Soc 210 Exam 1

*gender strategies (Gerson)

Amid a social and economic landscape that is undermining clearly drawn divisions between earning and caring, flexible gender strategies help families meet children's economic and emotional needs, while rigid gender boundaries leave them ill-prepared to cope with twenty-first-century contingencies. the ways families configure

*Deductive

: to logically derive - or "deduce" - from established knowledge -this step from literature review to hypothesis

macroscopic, microscopic

A continuum runs from the most microscopic to the most macroscopic of social realities, with phenomena at midpoint as meso.

*Risman - "Gender as Structure"

Gender stratification: those social systems in which socioeconomic resources and political power are distributed on the basis of one's sex and gender. 1. Gendered selves Sex role theory suggests that early childhood socialization is an influential determinant of later behavior, and research has focused on how societies create feminine women and masculine men Reinforcement theory suggests girls develop nurturant personalities because they are given praise and attention for their interest in dolls and babies and that boys develop competitive selves because they are positively reinforced for winning. Nancy Chodorow's psychoanalytic analysis approach has been influential in femoninst scholarship and says mothers are responsible for young children universally, mothers relate to their boys and girls differently. Fusing identities with their daughters and relating to their sons as separate and distinct. Girls develop selves based on connectedness and relationships while boys develop selves based on independence and autonomy. Boys must reject their first love object (mother) in order to adopt masculinity ad they do this by rejecting and devaluing what is feminine in themselves and in society. Ruddick and Apteheker's maternal thinking: through nurturing their children, women develop psychological frameworks that value peace and justice. their focus on sex differences has legitimated a dualistic conception of gender that relies on a reified male/female dichotomy. Downplays the role of interactional expectations and the social structures. it presumes behavioral continuity throughout the life course 2. structure vs personality Epstein says there are perhaps no empirically documented differences that can be traced to the predisposition of male and females. Instead, the deceptive differences reflect womens lack of opportunity in a male dominated society. Kanter showed that when women had access to powerful mentors, interactions with people like themselves, and the possibility of upward mobility, they advanced like others - regardless of sex Kanter's hypotheses are supported empirically only when societally devalued groups enter traditionally white male work environments. When white males enter traditionally female work environment, they do not hit the glass ceiling, they ride glass elevators 3. Doing gender West and Zimmerman says that once a person is labeled a member of a sex category, she or he is morally accountable for behaving as persons in that category do. That person is expected to do gender. The ease of interaction depends on it. Doing gender implies legitimating inequality. What is female in a patriarchal society is devalued. Gender is not something we are but do Incomplete because it slights the institutional level of analysis and the links among institutional gender stratification, situational expectations, and gendered selves 4. *Gender as structure This view of gender as a social structure incorporates each level of analysis It is useful to conceptualize gender as a structure that has consequences for every aspect of society Differentiation has consequences on three levels: 1) at the individual level, for the development of gendered selves 2) at the interactional level, for men and women face different expectations even when they fill the identical structural position 3) ad the institutional level, for rarely will women and men be given identical positions. This level is based on explicit regulations or laws regarding resource distribution, whether resources be defined as access to opportunities or actual material goods. Interactional pressures and institutional design create gender and the resultant inequality, even in the absence of individual desires. Even when individual women and men do not desire to live gendered lives or to support male dominance, they often find themselves compelled to do so by the logic of gendered choices. Currently in american society cultural rules and cognitive images that operate at the interactional level are particularly important in the persistence of gender stratification in families. Cultural images within marriage also make gendered action possible.

Research Process

Identify a question or problem Review the Literature Formulate a hypothesis Research Design Carry out the Research Analysis Report Findings

report findings

Subjects what we have done in our research to the skepticism of our peers. sets the stage for new rounds of work.

social fact vs social current

The only difference between "social facts" and "social currents" are the level to which they are crystalized, a "social current" is strong but short-lived, whereas a "social fact" is much more secure through time and change; which is not to say that a "social current" may not solidify into a "social fact."

Interpretive Tradition

Verstehen: understanding, as distinct from explanation (as cause=effect) •Seeks to identify subjective orientations, meanings, and values as the basis of human action — Anti-positivist •Associated with methods such as interviews, participant observation and ethnography •Generalizeability is limited; can also be difficult to assess reliability •Excels at theory generation; gaining insight into niche social locations (eg. elites or marginalized social groups)

Race Conclusion

Race is social differentiation based on physical criteria Racial classification in the US hinges most fundamentally on the color line dividing white and other (non white) americans Census classifications do not measure race in any consistent manner and more correctly reflect ideological and non scientific decisions Racial classifications are power struggles

C. Wright Mills

argued sociologists have a unique perspective (sociological imagination) that gives them a distinctive way of looking at data or reflecting on the world around them. -military industrial complex A creative act of switching positions. They need to have a sort of empathy for the research subjects. A refusal to reduce people to their social location, we are going to see them in their full humanness and see where they are situated.

*Racial project

creation/use of racial categories to redistribute resources and status Effort to assign what race means, and how resources are distributed according to those categories. Deeply political process of assigning status and resources to people. What does it mean to be each race. Racial projects are not inherently racist, it depends on how things are allocated. There can be anti racist as well as racist projects.

