Soc 120 Final Review
The Supreme Court made at least four arguments in support of its 2015 decision, Obergefell v. Hodges. Name two of them.
"individual autonomy", two-person union unlike any other, "safeguards children and families", "Marriage is a keystone of our social order"
"protecting the family" over the sake of individuals
"stick it out" for the sake of the family, protecting the husband's right to have control in the family (child abuse, spousal rape, other violence)
3 eras in relationship initiation
(1) Courtship (210), pre-1920. Female-controlled institution, close supervision of the couple. (2) Dating, 1920s through present. Male-controlled institution. (3) Hooking up, roughly 1990s through present. Unclear if hookup culture will replace the traditional dating culture
Why has female LFP increased so much?
(1) Pull factors (i.e., desire, opportunity): expansion of the service sector, increased education, liberalized attitudes, fewer children (lower total fertility rate). (2) Push factors (i.e., compelled by circumstances): decline/stagnation of wages for lower educ/middle class men, high divorce rate
Economic changes that contributed to change in marriage regime
(1) changes in nature of work: industrialization, urbanization, wage work, (2) wives joining the labor force, (3) overall increase in families' standards of living (19th and 20th c)
Specialization model of marriage market
If people have different productive skills, household is more productive if each partner specializes. Trading comparative advantages. Efficient (Becker) - but risky (Oppenheimer)
Independence model of marriage market
Income pooling and bargaining. Increasingly dominant model today
Lareau reading
Invisible inequality, how parenting styles differ by class, ethnographic study of 12 white and black families (detailed observation)
Hochschild reading (Joey's Problem)
Joey took hours to fall asleep, causing mom to have a second shift
Labor force equation
Labor force = employed (full or part time) + unemployed (not working but looking for work)
Lisa Wade writes: "There is no hookup epidemic. I do think, however, that we have a problem on college campuses." What is this problem?
Lack of alternatives (e.g., committed relationships), Dissatisfaction with sex on college campuses
Housework
Less housework overall than in past. Mechanization, outsourcing, lower standards. Gender gap in housework has declined steeply. Women still do more housework then men. Continuing gender division in tasks. Benefits men since there's less outdoor/repair to do
What factors influence divorce rates?
Researchers currently have no comprehensive explanation for rise and fall of divorce rates: nothing coherently explains group differences.
According to Meezan and Rauch, why do some argue that same-sex marriage could be harmful even for the children of opposite-sex parents?
Same-sex marriage devalues traditional two-parent families, leading opposite-sex parents (especially men) to abandon their role and thus accelerate the rise of single parenting
After 2013, the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) stated that:
Same-sex marriages would be recognized at the federal level, regardless of where the couple was currently living, as long as the couple had been officially married in a state where same-sex marriage was legal
The well-being of children by class
Shrinking percentage of middle-income children from 1980-2009. A consequence of the shrinking U.S. middle-class
stepfamily (household based)
a household in which two adults are married or cohabiting and at least one has a child present from a previous relationship/marriage, 1 out of 3 Americans is part of a stepfamily
diverging divorce rates by social class (since about 1980)
a large difference by social class (measured by education) in divorce rates among women. Similar trends to 1980; after 1980, rate continuing to increase for less than high school, plateauing for high school/some college, decreasing for college-plus
Meezan & Rauch cont.
a literature review of studies of same-sex partnerships and parenting in 1980s-1990s. These prior studies were studying a small, fearful, hard-to-locate population. The studies had a number of methodological problems. Though studies were limited, they found basically no difference between homo- and hetero-sexual environments for raising children
income-pooling model
a model of the marriage market; both spouses work for pay and pool their incomes
Specialization model
a model of the marriage market; women specialize in housework/childcare, men in paid work outside home (this model no longer fits the marriage market well)
Intimate terrorism
a pattern in which a man seeks to control the behavior of his partner through repeated, serious, violent acts
Crisis period
a period during the first year or two after parents separate when both the custodial parent and the children experience difficulties in dealing with the situation
Courtship
a publicly visible process with rules and restrictions through which young men and women find a partner to marry
living apart together
a relationship in which two individuals define themselves as a couple but do not live together
Hooking up
a sexual encounter with no expectation of further involvement, casual sexual activity ranging from kissing to sexual intercourse
Norm
a widely accepted rule about how people should behave
Liberal
accept and defend diverse forms of family life that we see today. Believe that economic change (globalization, automation of production) has driven change within family life. Think that the government has a responsibility to assist all families, favor expanding government programs.
micro-level divorce factors
age at marriage, race/ethnicity, premarital cohabitation, parental divorce, spouse's similarity. Argument about age at marriage: (1) teen marriages more likely to divorce than older marriages, (2) since 1960s avg age at marriage increasing, and divorce rate increasing. (3) Therefore we know that teen marriage can't be cause of the divorce revolution.
