 authorized the surveyor general of Arizona "to ascertain and report" upon claims. The surveys were purposely slow, dragging into the 1880s and thus encouraging squatters to occupy the land. The nonfeasance and, in some cases, the malfeasance of the courts encouraged the filing of fraudulent claims and schemes to invalidate Mexican titles. The law gave landowners little or no protection against squatters. They could not work their land and thus were prevented from paying taxes, which resulted in further loss of land.

It's the water

Commercial farming lagged a decade or two behind mining. Like mining, it grew from small to huge, with absentee owners and managers running the operations. As mentioned, commercial farmers and ranchers drove out small farmers by diverting waterways and gaining a monopoly over the water resources. water was at a premium in Arizona (high cost) -lack of capital drove many Mexican, Native American and small white farmers out of farming - Meanwhile, farming became agribusiness, and the greening of the Salt River and Imperial Valleys attracted large armies of Mexican workers and their families to Arizona's and eastern California's deserts. Under the Federal Reclamation Act, the Roosevelt Dam was constructed between 1905 and 1911, which eventually had the potential of irrigating fields in the desert for about two years "even if no rain" fell. The Roosevelt Dam made possible the setting up of huge cotton plantations. Although the Reclamation Act was supposed to create a class of small farmers, big planters monopolized the land, and some 1,000 Euro-American families acquired 200,000 acres of well-watered land. The expansion of the plantation farms drove the growth of Phoenix and pointed the way for the damming of the Colorado River As elsewhere in the Southwest, *development depended on railroads that linked the fields to a core city*. The railroads also brought in more Mexicans to work in the fields and in other industries. The South- ern Pacific was a major player, acquiring land not far from Phoenix, which became the territorial capi- tal, attracting equipment, investors, and Mexicans. Massive water projects not only expanded commercial farming but also generated energy. Pacific Gas and Electric, a Phoenix-Los Angeles Corporation, held a monopoly on hydroelectric power generation. The government had spent $61 million reclaiming the land, which farmers claimed would be repaid—but never was

Marrying Up

How Euro-Americans treated or thought of Mexican women greatly varied and depended on the hue of their skin and class. (they occasionally described higher class Sonoran women as intelligent and white) - not much was written about poor women the advantage for the rich Mexican was that a white son in law offered a measure of protection working class Mexican women also married EA's Poor women did not take capital to their unions but they did much more, performing the menial chores, caring for the animals, working on farms, and contributing to the defense of the community. women in Tucson were concentrated in jobs such as seamstress or washerwoman, work that could be done from home. Mexican males worked in blue-collar occupations; nearly half of them were unskilled. - Mexicans made up 58 percent of Tucson's laborers, and only seven Mexicans out of a total Mexican population of 653 persons worked as merchants, traders, or shopkeepers. By the 1870s, 62 percent of marriages involving whites in Pima County (where Tucson was located) were between Euro-American males and Mexican females. According to historian Salvador Acosta, Mexi- cans were technically white so the territory's anti-miscegenation laws did not legally apply to them, but the interpretation was at the convenience of white colonists. There were marriages between Mexican and other races only until there were sufficient white women available for the white male population. (Mexicans were white only when convenient for society) - it worked to the advantage of the white population since w/o Mexicans, the territory would only have 600 white residents Arizona's first legislature (1864) followed the lead of other western states and passed anti-miscegenation laws that remained in effect to 1962. Mexican women accounted for large percentages of all marriages for white, black, and Chinese men. Indeed, Arizona was one of the first legislatures to adopt strict definitions of whiteness. (the marriages in b/w the different races decreased dramatically leading up to the 1900s) - after this, unions b/w Mexican males and white females became more common Intermarriage provided the opportunity for the newcomers to inherit property from a Mexican father-in-law or to go into business with a wife's family. (Mexican women also held the key to participation in social life of the pueblo and access to extended families) As time went by intermarriage became less advantageous: the railroad ended Arizona's isolation and Euro-American women arrived in larger numbers in the 1800s, making Mexican women less attractive to the gringos. [the railroad also ended the Apache threat by accelerating the transportation of troops and dramatically increasing the territory's population] few Mexican women operated businesses and subsistence farms