Georg Simmel

money is crucial to a modern economy but speeds up consumption

Sociology

the "scientific study of human social life, groups and societies"

*hypodescent

the automatic assignment of children of a mixed union or mating between members of different socioeconomic groups or ethnic groups to the subordinate group. There has been many laws regulating inter racial unions

Social construction of gender

the learning of gender roles/sexual identity through socialization and interaction with others Culture not nature

social structure

the organized patterns of social relationships and social institutions that together constitute society Gender roles, capitalist society, are social structures. They constrain choices change slowly Rotational choices about transportation are not just personal choices, they may be blocked by infrastructure. Social structures can facilitate desires like in city B but restrict them in A.

*Gender norms

the rules of appropriate behaviour and roles for men, women, and non binary gender identities.

*Gender roles

the social presentation of gender, which includes clothing, hairstyles, and attitudinal and behavior traits.

Gender stratification

the unequal distribution of a society's wealth, power, status, and privilege between men and women. As well as between those and non binary genders.

*inductive

to logically extrapolate or generalize from specific findings to general theory between analysis and reporting findings

*Hypothesis

what do you expect about the relationship between variables

the sociological agenda

•What binds individuals together to form a society? •What creates social change? •What is the relationship between an individual and society? •How do institutions shape social action? •How is social order maintained, broken, or transformed? •What are the varieties of men and women that live in a society? •What are the sources of power and inequality in society?

why do we eat with forks

1. eating is governed by social rules: etiqutte 2. rules are context specific

Obasogie - "Do Blind People See Race? Social, Legal, and Theoretical Considerations"

1) blind people's understanding of race is as significant as their sighted counterparts and that blind people understand race visually, 2) this visual understanding of race stems from social practices that rain people to think about race visually regardless of their ability to see, and 3) blind people's visual understanding of race has a significant impact on how they understand themselves and interact with others. Blind people experience race just like everyone else - visually. Each sighted respondent defined race through visual cures. Most thought that blind people's understanding of race and its importance to their daily lives were diminished by not seeing visual cues. Those who thought it might be important thought based on racialized voices and racialized foods. For the most part they maintained little significance. One thought more diversity in cues with white people, balck people look more or less the same. This parallels research in cross racial identification in sighted people where one race can better distinguish facial characteristics of their own race. Key theme is the significance that society attributes to visual aspects of race comes less from any obvious or self evident physical differences and more from how social practices train individuals to look differently on certain bodies. the very idea that race is visually self evident is a process that masks its own existence by making race seem obvious. Voice and accent remained secondary measures used to give a sense of what is thought to be the primary characteristic: visual cues. The data also highlights a key role played by social interactions in giving blind respondents a visual sense of race. A recurring theme is the extent to which friends and family went out of their way to not only make sure blind people knew the social importance of race and all the rules, norms, and meanings that go along with it, but also that they thought visually about race so that human physical differences would be experienced as a fundamental lends through which to view the world. Blind and sighted people go through this racial socialization directing them to visual cues. One girl's mom said black people smell and she came to believe it. Blind black girl told her blackness would rub off to keep boundaries Respondents voiced a hesitation to date interracially as a desire to not disrupt social norms, knowing that interracial dating provides a visual image that they may not be able to perceive but is nonetheless looked down upon by others. Color blindness and its underlying theory of race strongly imply that race and racism are problems of visual recognition and not social or political practices. This article complicates this by showing that the perceptibility and visual salience of race are social rather than merely ocular phenomena, which disrupts the coherency of the colorblind metaphor and thus its jurisprudence.

Gendered Households in the Economy

Implications of domestic division of labor for employment: •penalties for leaving the labor market •Employer expectations about women •Retirement (harder to build up retirement savings) •Opting out of the job market In the absence of affordable childcare, the responsibility falls to families, this then falls to women, making it harder for them to get ahead in jobs. If we reduce resistant institutions outside this household (allows them to make decisions that further their beliefs) this will maximize equality within the household and outside too.

One Drop Rule

In societies that regard some races of people as dominant or superior and others as subordinate or inferior . . . •hypodescent is the automatic assignment of children of a mixed union or mating between members of different socioeconomic groups or ethnic groups to the subordinate group. One drop rules make sure people can be put in discrete racial categories because inter racial people are a threat to this system.

*sex

a biological distinction based on roles in the process of biological reproduction

Multiraciality

What to do with multiracial people has been a historical problem. Poses problems in the idea of pure race and pure whiteness. This has been necessary for american racial categories. Obama and Harris bring forth a racial ideology. Racial classification leads to one identity. Obama mostly is talked as first black president even though he is multiracial.

Empirical

denotes information gained by means of experience, observation, or experiments -Contrasted with "idealism," "rationalism", or "pure reason" -Observation, experience, and experiment can serve as neutral arbiters between competing theories. -opposite of Rene Descartes ("i think therefore i am") which was about pure reason, deduction from the world, do not need data Today we tend to recognize there are limits on empirical data on arbitrating the truth. Empirical methods are modified by biases, past experiences etc that go into the research question and how we go about collecting data. Scientific theories do not get proven but others get disproven.

Marathon world records by year and gender

greatly increased for women recently Pipeline is tightened. What was maybe seen as biology before is shown to be cultural and structural. What explains change is the opportunities for women.