Rates of child maltreatment
all types are decreasing (1993-2005)
Adolescent sexuality and pregnancy
among 15-19 yr olds, for girls: increase in having sex from 1971-88, decrease since 1988. For boys: also a decrease since 1988
Marriage market
an analogy to the labor market in which single individuals (or their parents) search for others who will marry them (or their children)
15. Which of the following is the largest program for poor families in the U.S.? a. Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) b. Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) c. Social Security Insurance d. Medicaid
b. Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC)
Which of the following is NOT correct about stepfamilies in the United States? a. There are more stepfamilies than traditional nuclear families in the U.S. b. One in two Americans is part of a stepfamily c. While stepfamilies have increased family complexity, only 3% of Americans have been married three or more times, and less than 5% of remarried couples have three sets of children ("yours, mine, and ours") d. The most difficult time to start a stepfamily (in terms of child adjustment) is when children are in early adolescence
b. One in two Americans is part of a stepfamily [Actually, one in 3]
Accommodating inequality with Joey's problem
Unequal division of household labor, marital dissatisfaction. Strategies of coming to terms with inequality: family myths (upstairs=Nancy/downstairs=Evan), the politics of comparison.
Why does the United States have such a high marriage metabolism—the highest of any major developed nation, according to Cherlin?
We have high expectations of marriage, leading to divorce when those expectations aren't met, but we also place high emphasis on marriage, leading to high rates of marriage and remarriage
who is more likely to remarry after divorce, those with more or fewer kids?
fewer kids, 3+ kids= very unlikely to remarry
transitional period
first 2-4 years, stepparent goes from "polite outsider" to "warm friend", young stepchild: accepting of stepparent, early adolescent: may be distant and resistant
Income from market work
fungible (exchangeable)
exchange theory with work
gender division of labor is self-reinforcing. Often dependence of women on men.
values
gender equality, individualized marriage, sex for its own sake (not for reproduction)
parental resources differ by parent education
high education mothers have kids increasingly later than lower educated women, older parents earn more so they have more resources, they are also more mature
what explains the rise in grandparenting?
higher life expectancy (due to higher standard of living), lower fertility rate (earlier empty nest), emphasis on vertical kinship (fewer siblings, so there was greater emphasis on parents and grandparents)
who is more likely to remarry after divorce, hispanics or african americans?
hispanics (50% of those who remarry are white, 30% are hispanic, and 20% are african american)
traditional marital roles
homemaker/breadwinner
functional definition of family
how a group presents themselves as a family
"graying of the U.S."
increase in elderly population from 2010-2050
family changes in the U.S.
increased age at marriage, spike in divorce rates and then slight decrease, decrease in remarriage rates, increase in cohabitation, decreased fertility (TFR=2.1), increased unmarried births (40% over all races), more equal gender divisions of work, diversification of living arrangements
Percent of 25-34 yr old men living with parents
increases with unemployment rate, as in post-2008 years (Great Recession)
medical model of domestic violence
individualized, emphasizes the perpetrator's psychology (seen as a sick individual), suggests a biological explanation for the differences between male and female behavior, cannot explain changes in rates of domestic violence over time
3 eras of marriage/marriage regime
institutional marriage, companionate marriage, individualistic marriage
is marriage necessary for rights?
it is the fastest way to gain these rights, some rights may be acquired by other means but more slowly
Secondary socialization
learning how to function in particular groups within society
Primary socialization
learning language, rituals, routines, behaviors, and norms that enable membership of a culture
formal definition of family
legal family through marriage, birth, or adoption
divorce
legal separation of assets, legal and physical arrangements for child custody, coordination of parental efforts (child support, co-parenting vs parallel parenting)
Mortality decline
less people dying in the population, longer life expectancy
Serial cohabitation
living with a series of partners without marrying them
social consequences of mortality decline
longer life expectancy for both men and women, but women are expected to live longer than men
reasons why, despite an increase in female LFP, women spend MORE time with children than they did in the 1960s
lower fertility rate (more time available to allot for each child), machines/outsourcing of housework (more efficient cleaning methods), men help out more, women cut into their leisure time to spend time with their kids
Marriage's declining organizing role in society
marital status strictly used to organize: sex, coresidence, childbearing, childrearing, gender division of labor. All are increasingly possible outside of marriage. Marriage no longer the exclusive organizing principle
Married Men's wage premium
married men earn more than non-married men, entirely explained by selection
who is more likely to remarry after divorce, men or women?