Mexicans in Early Arizona

Mining was the sole economic enterprise during the early period, and eastern companies invested considerable amounts of capital in silver mines. (investment was accompanied by WA DC officials to station soldiers in Arizona to protect the mines against the Apache) Most of the freight from and to Tucson traveled through Guaymas, Sonora. (brisk trade b/w Guaymas and San Francisco) 1850s and 1860s Arizona remained in Sonora orbit using Mexican pesos as its currency [politcal turmoil in Sonora weakened and strengthened ties b/w Mexico and the US] US congress separated Arizona from New Mexico establishing the Arizona territory in 1863 Arizona used to be a confederate state until confederates were driven out in 1862 [pg. 115] To defend Arizona from possible sedition and from the Apache, and to ward off the possibility of a French intervention in Sonora, the U.S. government dispatched additional federal troops to the territory. (territorial status also brought public education to Arizona) *Americanization* pg. 115

the race question

Poor whites generalized racism, whereas elite whites were more selective in their prejudices, depending on their requirement for marital relations, defense, and/or business contacts. trade in Sonora was essential to their prosperity (whites) [Mexican elites didn't take advantage to this vulnerability and permitted racism to run wild] - the criollos considered them superior to poor whites and darker skinned Mexicans Many Mexicans, returning from California diggings, realized that wealth was not only in mining but in providing services. (some started up small mercantile businesses while others freighted ores and other goods) [As in New Mexico, a clique consisting of Euro-Americans and their Mexican allies ran the territorial government after the Civil War]

War w/ Sonora

The Apache raids were so relentless that Sonorans accused Euro-Americans of instigating the Apache to raid Sonora. (the US claimed that it was only an occurrence that helped to prepare Sonora for US possession sooner or later) Beyond a doubt Arizona miners and ranchers struck bargains with the Apaches, guaranteeing them sanctuary in return for not being raided; Poston, owner of the Sonora Exploring and Mining Company and the so-called "Father of Arizona," made such deals. In return for sanctuary and arms, the Apaches agreed not to steal from Poston, nor to kill his men.

the war on the Apache

The cooperation among the races in fighting the Apache was not always admirable. For example, in 1871, a group comprising 6 Euro-Americans, 48 Mexicans, and 94 Tohono O'odhams attacked a defenseless Apache camp near Camp Grant, massacring more than 100 Apache women and children. Army officials blamed it on freighters and government contractors, who allegedly provoked the incident to keep the forts stocked. On the contrary, it was," according to Sheridan, "the culmination of two centuries of conflict on the Arizona frontier." Though this may be partly true, to excuse the massacre is to ignore the impact of the Euro-American and Spanish colonialism that abetted this kind of behavior. The military and the so-called citizens' militias pursued the Apache throughout the 1870s, captur- ing and shipping hundreds to Florida and the other so-called reservations. The Apaches were not the only natives to suffer. Colonists also relentlessly pursued the Navajo in Arizona and New Mexico

Mexican Middle Class

Tucson's Mexican middle class represented the interests of its class and culture (many of them were descendants of the criollo notables who founded Sonora, joined by a smattering of Mexicans from Border states such as Chihuahua) settled families supported other family members who immigrated later, helping them in business and quickly integrating them into the social life of their circle of clubs - As a class they were anything but liberal; on the contrary, most were quite conservative and their organizations more often opposed organized labor Although segregated housing and commercial enterprises became more common and racial slurs more frequent, few middle-class leaders made the connection between the racism they were experiencing and the exploitation of Mexican and other workers. The reality was that they considered themselves white and superior to Euro-Americans and they were thus somewhat surprised and offended that they would be considered "colored."