Social Facts (Durkheim)

macro level phenomena such as social structures and cultural norms and values, that stand apart from people and more importantly impose themselves from people. Felt these structures and constraints were desirable and necessary. •1. external; 2. have "force;" 3. objective

*Gender strategy

members of a household respond to institutional demands in terms of gender roles. •Examples: •Who should sacrifice career for childcare?•Who should do chores and care for kids? •Who gets more leisure time?

Sanctions

reinforce norms through rewards and penalties. Vary with the importance of the norm. -Formal sanctions: rewards or punishments from recognized officials -Negative sanctions (penalties) and positive sanctions (rewards) -Informal sanctions: unofficial rewards or punishments like smiles and frowns

Agency (micro) - structure (macro)

relationship studied in europe. Individual agents are seen as enmeshed in macro level social and cultural structures that they create and by which they are constrained. Erving Goffman called individuals dangerous giants. They have potential to disrupt and destroy the structures in which they find themselves. Agents often do not realize the power they possess

criticisms of sociology

repetition of common sense? aren't human beings fully rational creatures?

theory

sets of interrelated ideas that have a wide range of applications(economy organizations, religion, society as a whole, and even the globe), deal with centrally important issues, and have stood the test of time (continue to be applicable and have withstood challenges). Grand theories are broad and general, less focused on the data.

rationalization (Weber)

shift in values towards calculability, efficiency and abstract rules

*Human capital

skills, knowledge, training, education, experience, etc

*sociological imagination

the ability to understand the relationship between individual lives and the social forces that shape them. A quality of mind, not a technical feat •The creative ability to adopt different perspectives •Empathy

Mills - "the promise"

(Emphasizes the link between the biographical and historical circumstances that impact a person's social situation, circumstances, decisions, and opportunities) -We can understand sources and solutions of social problems by differentiating personal and public issues. -Men often feel trapped within private lives. Their lives are full of traps. -Underlying this sense of being trapped are seemingly impersonal changes in the very structure of continent wide societies. -Men usually do not define the troubles they endure in terms of historical change and institutional contradiction. They do not understand the connection of biography and history -The shaping of history now outpaces the ability of men to orient themselves in accordance with cherished values -What they need is a quality of mind that will help them to use information and to develop reason in order to achieve lucid summations of what is going on in the world and of what may be happening within themselves. This is sociological imagination. It enables them to understand the larger historical scene in terms of its meaning for the inner life and the external career of a variety of individuals. -Sociological imagination enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society. -Troubles occur within the character of the individual and within the range of his immediate relations with others. A trouble is a private matter -Issues have to do with matters that transcend these local environments of the individual and the range of his inner life. An issues is a public matter

horizontal segregation

*gender segregation between occupations.

Romero - "An Intersection of Biography and History"

-Talks about visiting her colleague's house. Live in maid was only 16 and mistreated/harassed by the family. She felt lonely. The employer did not see his faults. People who hire them think they are helping. -She cleaned houses when she was younger with her mother but was not live in. Junaita has no distinction between work and community life. -Talks about history of them being silent. They do not even show up as records as employees. They were just something that came with their husbands. They have always been silent. -Stigma around being a maid -The job is underrepresented in census estimates. May just be cash between two people. -Paradox: one one hand, cleaning houses is degrading and embarrassing; on the other, domestic service can be higher paying, more autonomous, and less dehumanizing than other low status, low skilled occupations. -Domestic service must be studied because it raises a challenge to any feminist notion of sisterhood. Middle class working women escape these chores at the expense of working class women (often women of color) which are considered beneath them.

Occupational Gender Segregation

1. Occupations tend to be stereotyped as either men or women's world (*"gender typing") *horizontal segregation: gender segregation between occupations. 2. Female-typed jobs tend to pay less than male-typed jobs As jobs become feminized, the wages go down. Changing gender typer jobs, requires increasing the number of female applicants in the job pipeline Changing gender typed jobs mean changing the pipeline, increasing women applicants. Criticisms to this being "natural": If it wasn't about gender then why is there the difference in pay for them. Also, choosing a major is of course a choice that we usually make freely but the emphasizing choice is problematic because it suggests that the options have always been equal. One strategy women have used to combat discrimination is to overestimate in education to use that credential as a tool.

responses to criticisms

1. what it means to be rational depends on social context -We make choices in social structures we do not control. Sociology analyzes the context (social structure) and the decision. -Your ability to maximize utility is dependent on the range of choices before you. 2. Common sense relies on implicit knowledge/ informal rules of social interaction -We rely on taken for granted assumptions and informal rules. -Only when they are violated do we see them as rules with moral implications. 3. we inhabit multiple, restricted social milleus (an environment or setting) -We each live in particular sectors of society with different expectations of behavior. -White men see the world as less risky than other demographic groups. . People who experience discrimination see the world as more risky. -people in power get to decide what is rational and irrational (should be regulated) definitional struggles

what is the value of a sociological perspective according to professor conti?

1.Placing human choices in their social contexts and by understanding the relationship between agency and social structure 2.A sociological perspective exposes society for how it really works. 3.Illuminating the varieties of social life 4.Alternative possibilities A creative act of switching positions. They need to have a sort of empathy for the research subjects. A refusal to reduce people to their social location, we are going to see them in their full humanness and see where they are situated.