men
transitional marital roles
mother does more housework, but father pitches in
why is being a stepmother often harder than being a stepfather?
mothers often play a larger role in the child's life (do more of the childcare), so it is harder to "replace" the child's birth mother when she is still the child's central maternal figure. Stepfathers are held to a lower standard than stepmothers, "evil stepmom" taboos, easier for a child to accept 2 father figures than 2 mother figures.
some say that gay marriage endangers heterosexual marriage
no evidence that this is true
macro-level divorce factors
no-fault divorce legislation, cultural change, men's employment, women's employment
Care work at home
not fungible (even a liability)
Who is more likely to be poor, men or women?
older women
England & Thomas reading
online survey to analyze the decline of the date and the rise of the college hook up, the traditional date is dying, orgasm inequality
parallel parenting
operate separately
Authoritative parenting
parents combine high levels of emotional support with consistent, moderate control of their children (best parenting style)
Authoritarian parenting
parents combine low levels of emotional support with coercive attempts at unreasoned control of their children
natural growth
parents presume that children will spontaneously grow/thrive, independence in school and other institutions, boisterous play, childhood is time to be free of adulthood's burdens, parents use directive language ("because I said so"), sense of powerlessness against authority
Permissive parenting
parents provide emotional support but exercise little control over their children
Concerted cultivation
parents see children as a project, structured activities that are overseen by adults develop skills/opinions/talents, self-restraint is rewarded, childhood is "training ground" for adulthood, child is encouraged to question reasoning
Are the benefits of marriage causal or selected?
partially causal, partially selected
"Doing the work of kinship"
people must do the work of establishing a relationship to be considered kin
parental separation
physically moving apart
family policy
political beliefs about how the government should assist families in caring for dependents
fertility
postponement of childbearing, declining fertility, sustained sub-replacement level, decoupling of marriage and reproduction (increasing extramarital births)
institutional marriage
pre-1900, romantic love and sexual attraction not required, sex is for procreation
Benefits of marriage
public commitment, social recognition, social support, enforceable trust
public opinion on gay marriage
public opinion has steading become more acceptable/supportive of same-sex marriage
re-partnering
rates are increasing, includes cohabitation and remarriage
why are remarriages more likely to end in divorce than first marriages?
remarried life is more complicated and is an "incomplete institution" (causation), may also be due to selection (already divorced once, might be less skilled in finding a partner/holding a marriage together)
nuptuality (marriage)
rising age at marriage, high divorce rates, decline of remarriage, increasing pre and post-martial cohabitation
Diverging divorce rates by groups
rising among less educated, falling among college grads, higher among Blacks and Hispanics, lower among Asian Americans, no big difference between Catholic/Protestant.
ethnography
scientific study of human races/cultures
child abuse
serious physical harm (trauma, sexual abuse with injury, or willful malnutrition) of a child by an adult, with intent to injure
divorce consequences for women
sharp decrease in average economic well-being, stress/depression (a result of being the primary parent and a worker), 46% of custodial mothers get child support despite the fact that 60% are supposed to
What was surprising to Lareau about race?
she found little difference of parenting styles between blacks and whites of same social class (differences were due to social class rather than race)
Why might concerted cultivation lead children to have a greater sense of entitlement (privilege) when interacting with teachers, doctors, bureaucrats (authority figures)?
children are taught to question authority to see opportunities within institutional structures and get what he/she desires
Effects of stepfamilies on children
children in stepfamilies appear to be less well-off than children with 2 biological parents, daughters in step-families leave home earlier
same-sex parenthood
children of same-sex parents appear to be as well-adjusted as those raised by heterosexual parents
what social trend "offsets" the decline in remarriage?
cohabitation
Two types of childrearing, associated with different social classes
concerted cultivation is upper/middle middle-class, natural growth is working class and poor
co-parenting
coordinate/cooperate
Which of the following is an example of reverse causality? a. The more firefighters on the scene, the greater the damage—but this is because more damaging fires require more firefighters b. Female labor force participation is associated with divorce—but this is because some women join the labor force in anticipation of divorce c. Cohabitation before marriage is associated with higher divorce risk—but this is because the people who would even consider cohabitating are already at higher risk for divorce d. Both A & B
d. Both A & B
Which of the following is true about the link between race and parenting style, according to Annette Lareau's research? a. African-Americans families are more likely to engage in "natural growth" parenting than white families. b. After controlling for social class, there is no observable relationship between race and parenting style c. White families are more likely to engage in "concerted cultivation" than African-American families, once we account for differences in social class d. Both A & B
d. Both A & B
Which of the following is NOT a likely contributor to the rise in divorce rates from around 1960 to 1980? a. Cultural changes like the rise of individualized marriage b. An increase in female labor force participation c. The stagnation of working-class men's wages d. The passage of no-fault divorce laws
d. The passage of no-fault divorce laws
Conservative
defend and encourage heterosexual, marriage-based families. Believe that cultural change has driven the transformation of family life. Favor a modest role for government in supporting families, skeptical of new government programs.