from adobe to copper

Tucson continued to be a center of Mexican activity. In 1879 the New York Times described Tucson as having some 10,000 souls "living in the low adobe houses, lining irregular and narrow streets, deserted in the heat of the day," and coming to life during the evening hours. the "times" referred to the Mexicans as "greasers" saying that few Americans lived there and fewer were blessed with wives of their color During the first years of Euro-American occupation, travelers stopped in Tucson en route to California, and it was the overland gateway to Sonora and California. (trade w/ Sonora increased and Tucson was the center of that trade) the importance of Tucson dimmed as irrigation projects opened large agricultural areas north of the Gila River, and the links to CA eclipsed those to Guaymas Government contractors used the road through Yuma to ship their army supplies. This road took a more northern route, following the Gila River, and almost completely bypassed Tucson. This trade contributed to the growth of Pumpkinville, population 300, which became Phoenix in 1871. Its population began to increase owing to the growth of commercial agriculture in the Salt River Valley. Population changes enhanced the political influ- ence of Phoenix at the expense of Tucson. This switch affected the fortunes of the Mexican elite centered in Tucson and marked the decline of the popularity of Mexican peso, the "doby dollar" ("adobe dollar"), as a medium of exchange The decline of the Tucson elite did not reduce the presence of Mexicans; nor did it mean that Tucson was no longer a commercial center *Tucson*, which was 70 miles north of La Línea, was older than Nogales and remained the commercial center of the Sonora-Arizona border area; it became a hub city for the copper mines of northern Sonora and eastern Arizona. (as the city grew Mexican laborers were attracted to Tucson while Sonoran notables sent their sons and daughters there for schooling) - members of the more prominent families lived in the more prosperous northern Tucson while laborers lived clustered in the southern part of the city, close to the old plaza and ISOLATED from whites

Fate of the friendly Indian

before the 1870s, the Pima and the Tohono O'odhams who were generally considered the friendly Indians did much of the farming in Arizona Homestead Act of 1862 encouraged the in migration of white colonists that intensified competition for land and water Euro-American farmers trickled into Arizona in the 1860s, but by the 1870s, irrigation projects were initiated in the Salt River Valley. By the middle of the de- cade, Euro-American farmers were cultivating hay and cotton. The development of commercial agriculture worsened mutual relations among the Mexicans, the natives, and Euro-Americans. the end of the Apache threat opened up more space for settlers and encroachment on Pima land - they produced 3 million pounds of wheat each year

Filibustering expeditions into Sonora

continued throughout the 1850s Henry Crabb, a southerner and former member of the California legislature, in 1857 led about a hundred Californians into Sonora on what some Euro- American sources described as a peaceful colonizing expedition. (Mexicans ordered Crabb to leave but he denied; = Sonorans ambushed his army and executed him - cut off his head and preserved it in alcohol = President James Buchanan condemned the Mexican "brutality" and attempted to use it as an excuse to invade Mexico) Thus, Buchanan in 1859 sent the USS St. Mary to Guaymas for the purpose of provoking a war. The pretext was Governor Ignacio Pesqueira's refusal to allow Charles P. Stone to survey public lands of Sonora. The Mexican government had signed a contract with the Jecker-Torre Company and a group of U.S. investors, giving them rights over one-third of the public lands they surveyed, with an option to buy another third of the sur- veyed lands. The company's agent, Stone, was obnoxious and arrogant, so Pesqueira refused to honor the agree- ment and ordered Stone out of the state. Stone then lobbied American authorities for government intervention. Captain William Porter (St. Mary, 1859); demanded that Pesqueira permit Stone to continue his survey - he threatened to bomb Guaymas - Pesqueira responded that if one bomb fell, he would not guarantee the safety of Euro- Americans life or property in Sonora [St. Mary left but tensions still continued - pg. 114]

The Pull Factors

copper mining attracted huge numbers of skilled and non skilled laborers from Mexico beginning in the 1880s (up this point, the max in migration was from Sonora but w/ the growth of copper mining large #'s arrived from New Mexico, Chihuahua, and other Mexican states) Mexicans in these states had a tradition of working plots of land and, in the off-season, working in nearby mines for cash and goods. Reminiscent of the colonial period, large numbers of people were lured by mining bonanzas. Mining generated ripples of economic activity, such as the agriculture and livestock operations that fed the mines. many Mexican miners had been previously been small farmers who worked seasonally in mining besides the recruits from El Paso-Juárez, Mexican workers migrated to eastern Arizona from New Mexico and Sonora (thousands of workers traveled back and forth across the border from and to the mines)