Weber - "The Bureaucratic Machine"

6 characteristics of bureaucracy: 1.Hierarchical organization (People at the top have the power, one can work their way up) 2. Delineated lines of authority with fixed areas of activity 3. Action taken on the basis of and recorded in written rules 4. Bureaucratic officials with expert training 5. Rules implemented by neutral officials (More of a neutral relationship between working people not family ties) 6. And careers advancement depending on technical qualifications judged by organization not individuals (They advance based on a new value system) -Bureaucratic organization has usually come into power on the basis of a leveling of economic and social differences. -Democracy includes 1) prevention of the development of a closed stratus group of officials in the interest of universal accessibility of office and 2) minimization of the authority of officialdom in the interest of expanding the sphere of influence of public opinion as far as practical. Democracy comes into conflict with the bureaucratic tendencies. -When fully established hard to destroy. -A form of power relation is established that is practically non shareable -individual bureaucrat is a cog in the machine. They have a common interest in seeing that the mechanism continues its functions. -The ruled cannot dispense with or replace the bureaucratic apparatus of authority once it exists. It rests upon expert training. -e and more the material fate of the mass depends upon the steady and correct functioning of the increasingly bureaucratic organizations of private capitalism. -The mechanism is made to work for anybody who knows how to gain control over it. Continues to function smoothly after the enemy has occupied the area. -Makes revolution in the sense of forceful creation of entirely new formations of authority technically more and more impossible. This process substituted coups de etrat for revolutions

Norms

: rules of behavior shared by members of a society and rooted in its value system, They specify what people should do and say what is expected behavior in different roles, groups and organizations. -Folkways: customs or desirable behaviors but are not strictly enforced. Violation causes people to think you are weird but not immoral or criminal Mores: norms that most members observe because they have great moral significance in a society. Conforming to them is a matter of right or wrong, violations are serious. Those who deviate are criminal or immoral. Taboos: the strongest kind of mores. They concern actions considered unthinkable or unspeakable in the culture. Important to a group because they provide guidelines of right and wrong. Behaviors that are taboo in one situation may be acceptable in another time or place.

*Stratification

A hierarchical ranking of people on the basis of some social difference. 1. People who share a common characteristic, but do not constitute a social group 2.Life experiences and opportunities depend on place in hierarchical ranking. 3.Tend to be very stable and change only slowly over time.

Marx - "Manifesto of the Communist Party"

All of history is class struggles. We almost always find a complicated arrangement of society into various orders society is more and more splitting up into two camps: the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat. Modern industry developed fast and in the same proportion the bourgeoisie developed, increased its capital, and pushed into the background every class handed down from the Middle Ages. Modern bourgeoisie is the product of a long course of development, of a series of revolutions in the modes of production and exchange. The modern State is a committee for the managing of the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie. Wherever it has the upper hand it has put an end to all feudal, patriarchal, idyllic relations. In place of the old local and national seclusion and self sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal interdependence of nations. Draws all, even the most barbarian nations into civilization. It has increased the urban population. They are like a sorcerer no longer able to control the powers of the nether world whom has called up by his spells. There are crises. need ever expanding markets The bourgeoisie created the proletariat, the modern working class. These labourers who must sell themselves piecemeal, are a commodity Machine work of the proletariat has no charm and character. He is an appendage of the machine. As the repulsiveness of the work increase, the wage decreases Workers are slaves to the bourgeois class, Stater, the machine, by the overlooker, and the individual bourgeois manufacturer himself. . The less skill and strength with manual labor, men are no longer the whole picture. Women are used. Age and sex do not matter, some may be cheaper

Analysis

How do the findings speak to your question? consider design limitations Inductive: to logically extrapolate or generalize from specific findings to general theory.

*Glass ceiling

Barriers to upward mobility for women Vertical segregation: a type of gender segregation in which one gender is concentrated at lower levels of occupational hierarchy in terms of status and pay Results from differentials and unequal opportunities in hiring, training, and promotion. Hierarchies within fields, not related to human capital. Tends to happen in pipelines that take a while to be promoted to the top. Women are more likely to have setbacks in their careers. Women tend to lose out by this when the top positions are already men. They lose the ability to build these relationships.

*social integration

Comte Concerned about the chaos released by French Revolution Primary theme of early sociology. The problem of integration, what holds society together to have an orderly life not devolving into chaos.

Positivist tradition in Sociology

Comte coined "positivism" = the degree to which a phenomena can be exactly determined •Explain and predict; to derive general tendencies of social life; causal relationships •Social life is measurable •Associated with quantitative data sets and statistical methods. •(though not all quantitative work operates from a positivist paradigm)

formulate a hypothesis

Deductive: to logically derive - or "deduce" - from established knowledge Not just a description, but an analysis of what people said. Use your power of reason to deduce prior research to your question. Hypothesis is what do you expect about the relationship between variables Hypothesis is either rejected or not. If the hypothesis is vague it is harder to tell if it is rejected or confirme