Intergenerational support
different generations within a family assisting each other
downward mutual assistance
direct assistance, older generation assisting younger generation, most common form of mutual assistance, childcare, financial assistance
short-term divorce consequences for kids
emotional crisis due to: economic loss, diminished parenting, loss of a parent by divorce, transitions to a new home/school/parent/friends
new family forms
family of choice, living apart together
stabilization period
subsequent years, stepparent continues warm behavior, avoids discipline, supports decisions of biological parent, stepchild accepts stepparent (may be some long-term problems with late adolescents)
divorce consequences for men
suffers slight economic hardship, standard of living declines 15-20% (but men contributing >80% of pre-divorce income gain in standard of living)
Time-diary studies
surveys in which people are asked to keep a record of what they are doing every minute during a time period
second demographic transition
sweeping worldwide changes in family ideals and behaviors, including nuptuality, values, and fertility. The U.S. was a late-comer to this transition. Comes from a cultural preference drift (wealthier and more educated population)
Authority
the acknowledged right of someone to supervise and control other's behavior. Recognized legitimacy; importance of social construction of authority
Early adulthood
the age of independence, keeps rising
How were marriage and divorce "informal" in early American history (prior to 1850s or so)?
the community was the source of regulation regarding marriage rather than the government
Social Security Act of 1935
the federal act that created, among other provisions, social security, unemployment compensation, and aid to mothers with dependent children
why has the functional definition of family been so important for same-sex couples?
the formal definition was complicated/impossible for same-sex couples and parents
Medicare
the government program of health insurance for all older people (old people)
Medicaid
the government program of health insurance for people with incomes below the poverty line (poor people)
"marriage metabolism"
the number of marriage- and divorce-related transitions that adults and their children undergo
Who is more likely to be poor, old or young?
the old
Selection effect
the principle that whenever individuals sort, or 'select' themselves into groups nonrandomly, some of the differences among the groups reflect pre-existing differences among the individuals
Cohabitation
the sharing of a household by unmarried individuals who have a sexual relationship
stress of working parents
today, many people experience stress at trying to fulfill two somewhat opposed cultural ideals: being a good worker, and being a good parent
Relations between stepparents and stepchildren
transitional period vs stabilization period
What might prevent parents from doing what they are supposed to do?
unemployment, poverty
parental conflict
unhappiness, often prolonged period
Intimate partner violence
violence between partners in a relationship
Situational couple violence
violence that arises from a specific situation in which one or both partners act aggressively in anger
Exchange theory
when deciding whether or not to help family members, individuals consider the benefits that they would receive and the costs that they would incur (help family if benefits>costs)
History of cohabitation
(1) pre 1960s: nonmarital coresidence limited to low SES, rural "common law marriage" (now a dying legal doctrine). (2) rapid increase since ~1970. ~15-fold increase in cohabitation 1960-2010. Also increased among high education (high visibility). But still more common among low SES. (3) Today: majority of young Americans will cohabit. Cohabitation increasingly normative. ~2/3 of first marriages are preceded by cohabitation.
3 eras of sexuality in the U.S.
(1) pre-1890, choose spouse for practical reasons, not romantic love or sexual attraction. (2) 1890-1960, romantic love and sexual attraction increasingly seen as foundations for healthy marriage. (3) since 1960s, this trend has increased; sexual activity has increasingly been legally regarded as a private matter; all this is part of growth of individualism
3 eras of sex and marriage
(1) pre-1890, sexual attraction & romantic love inappropriate basis for choice of spouse, sex only in marriage & in moderation, female pleasure discounted. (2) 1890-1960, sexual attraction & romantic love increasingly important for choice of spouse, sex still confined to marriage (esp. middle class), but pleasure more valued. (3) 1960-present, romantic love & sexual attraction centrally important for marriage, 2nd sexual revolution decouples sex from marriage & childbearing, increased acceptability of sex outside marriage, increased belief in sexual privacy, freedom from state interference (first for heterosexual, later also for homosexual sex), availability of effective contraception, early adulthood, rise of cohabitation, today among new spouses most have had sex before marriage
How young people go about finding first sex partner is changing
(1) pre-1920: Courting at parents' home. Sex reserved for marriage. (2) 1920-1980s: Dating. Sex follows relationship, one-night stands are non-normative. Dating shifts control from women to men, from parents to teenagers
3 eras of divorce
(1) restricted divorce, until mid-19th century, divorces only granted on the grounds of adultery or desertion (usually only to men), fault regime. (2) divorce tolerance, mid-19th century to 1960s, grounds for divorce were widened, divorce made more accessible to women, though still a fault regime. (3) unrestricted divorce, 1970 to present, no-fault divorce (NFD). In 1970 California replaced fault grounds with no-fault divorce. Divorce revolution in history of marriage and family: divorce rate rose sharply through 1970s and peaked about 1980.