Arizona

evolved from *subsistence farming communities to mercantile capitalism and finally to industrial capitalism* (these changes affected Mexican people in that territory) - also shaped Chicano history modern Sonora- Arizona was formed as miners from other provinces of New Spain rushed there, lured by mining bonanzas (great source of wealth) - clashed w/ Sonora natives - death of a LOT of them through warfare and disease *Sonora had more water resources than other northern Mexican states* (captured the moisture of the winds blowing off the ocean producing great running rivers such as Rio Yaquí and other smaller rivers such as the Colorado River) - availability of a constant water source facilitated the concentration of populations along these rivers (bands grew into village settlements) Before Arizona became part of the US, in 2 stages in 1848 and 1853, it made up part of the northern frontier of Sonora (colonialism brought along some conformity among the colonizers and colonized though there were some differences) - after years of living w/ each other (cohabitation), the indigenous people did NOT perceive themselves as Mexicans or Sonorenses - at the time of Mexican independence, they still saw themselves as separate Opata, Pima, and Yaqui nations (pg. 112) (they noted their differences) A small class of rancheros eked out a precarious existence cultivating wheat and raising cattle, while a racial and social hierarchy controlled the mines and the settlements orbiting them. a presidio (military post) in the 1830s stood guard over the Tucson settlement defending it from the raids of the nomadic tribes Tucson was the gateway to Sonora, where many of the miners had homes. Miners from camps throughout Arizona would also travel to Tucson for shopping and fiestas.

Transformation of Arizona

from the beginning of US occupation, the fed govt. promoted the cattle trade - they remained low b/c of the Apache raids and most cattle raisers were small operators The railroads and the 1877 Desert Land Act changed this, and accelerated Arizona's transformation from commercial to industrial capitalism. mining also stimulated cattle and farming enterprises attracting a large number of Texas cowboys that brought in their English language and hatred for Mexicans the main attraction was mining and livestock grazing and that there was no reason to fear the Indians any longer

Emergence of Trade Unions

in 1871 Arizona produced only 1% of copper produced nationwide; by 1885 its share had risen to 15% As mentioned, during the early decades, hard-rock miners did most of the mining. But the de- skilling of the industry caused the number of workers to multiply by leaps and bounds. laboreres organized to meet the challenges posed by the giant corps. that controlled the mines (HOWEVER, these unions were racist and excluded Mexicans from the brotherhoods) - even the Western Federation of Miners (WFM), a union supposedly led by radicals, did not recruit Mexicans in Arizona b/c of the hostility of white minors toward them they branded Mexican workers as "cheap labor" and moved to exclude them from the camps The WFM led the struggle to limit the number of Mexicans living in the mining camps. The lack of working-class unity and the assumed superiority of white miners allowed employers to continue a double-wage standard that paid Mexicans lower wages than were paid to Euro- Americans. Mexicans, in turn, resented getting paid less for the same work and the other forms of discrimina- tion that went with it—segregated housing, facilities, and so on. 1901- the Arizona legislature created the *Arizona Rangers* who closely resembled the Texas Rangers to keep Mexicans in their place (they were more often used as strikebreakers rather than to stop cattle rustling)

Conclusion: the industrialization of Arizona

in less than 50 yrs, Arizona moved from an economy of subsistence farming, passing through mercantile capitalism, to become one of the most industrialized provinces in the US (this transformation was made poss. by the iron horse and pounding of the Chiricahua Apache into submission and herding them into concentration camps called reservations) mining booms created cities and the racism in the mining camps sowed (scattered) the seeds of nationalism among Mexicans who played a diff. role in each of the cycles of transformation Mexican elites maintained somewhat cordial relations with the ruling Euro-American elite, but this status changed as personal relationships gave way to the establishment of a managerial class with access to large amounts of capital. mining attracted investment and enterprises that grew in size as Arizona became more industrialized cattle raising & agribusinesses generated surpluses which were exported to other regions (ventures) By the 1890s, massive numbers of Mexi- can workers were migrating not only to the mines of Arizona but also to industrialized farms, the irrigation of which at the moment was being financed by private and public capital. Tucson continued to be a Sonoran pueblo. Migration from Sonora was continuous and, with the building of the railroad from Guaymas to Nogales, the south-north flow increased. It was easier to travel from Hermosillo to Tucson and on to New York than it was to go to Mexico City.

The Gadsden Purchase

large #s of Euro- Americans became acquainted w/ the Mesilla (southern Arizona) during the CA gold rush = thousands of Euro-Americans and Sonorans passed through it to get to the gold fields = they desired the mineral wealth of Sonora and worried about the growing influence of the French and them wanting to establish French colonies Euro- Americans urged WA, D.C. to invoke a Monroe Doctrine and to take Sonora so that the French could not get it 1853: President Franklin Pierce appointed *James Gadsden* (soldier/ diplomat/ railroad president) as a US minister to Mexico w/ instructions to purchase much of northern Mexico as possible (five northern Mexican states and Baja CA) [Mexican officials refused = the US sent troops "to preserve order" Mexico would not even sell Sonora so Gadsden settled for the Mesilla; US threatened that if Mexico does not sell southern Arizona & parts of New Mexico they will take it by force - in 1853 Mexico ceded more than 45,000 square miles to the US The United States claimed that it wanted the land for a railroad route from El Paso to the California coast. Mexican sources, however, countered that what the United States really wanted was the port of Guaymas, Sonora. (this was reasonable since vast deserts separated the Arizona mines from CA ports, and the Guaymas had one of the finest ports on the Pacific Coast) - Mexico also had a pool of experienced miners and manual laborers as well as urban centers