*Audit Studies

Fictitious individuals made to be identical. Identical resumes with human capital but distinguished based on the gender (or race). Sometimes it is done in person. Women getting less job offers than men is considered discrimination. Restaurant Audit: •Method: •Male and Female applicants with identical resumes •65 restaurants in Philadelphia, categorized as high, medium and low price •Key Findings: •At high priced restaurants: 11/13 offers made to men •Low priced restaurants: 8/10 offers made to women Vertically segregated occupation. You earn more at an expensive restaurant. This shows how a wage gap emerges. The gap is higher among high paid than low paid jobs. In the 90th percentile of earners, women make 77% of what women do. In the 10th percentile the gap is smaller by 10%

social distance

Forks crate social distance 1. Limited actual physical contact between people, such as shared saliva on food or on a spoon (physical distance) 2. Use of utensils became a mark of distinction placing a person either in the category of civilized, courtly, and respectable, or lowly, uncouth, and foul. (social distance) -during a time of rise of money economy and bourgeoise and courtly life that brought aristocracy and them together (bourgeoisie needed because did not have traditional status)

*gender socialization and how Messner explains how children learn gender roles

Gender differences are constructed •Overlapping "levels" of gendered practices: •Interactional (The interactions of the kids, parents, and coaches where gender is performed. Interactions around barbie and sea monsters.) •Structural (The systems that produce the athletes and coaches. Pipeline is the structure and it decides who is let in and who goes out. Most men are coaches and women managers. What they were exposed to as children.) •Cultural (Symbols and meanings. Here the embodiment of femininity that is captured through barbie. Maybe the masculinity of sea sunset. Analytic distinctions. Out in the world these all overlap.) **Each level reinforces gender roles -Gender roles are learned through interactions, but this is reinforced by the hierarchies among parents and the structural level that diminish opportunities for women. Each level is infused with symbols of difference (this is the culture part)

Doing Gender

Gender is something people do in their social interactions

The enlightenment contributed the birth of sociology by

Generating profound social changes Fostering new, secular theories about the relationship between people Applying the scientific method to history and society -Gave people a sense of power in creating their own life and fate. The rise of political liberalism as well as other isms. The idea that people have rights that cannot be abridged by anyone. -We begin to study history as driven by humans.

*Race

Group membership based on certain characteristics that have been assigned social importance A cultural meaning system: there are no biologically distinct races "Symbolic category" (Desmond and Emirbayer) -(Race does not refer to some preexisting categorization in nature. The categories of race are what makes it real. Certain aspects of phenotype and ancestry are assigned status) Racial Project: creation/use of racial categories to redistribute resources and status (Omi and Winant) "Race is a social construct, not a scientific classification." This is a social constructionist definition of race, this is how we see it in sociology.

Marx vs. Weber vs. Durkheim

Marx and weber had generally positive sense of people as thoughtful, creative, and naturally social. They criticized structures for stifling and distorting people's innate characteristics. Durkheim had a generally negative view of people as being slaves to their passions. They need social facts that are capable of limiting and controlling their passions.

House Cleaning

Men are doing more overtime, a small positive trend line, but men do considerably less. Men tend to do specific kinds of chores, less intensive and less regular tasks. They will shovel, mow, fix appliances, but tend not to feed kinds, make lunches, get them out of bed. There is also just less housework, houses are dirtier.

Leisure time

Men enjoy more leisure time than women. About 40 minutes more per day than women. 6 weeks extra per year of leisure than women.

Housework

Men have taken on modestly more amounts of domestic labor Women still do carry the larger burden.

Four Key Values in the Scientific Method

Method •Reality is "out there" to be discovered; •Direct observation is the way to discover it; •Material explanations for observable phenomena are sufficient (empirical methods) *Strives for objectivity -We are supposed to be neutral analysts. -sociology is about people, the drawback of value free social science is it requires us to take a position that all social arrangements are morally equal. there is bias involved *Reliable -if others tried to reenact our research they would replicate the findings. cannot manipulate data. *Transparent -We have to do research in a way it can be described to others so they can evaluate it. Organized skepticism, others review it. It has to be clear enough so others can review findings.

How norms are enforced

Norms tend to be informal. They are not written down but we tend to know them. We enforce these rules on ourselves. The next level is friends and family who you would ask permission to break the rules. Context: we are all rule breakers and rule enforcers. You might eat differently if at a fancy restaurant, with grandparents, potential employer, a date (pressure to follow norms is stronger) vs. alone or with buddies.

Shortcomings of Positivism

Not all relevant features of social life are measurable •Assumes that individual behavior is determined by social structure --> "Oversocialized" •Society is always changing •Society is reflexive •Starting assumptions about the "definition of the situation"

*Resistant Institutions

Obstacles to egalitarian gender relationships •Examples: •Career success tied to full-time work. •End of "family wage" •Privatized child care (Economy is a resistant institution. Makes gender inequality more likely than less) All these trends are indicative of the end of the family wage. Members of a household have to devise answers how to figure this out, this normally has gendered answers. The woman is going to take on the task. Makes egalitarian roles at family difficult. Resistant institutions make this difficult.

why leave work?

Overall, 37% of women left work voluntarily compared to 24% of men Men do not leave work for domestic reasons but women do On average women lose 18% of earning power when leaving the market; 28% in business sector If the man were thinking of taking care of the kids, it may not make economic sense. Gender inequality in the labor market is reinforced through how houses make decisions. It does so in ways that do not register in discrimination in studies thar we use. Therefore could discrimination play a larger role? A way in which gender inequality manifests in the labor market, is a ratinonal choice and does not appear discrimination.