Trends in marriage and cohabitation
(1) since 1950s, increase in unmarried adults for both whites and blacks (esp for blacks). (2) big increase in percent of blacks (men and women) never married. (3) Cohabitation increasing (rapidly since 1970); percent of cohabiting adults decreases by age cohort; a short life stage for most people (in U.S.)
Why doesn't a working mother hurt development of children?
1. People overestimate time non-employed women spend w/ kids. 2. ~half of employed married women w/ young kids only work part time (doesn't take away much time with kids). 3. Mechanization & outsourcing housework. Less housework in general over time. Employed women do even less housework. 4. Men do more housework (but still gender gap), freeing up mothers' time to spend with kids. 5. Fewer children. More time per child. Fewer years w/ young children enables rising LFP. 6. Less leisure time for working mothers (preserving time with kids). 7. Rise of preschool enrollment
Meezan & Rauch reading
2005; Gay marriage, same-sex parenting, and America's children
employed mothers spend _____% less time with their kids than non-employed mothers
15%
companionate marriage
1900 (especially 1920s) through 1960s, companionship, romantic love is basis of marriage
individualistic marriage
1960s to present, emphasis on personal satisfaction (fulfillment, growth, self-development)
Who's doing the care work?
1965-2003, shrinking of discrepancy between women and men contributing to unpaid household work. But in 2003 women still doing far more than men
California was the first state to pass the "no-fault" divorce legislation, in what year did this occur?
1970 (most other states by 1980s)
Minow reading
1991: Redefining families, 1980s court case: Alison D. v. Virginia M. A crucial feature of the decision was how family ought to be defined.
In 1860 the divorce rate was ____ out of 1000; in 1980 it was ____ out of 1000, and in 2002 it was ____ out of 1000.
2, 23, 18
An estimated ___ percent of female college students experience rape or attempted rape while in college.
20%
Li reading
2010; The impact of divorce on children's behavior problems. Research question is relationship between divorce and children's behavioral problems. Two possibilities: divorce causes BP (older consensus). Or x causes divorce and BP. Newer consensus is that divorce by itself doesn't cause BP. X is preexisting family characteristics: personality (hard to get along with), social class (being poor, low-income neighborhood, low education, parents raised in divorced families, have more children than average).
gay marriage legalized
2015, extending fundamental right to marry to all couples
divorce rates peaked in 1980, affecting ______ couples per year
23 in 1000
remarriage
9 out of 10 remarriages are from divorce, not death. remarriage rates are high, but decreasing
Does teenage childbearing (TB) cause disadvantage?
A large part of the observed difference between teenage mothers and non-TB women is due to selection rather than causation. Teen moms come from families that on average produce less favorable outcomes regardless of TB
Cohabitation as a micro factor
A strong predictor of divorce. This is likely to be pure selection, not causation ("Cohabiting reveals people to be bad marriage risks; it doesn't cause them to be bad marriage risks."). Cohabitation attracts those who are less committed, more independent, less religiously involved, more likely to have divorced parents. Cohabitors more likely to divorce regardless of cohabitation. No effect for cohabitors who do marry their partner. But may actually decrease divorce. Trial marriage: worse matches weeded out in cohabitation, better matches sort into marriage. Cohabitation prevents divorces by preventing formation of potentially doomed marriages.
Power
Ability to force a person to do something against their will. Needn't involve constant open threat. May look like voluntary compliance if person anticipates enforcement
How common are hookups?
About 25% of college students will never hook up, but most people do at least once, and the average is 7 by graduation
Care work
Activity in which one person meets the needs of spouses, partners, children, parents, or others who cannot fully care for themselves. Increasingly outsourced
Who is more likely to be poor, whites or people of color?
African Americans and Hispanics
AFDC
Aid to Families with Dependent Children, to support widows and their children, no longer exists
The "second shift"
Another "shift" of work after returning home from work (housework, childcare, cooking). Men have 1 shift while women have a 2nd shift (less true starting in the 1990s).