Sonora

like Nueva Vizcaya, the Sonorenses also *practiced slavery* (African and Indian slaves labored at the mines and haciendas) Although the crown (Spanish) forbade the enslavement of Indians, the mine owners, hacendados, and other colonists used loopholes in the law to force the Indians to work in the mines, haciendas, and public projects. - For instance, it was permissible to enslave Indians taken in open and just warfare, those who were cannibals, or those who renounced Jesus. Span- ish slave-hunters invaded the Sonoran frontier and took slaves from northern Pima villages. Greed encouraged the enslavement of Indians in increasing numbers: it cost up to five times more to buy an African slave than an Indian slave. Because Indians were worth less money, they were expendable and were assigned to the most hazardous work (enslavement of the Apache Indians were very common)

the 1890s: the de-skilling of mine work

sonora workers contd. to meet most of Arizona's labor needs - the Mexicans cont. to endure racism High-grade copper mines were depleted by the 1890s. As a consequence, the mode of production changed, and technology made possible the mining of lower-grade ores of copper. de skilling mining req. massive of amounts of dirt to be taken out of the earth from which the ore had to be concentrated, leached out, and refined (req. tons of miners w/ picks and shovels) the need for non skilled labor led to the importation of large #'s of Mexican workers from Chihuahua and points south via El Paso and New Mexico - The arrival of the railroad opened up opportunities beyond the low-wage work for just a few Mexicans, specifically those with access to capital. (small Mexican businesses could not compete; even the merchant capitalists could not afford upgrades needed by new tech) The burro- and horse-drawn mills and hand pulverization processes gave way to larger and more sophisticated smelters and concentrators for processing the ore. Mechanization quickly restructured the industry, as unskilled miners replaced the skilled hard-rock miners, who blamed Mexicans for the changes. - frequent economic depressions - unemployment was really bad to deal with mine managers used the racial tensions between the Mexican and the Euro-American miners to divide and conquer, promoting segregated communities and even segregated dressing areas for miners. At home, the workers lived in hovels with their wives, who were expended physically with washing their work clothes. Mexican hovels lacked plumbing, and the women had to walk miles for water, which they hauled back to their homes and heated.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)

surrendered the northern part of Arizona to the US (the southern region remained part of the Mexican state of Sonora) - 1853 = part of the US

importance of mining

was impt. even before the railroad Mexicans worked as prospectors and laborers in camps around the Gila and Colorado Rivers Mexican miners were usually the first to enter the camps and remained even after the camps were abandoned (they made poss. mining strikes - pg. 120) -LOTS of discrimination *push factor* The Walker diggings at Lynx Creek typify Euro-American-Mexican clashes in these camps. - in 1863 -64: the town of Walker passed a law that no Mexicans shall have the right to buy, take up, or preempt a claim on this river [the Hassayampa] or in this district for the term of six months Although the town did not allow Mexicans to own claims, the townspeople did permit them to work for wages. The white miners nicknamed Walker *Greaserville* copper was the territory's most valuable asset- by the turn of the century, Arizona was a major producer of ore, and would attract large armies of Mexican workers dev. began in the 1870s when merchant capitalists funded mining enterprises (AZ in the early 20th century would become the second largest and then the largest copper producer in the world) Monopolization grew and by the end of the 1880s large Scottish combines along with eastern capital controlled AZ copper Railroads linked Arizona mines with the copper mines of Cananea and Nacozari, Sonora, and the smelters of El Paso. (These enterprises attracted thousands of Mexican laborers.) *pull factor* The copper mining industry fueled a second American industrial revolution, as copper wiring was the mainstay of electricity distribution, motors, and other products needed by the growing nation. The mammoth copper production industry required massive amounts of labor, which in Arizona meant Mexicans.