Industrial Revolution

Peasants kicked off common grounds, enclosure movement. This contributes to industrialization. They have displaced a massive population and are creAting factories. Urbanization. Growing importance of industry. bad sanitization industrial society: Urbanization Creation of an under class and a working class Social ills in urban areas eg pollution, destitutions, moral "vices" Changes in family and other social relations Rise of large industrial firms Consolidation of the modern state.

The social construction of reality.

People at the agency end of the continuum are seen as creating social realities, basically macro level phenomena, through their thoughts and actions. That reality then comes to have a life of its own. They constrain and even control what people do

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Rationalization: shift in values towards calculability, efficiency and abstract rules -Weber's description of what happens from traditional to modern life. Rationalization of the state, law capitalism. Mcdonaldization: takes rationalization in a modern context. Rationalization most seen in bureaucracies. •Modern law •Bureaucracy -University, school, state, organization, fraternities. Any social context has been bureaucratized to some extent. The world is disenchanted. Rationalization displaces tradition, myth, custom, callings, vocations. These are replaced with bureaucratic rules. •"the Iron cage" -saw rationalization as leading to an iron cage of rationalized systems making it increasingly difficult for people to escape the proces. -Calvinism said economic success is a sign of salvation. That notion that wealth and success is a sign of salvation is secularized. Becomes seen as a general orientation to life. What is religious is rationalized and stripped of its original purpose. Marx: religious belief is epiphenomena. Weber finds religion is sociologically important.

norms

Rules of behavior which reflect or embody a culture's values, either prescribing a given type of behavior, or forbidding it. Norms are always backed by sanctions. Sanctions might be formal or informal come from social changes, competing social groups

great transformation

Secularization and a diminution of religious authority •New institutions (i.e. the firm, the factory and the modern state) •Industrial capitalism •Urbanization •New world views •New social problems •and more . . . In response to these changes, sociologists develop a science of society.

*Theory

Social scientific theory tells the researcher what to look for and what concepts or variables need to be measured. Research methods are the procedures used to gather data are most relevant. If a theory is not supported by the data it has to be reformulated or discarded Theory and research are mutually dependent. Sociological research starts with general theories which offers big picture ideas

Historical Context of the Origins of Sociology

Sociology arises with the development of modernity 1500-1800s: rapid social change inaugurating modernity. These changes are built upon: The enlightenment (Scientific revolution) Industrial revolution French revolution Sociology was born of the attempt to understand this transformation and the new societies that emerged from it with the tools of science

Messner- "Barbie Girls vs. Sea Monsters"

The interactional level: how do children do gender and what are the contributions and limits of theories of performativity in understanding these interactions? The level of structural context: how does the gender regime, particularly the larger organizational level of formal sex segregation of AYSO, and the concrete, momentary situation of the opening ceremony provide a context that variously constrains and enables the children's interactions? The level of cultural symbol: how does the children's sheared immersion in popular culture (and their differently gendered locations in this immersion) provide symbolic resources for the creation, in this situation of apparently categorical differences between boys and girls? The sea monsters are boys and have a nice banner they are proud of. The barbie girls have a big barbie float that plays barbie music. The girls all dance and sing to the music. The boys, as individuals, seem entertained by the float. When they realize they are all looking they get angry and chant "NO BARBIE" the girls do not notice until the boys invade their space. Some girls shrink away some chase the boys away. The parents are all talking about how different they are. In this scene we see children performing gender in ways that constitute themselves as two separate, opposed groups (boys vs girls) and parents performing gender in ways that give the stamp of adult approval to the children's performances ofd difference, while constructing their own ideological narrative that naturalizes this categorical difference In sociology accounts, gender is viewed as enacted or created through everyday interactions, but crucially within specific historical, social, and political configurations that constrain or enable certain interactions. Adult divisions of labor and power -team mom/manager vs coaches based on own training The children: formal sex segregation -As adult authority patterns are informally structured along gendered lines, the children's leagues are formally segregated by AYSO along lines of age and sex with boys and girls teams. -It was once co-ed but AYSO decided to segregate because at half times boys and girls would separate anyway so this was better for team unity. -The formal and informal gender regime of AYSO made the soccer moment possible but it did not make it inevitable. It was the agency of the children and parents within the system that made it happen. The culture of gender -The team colors and names (cultural symbols) seem to follow from and reinforce the sex segregation of the leagues (social structure) team names -Recent readings should warn us against simplistic readings of Barbie as symply converting hegemonic messages about gender to unwitting children. Necessity in also examoong reception, pleasure, and agency and especially fullness of reception contexts. -To second wave feminists barbie is all that is oppressive about femininity. -Generational girl power may today be part of the pleasures of girl culture that barbie stands for. The Barbie Girls rallied around Barbie, their pleasure did not appear to be based on a celebration of quiet passivity. -By kindergarten, through policing or advertising, boys usually learn barbie is not for them. Their desire for barbie, to avoid ridicule, may turn to denial and oppositional/pollution discourse and/or through sublimation of their desire for barbie into play with male appropriate action figures. Fantasy for boys goes along the lines of violence is ok as long as it is good vs evil. Warrior narratives. -In contrast to the "rational/professional" masculinity constructed in schools, the institutions of sport historically construct hegemonic masculinity as a bodily superiority over femininity and non athletic masculinities. Warrior narratives are publicly celebrated. -Competition/ us vs them narrative takes longer to develop for girls, hence the change to power names at 10. -The boys and girls precious immersion in differently defined cultural experiences shaped the likelihood that they would derive and construct different meanings from Barbie (girl power vs feminine pollution) In this moment, the performance of gendered boundaries and the construction of boys and girls groups as categorically different occurred in the context of a situation systematic ally structured by sex segregation, sparked by the imposing presence of a shared cultural symbol that is saturated with gendered meanings, and actively supported and applauded by adults who basked in the pleasure of difference, reaffirmed.