Cohabitation and class
As education increases, cohabiting decreases
Changes in marriage
Average age at first marriage has been rising since 1950s (returning to, and surpassing, pre-1950s levels), marriage transitioned to a capstone experience with the wedding as a status symbol
When studying the effects of divorce on children, one strategy is to compare the same child before and after the divorce. What is the major weakness of this approach?
Because divorce is a process, many children will have already been affected by the divorce even before the legal separation occurs; if so, researchers might not actually observe any differences before and after the official date of divorce
Waite benefits of marriage
Better health, longer life, more sex and more satisfaction with sex, more wealth, higher earnings (especially for men). Healthy behaviors (lower levels of negative health behaviors than unmarried; decrease in men's risky behavior). Mortality (lower risks of dying at any age than unmarried). Partnered sex (in all comparisons sex frequency and satisfaction greater than unmarried)
From single-earner to dual-earner families
Big rise in labor force participation (1948-90) among wives with children under age 18. Middle-class and upper-class mothers joining the paid work force
Increasing acceptance of premarital sex
By 1980 (late 1970s), more individuals accept premarital sex than disapprove of premarital sex
Care work problem
Care-work wage penalty. Female child care workers earn about 25% less than comparable women with non-care employment. Care work is devalued as "women's work." Care work creates public goods (free rider problem)
[Short essay]: What is the difference between causation and selection? Provide an example from this course of a relationship that appeared to be causal but was actually a case of selection.
Causation means that Y occurs because of X, while selection means that X and Y are merely associated, and some third factor explains their relationship. For example, divorce appears to decrease children's test scores, but a third factor (the education level of the parents) predicts both the children's test scores and their parent's likelihood of divorce. [Remember that there is some evidence for a causal relationship here, but at least part of this relationship seems to be due to selection.] Another example: cohabitation appears to increase the risk of divorce, but a third factor (personality traits like low commitment and high independence) predicts both the likelihood of cohabitating and the likelihood of divorce.
Benefits of Co-residence
Companionship, sex, economies of scale, risk reduction (insurance function). Many benefits of co-residence accrue to both marrieds and cohabiters
Family policy debates
Conservative vs. Liberal
How has sex changed in recent generations?
Decrease in sexual intercourse; change in script (previously, oral sex followed intercourse, but now intercourse follows oral sex and is less common than in the past). There have always been hookups but not a hookup culture—one that glorifies and strongly encourages hookups
Does Mom's work hurt kids?
Despite drastic shifts in LFP, there is little evidence that female LFP hurts children (except infants). Increase in female LFP hasn't systematically reduced mothers' time with children. Recently, there's even been an increase in mom's time with kids
Does divorce cause lower test scores among children?
Differences in test scores are mostly due to selection, not causation
Waite reading
Does marriage matter? 1995, best article on the benefits of marriage
How income creates power and leads to Gender Division of Labor
Earning more money than partner confers power at home
Mutual assistance
Elders assist youngers, youngers assist elders. Two theoretical perspectives claiming to explain intergenerational assistance (1) Altruism, (2) Exchange theory.
How does Nancy manage the tension between her feminist/egalitarian ideals and Evan's resistance to equal household work?
For Nancy, there's an important distinction between power and authority. Income, gendered division of labor, and power. Earning more money than your partner confers more bargaining power at home. Exchange theory (gendered division of labor is self-reinforcing).
Widowhood Effect
Loss of spouse increases mortality by about 15-20% in old age for whites
Hook up bias
Majority of hook ups don't involve sex. Bias toward male sexual gratification
Cohabitation as an "incomplete institution"
Marriage is a social institution because it regulates individual behavior. Cohabitation largely lacks established rites, scripts, expectations, routines—perhaps because it's still too new. We call it an "incomplete" institution because these rules and expectations are beginning to emerge
What is "marriage metabolism," according to Andrew Cherlin?
Marriage metabolism is the number of transitions due to marriage or divorce that individuals and their children experience
Li cont.
Older studies: cross-sectional, compare children of divorce with children of non-divorce. Li's study: longitudinal, compares behavior of children before and after divorce. Li's finding: The effect of divorce on BP is tiny (not statistically significant). Therefore, preexisting family characteristics are likely to be responsible for BP in context of divorce. Li recommends that society helps children by addressing processes before and after divorce (esp poverty), rather than simply preventing divorce.
state
a government that claims the right to rule a given territory and its population and to have a monopoly on force in that territory
The Modern Marriage Trap
Married men tend to be happier than single men, but married women tend to be less happy than single women. And when married men divorce, their happiness decreases while women's happiness increases. This is largely because women take on a disproportionate amount of housework and childcare, and are denied not only free time but a "lightness of mind" (i.e., a lack of mental stress). Women do more "thinking work"—remembering appointments and birthdays, for example—whereas men rarely have to think about their work because it's so infrequent (men do seasonal or even yearly tasks, like mowing the lawn or cleaning the gutters). Ultimately, when the egalitarian model doesn't pan out, most men prefer to revert to traditional gender roles, while most women prefer to divorce
"Enforceable trust" by society
Married relationship is socially recognized and supported, whereas cohabitation is not (or less so)
Wade notes in "The Modern Marriage Trap" that married women are often less happy than single women. What is the main explanation she provides in this article?
Married women are denied a "lightness of mind," since they are responsible for frequent chores, errands, and appointments, while their husbands take on seasonal or even yearly tasks that do not require the same mental exertion
The division of labor in marriages
Much work (child care, housecleaning, driving kids to school and activities) gets done by mothers employed part-time. Mothers employed full-time also do a lot of this work.
The Second Demographic Transition (SDT) can be understood in terms of three categories: nuptuality (marriage), values, and fertility. List two examples for each of these categories.
Nuptuality: —Rising age at marriage —High divorce rates (not necessarily "increasing") —Increasing pre- and post-marital cohabitation —Decline of remarriage Values [these must be specific to the family!!]: —Gender equality —Individualized marriage —Sex for its own sake (not primarily procreation) Fertility: —Postponement of childbearing —Decoupling of marriage and procreation (increasing extramarital births) —Declining fertility —Sustained sub-replacement fertility
stepfather
Often fills a hole left by departed biological father, stepfathers are held to a lower standard than stepmothers, easier for a child to accept 2 father figures than 2 mother figures.
Micro explanation
changes in individual level factors
socialization
Ongoing learning process that involves parents, peers, and media. Varies by race/ethnicity, social class, and gender.
Why are college students so dissatisfied with hookup culture?
Only a small portion say they're unequivocally happy with hookup culture; most say they participate in it reluctantly or ambivalently. Students expect pleasure, meaningfulness, and empowerment out of hookups, but rarely encounter those things. Women in particular are dissatisfied by the sexual pressure from men and by the normalization of male (but not female!) orgasm during a hookup. Most students, both men and women, said they wanted a committed relationship, but less than 1% maintained such a relationship. The idea that hookups should be sexually liberating makes hookup culture all the more intolerable
economic well-being of children
Over the decades, the proportion of children in economically prosperous families has increased. Over the same period, the proportion just below the poverty line has remained the same while the proportion in extreme poverty has increased. Children at the top are doing better than in the recent past, children at the bottom are doing worse.
PRWORA
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, law that created TANF in 1996, major welfare reform
[Short essay]: Concerted cultivation and natural growth are often distinguished as "structured activities vs. unstructured play," but this is too simple. Apart from this distinction, what other factors explain the difference between these parenting styles? Describe at least two.
Possible answers: —Concerted cultivation requires that parents actively engage their children in conversation to cultivate their linguistic abilities —Concerted cultivation sees parenting as a negotiation (preparing children for the negotiations of the middle-to-upper-class world), while natural growth sees parenting as an exercise of unreasoned discipline —Concerted cultivation views childhood as preparation for adulthood, while natural growth views childhood as a sacred realm to be protected from adulthood —Concerted cultivation produces a sense of entitlement, while natural growth produces a sense of constraint (these terms would need to be explained) —Concerted cultivation emphasizes social connections with peer groups in structured settings, while natural growth emphasizes casual social connections with peers and especially extended family —Concerted cultivation trains children to navigate social institutions, while natural growth does not provide this training —Concerted cultivation prepares children for interacting with authority on the level of equals, while natural growth trains them for interacting as subordinates
What does the phrase "marriage penalty" refer to?
Prior to 2001, married couples took on the tax bracket associated with their combined rather than separate income, which meant that dual-income couples were at a disadvantage when filing taxes jointly.
Percent of population living in non-nuclear family, multigenerational households
Steep decline since WWII, slow rise since 1980
Marriage market theory
Supply, preferences, resources. Specialization and independence models of partnership
What was the most important way in which TANF (Temporary Assistance for Needy Families) challenged the breadwinner/homemaker ideal in the United States?
TANF lent assistance only to currently employed or soon-to-be employed Americans, leading many poor mothers to join the labor force
TANF
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, federal assistance to low-income families, replaced AFDC in 1996
Wade reading
The Modern Marriage Trap
Divorce rate in America
U.S. has highest divorce rate of any developed country. Compared to Western European countries and Canada, U.S. has much higher percentage of children (living with mothers) who experience 3 or more maternal partnerships.