Ignatiev - "How the Irish Became White"

The irish who emigrated to the US in 18th and 19th centuries were fleeing caste oppression and a system of landlordism that made the material conditions of irish peasants comparable to american slaves. They came into a society in which color was important in determining social position. To enter white race was a strategy to secure an advantage in a competitive society. In becoming white they did not all become rich or middle class. In becoming white the irish ceased to be green. In 1841 60,000 irish issued an Address to their compatiros in america calling upon them to joining with the abolitionists in the struggle against slavery. heading the list of singers was Daniel O'Connell, the Liberator. When presented, Irish immigrants did not take it well. did not want to be called a distinct class from foreign influence. Ironic because they supported Repeal movement. The National Repeal Convention met and argued about if abolition should be part of the discussion. They decided the only purpose of the repeal association be help ireland regain home rule, and denying that there was any design or desire to interfere in any matter of religion, politics, or abolition connected with the social condition or governmental institutions of this country" White negroes and smoked irish Penal Laws regulated every aspect of Irisih life, civil, domestic, and spiritual. In effect they es tablished ireland as a country in which irish catholics formed an oppressed race Theodore Allen said national oppression rests on incorporating sections of the elite classes of the subject population into the ruling apparatus. Racial oppression rests on the support of the laboring classes of the oppressor group. 18th century ireland presents a classic case of racial oppression Then the british presented the Act of Union of 1800. It not only merged the two parliaments, it foreclosed the possibility of an independent irish economy. This was also the switch from racial to national oppression. Winning over the catholic bourgeoise. After the napoleonic wars many itrish needed to emigrate and america needed them. Made the unskilled labor force. The reason a population so varied in social class, religion, and language became the irish stereotype is in part because the change in character of immigration brought by the famine. Poorer than those who came before. The other part is the popular identification of Irish and catholci lies in the strange story of the so-called Scotch Irish. After the great influx of irish immigrants and the problems created by this sudden boiling over of the melting pot, the scotch irish insisted upon differentiating between the descendants of earlier immigrants from ireland and more recent arrivals. Thus as a portion of the irish diaspora became known as the irish, a racial (but not ethnic) line invented in Ireland was recreated as an ethnic (but not racial) line in america. The anglicized middle class spokesman was unwilling to admit language barriers and so the myth was born that they were native english speakers. Helped them make it more easily than other immigrant groups Coming as immigrants rather than as captives or hostages undoubtedly affected their potential racial status of the irish in america, but it did not settle the issue, since it was by no means obvious who was "white" they were often called early on "n words turned inside out" black people were called "smoked Irish.'' A forged piece of democratic campaign propaganda declared "there is the strongest reason for believing that the first movement toward amalgamation in this country will take place between the irish and the black people". Part of the effectiveness among the irish was how close it was to the truth. The more rish and blacks were lumped together the greater the hostility between them. Many pioneers of blackface minstrelsy were of irish descent, because they were in such interaction with them and came up with this distorted impression of black people.

*Gender socialization

The learning of gender roles through factors such as schooling, the media, and family Nature and nurture (biology and culture) - Children receive rewards when they behave correctly.

discrimination and the pay gap

The pay gap is declining over time. The gap when you account for human capital and race goes down. Comparing people of same human capital and race Then you look at men and women of the same race, same human capital, and same industry and occupation. Accounts for human capital and gender typed jobs. The part that is left over, is what is inferred to represent discrimnation, in this outdated measure is 9%. It could be other things that we do not have a theory for. The current data suggests that there is still an 8-9% gap.

Gerson - "Changing Lives, Resistant Institutions: a New Generation Negotiates Gender, Work, and Family Change"