Female labor force participation (female LFP)
The movement of married women and mothers into the labor force is one of the most important changes in the U.S. family in the 20th century. Led to a profound change in the gender balance of power in marriage.
Lisa Wade reading
The promise and peril of hookup culture
Putting U.S. marriage into international perspective
U.S. marriage is rather different than elsewhere. Greater attachment to marriage. More transitions into and out of marriage: Higher divorce rate (1990) than selected W. European countries or Canada. Greater "marriage metabolism". Greater economic inequality. More controversy over gay and lesbian partnerships.
True or False: Cultural support for spousal abuse was lower in the United States during the early colonial era than in the 1800s.
True: Shift from the early colonial era, where Puritans punished spousal abuse, to a new culture of "protecting the private sphere from public intervention" in the 1800s
family of choice
a family formed through voluntary ties among individuals who are not biologically related
Value
a goal or principle that is held in high esteem by a society
Macro explanation
changes in societal level factors
Around what time did grandparenting become common in American life?
World War 2
dating
Young man paid the expenses of a date to enjoy the company of a young woman, rare until 1900 or so. Dating placed courtship on an economic basis. Shifted power from parents to teenagers/young adults.
Welfare state
a capitalist government that has enacted numerous measures to protect workers and their families from the harshness of the capitalist system
In "Joey's Problem," Nancy Holt decides to accept her situation rather than simply get a divorce or force her husband to do more housework. Which of the following does NOT explain Nancy's reasoning? a. She fears the consequences of divorce, which could be even worse than living in an unequal marriage b. She worries that Evan will react aggressively if she threatens divorce or pushes him to do more than he "bargained for" c. She recognizes it is easier to change her attitude than to change her marriage d. She fears that her relationship is becoming like her own parents' relationship, and she would rather deceive herself than admit that this is the case
b. She worries that Evan will react aggressively if she threatens divorce or pushes him to do more than he "bargained for"
egalitarian marital roles
both parents work and share chores and childcare
Blurred boundaries
boundary ambiguity, boundaries defining relatives and friends are becoming increasingly difficult to define as new arrangements arise
Marriage "matters" for many reasons. Which reason was NOT proposed in Linda Waite's article "Does Marriage Matter?" a. Married individuals tend to have a lower risk of death b. Married individuals tend to have higher wages (except for white women) c. Married individuals tend to have lower rates of anxiety and depression (especially among women) d. Married individuals tend to have higher rates of sexual satisfaction
c. Married individuals tend to have lower rates of anxiety and depression (especially among women)
According to the "formal" definition of the family (Minow), which of the following individuals is NOT necessarily a member of your family? a. Your son's husband b. Your adopted sister's adopted child c. Your domestic partner's biological child d. Your brother's wife
c. Your domestic partner's biological child
legal obligations entitled in marriage
care/nurture, financial support, decision-making in healthcare, physical housing/clothing/feeding
Altruism
caring about others, wanting to make their lives easier and better
2 reasons why marriage might have different outcome
causal (marriage causes outcomes), selection (different kinds of people select into marriage, than into being single or cohabiting)
which federal program is most responsible for low poverty rates among elderly Americans?
social security (created around Great Depression-Mid 1930s)
Rising standard of living for elderly
social security benefits, medicare, medicaid, some elders continue to work
political model of domestic violence
social, cultural, and legal reasons that show how domestic violence is culturally and even legally encouraged in our society (this model is preferred by sociologists)
long-term divorce consequences for kids
some distress, most kids resume to normal emotional/behavioral development, adult mental health of children of divorce is worse than those who have not experienced divorce
rights and benefits conferred by marriage
spousal medicare/social security, immigration privileges, tax benefits, medical leave to take care of sick spouse, access to employer health insurance, inheritance, housing, anti-discrimination statues, visitation/decision-making for infirm
labor force participation 1948-2010
steady rise of female LFP, starts to plateau in 1990s (the same trends occurred for married mothers' LFP)
stepfamily (kinship based)
stepfamilies are groups of people linked by remarriage or re-partnering chains and who recognize each other as family
upward mutual assistance
younger generation assisting older generation, indirect assistance such as social security, direct assistance such as caring for a parent
who is more likely to remarry after divorce, younger or older individuals?
younger people, especially younger women
Widowhood effect cont.
• Central evidence for health benefits of marriage • Found for bereaved men and women • Loss of primary care giver (for men) • Loss of income (for women) • Long lasting (no apparent substitute)
No apparent widowhood effect for blacks
• Likely because elderly African Americans are much more likely than whites to live with other kin (rather than alone) • Greater independence of African American husbands and wives • Blacks appear to benefit from marriage longer than whites