The tensions between changing lives and resistant institutions have created personal dilemmas for women and men alike. Even though children increasingly depend on their mother's earnings, women remain primarily responsible for caretaking. And however many men would like to be involved fathers, their success in the job market remains the prime measure of their ''marriageability'' and social status. Members of this generation are ''children of the gender revolution'' in two senses. They grew up watching their parents cope with new family forms, unexpected economic insecurities, and expanding options for women. Facing dilemmas about whether and how to craft their own ties to partners, offspring, and jobs, they are also negotiating their own transition to adulthood. interviewed a carefully selected group of 18 to 32 year-old When married parents appeared to grow more distant and unhappy, children developed doubts about the wisdom of sticking it out. When divorced parents were able to get back on their feet and create a better life, children developed a positive outlook on the decision to separate. Even when children did not experience a clear change in the composition of their household, such as a parental breakup, most recalled living in different ''families'' as their parents' relationships, economic circumstances, and job statuses shifted over time, thus expanding or eroding their sense of support. Gender flexibility helped households meet children's financial and emotional needs, while gender inflexibility left them ill-prepared to cope with unpredictable economic squeezes and declining parental morale. Whether the problem was a marital impasse, a problematic parental breakup, or a smaller care network, when rigid gender boundaries prevented mothers from taking jobs or fathers and others from becoming or remaining involved caretakers, declining family support followed. Whether reared by traditional, dual-earning, or single parents, the overwhelming majority of men as well women want to forge a committed bond where both partners share paid work and family caretaking flexibly and equally. Yet they are also worried that seemingly insurmountable obstacles block the path to integrating work and family life in an egalitarian way. almost three-quarters of the women are preparing to fall back on ''self-reliance.'' They see work as essential to their survival and marriage as an appropriate option only if and when they can find the right partner Men, however, worry that equal parenting will cost them at work, which they believe must remain their first priority. Seventy percent of men are planning to fall back on a neo traditional arrangement that leaves room for their partner to work but reserves the status of primary breadwinner for themselves. The combination of an ''ideal worker'' paradigm that leaves little time for caretaking and an ''intensive parenting'' paradigm that relies on privatized care creates obstacles for everyone. Facing these barriers, women and men are formulating fall-back strategies that are not just different, but conflicting. these children of the gender revolution seek to personally craft their own careers, to transcend the spatial and temporal boundaries between home and the workplace, to redefine the meaning of an ideal parent and an ideal partner, and to reject rigid judgments about ''better'' and ''worse'' family forms Their experiences and worldviews also provide telling lessons about how to transcend the growing impasse between changing lives and resistant institutions. Families as pathways Gender flexibility as the key to family resilience Social change as a clash between changing lives and resistant institutions *How can we transcend the impasse between resistant institutions and changing lives? The best hope lies in creating social institutions that allow new generations to create the work lives and families they want rather than those for which they fear they must settle. Gender flexibility needs to be a centerpiece of collective efforts to restructure work and caretaking. Not only do most young adults want to create flexible, egalitarian partnerships, but a mother's earnings and a father's involvement are both increasingly integral to the economic and emotional welfare of children. We can thus achieve the best family values by creating flexible workplaces, providing equal economic opportunity for women, outlawing discrimination against all parents, and building child-friendly communities with plentiful, affordable, and high-quality care

Durkheim - "what makes sociology different?"

These facts consist of manners of acting, thinking and feeling external to the individual, which are invested with a coercive power by virtue of which they control him. They have meaning outside the individual consciousness. This is what makes them social. Some are not well defined social organizations. These are social "currents." In a great public gathering the great waves of enthusiasm, indignation, and pit that are produced have their seat in no one individual consciousness. They come to each one of us from outside and can sweep us along in spite of ourselves. We think we produce the sentiment alone. The impression we have experienced though is utterly different from what we would have felt if we could have been alone. Children are educated and taught manners so he acts differently than he naturally would. If the constraint is not felt as time passes it is because habits are produced. The pressure to which the child is subjected unremittingly is the same pressure of the social environment which seeks to shape him in its own image, and in what parents and teachers are only the representatives and intermediaries. Collective custom does not exist only in a state of immanence in the successive actions which it determines. It expresses itself once and for all in word of mouth, education and written word Social fact exist separately from its individual effects looking at statistics can show overall trends which cancel out maybe the personal circumstances which may have been involved. A social fact is any way of acting, whether fixed or not, capable of exerting over the individual an external constraint, or Which is general over the whole of a given society whilst having an existence of its own, independent of its individual manifestations.

The family ideals and fallback positions of young men and women

Three different models of family relations: neotraditional (intimitte bond, but a lot of specialization). Egalitarian (lasting bond, commitment to egalitarian sharing), self reliant (regardless of in a partnership or not it is important to be self reliant. People's first choices are similar. Most chose egalitarian model as their ideal Their fallback ideal was different. We live with resisten institutions so you do not get first choice Women's fallback was the self reliant ideal Men's ideal was the neo traditional ideal

Desmond and Emirbayer - "What is Racial Domination?

To say that race is a social construction, does not mean that race is not real. Many people believe in the existence of discrete biological racial categories. You are not born with race, it is born into you. Race: symbolic category, based on phenotype or ancestry and constructed according to specific social and historical contexts, that is misrecognized as a natural category. A symbolic category belongs to the realm of idea, meaning making, and language. Mark differences between grouped people or things. In doing so they actually bring those people or things into existence. . Structuralist accounts often treat race as something given and accepted - that is a "real" label that attaches itself to people or as an imposed category that forms racial identity and thereby overlook how actors create, reproduce and resist, systems of racial classification. Phenotype is physical appearance. Ancestry is family lineage. Recent immigrants often are pigeonholed in one of the dominant racial categories because of their phenotype Racial categories are place specific and time specific. Whiteness and blackness were created as antipodes within the context of slavery. Mexican american was invented within the context of the colonization of mexico. Asian American was invented in response to immigration from the far east. Divide the world along arbitrary lines and make us believe that there is nothing at all arbitrary about the division, Race is a well founded fiction Ethnicity is a shared lifestyle informed by cultural, historical, religious, and/or national affiliations. Nationality is equated with citizenship, membership in a specific politically delineated territory controlled by a government. Non whites may perform ethnicity in order to resist certain racial classifications(afican migrants talking with accent to not be considered african american). May do the opposite and cleanse themselves as ethnic markers. The system classified europeans as nationalities and assigned quotas in a hierarchy of desirability. Non whites were either denied entry or were associated with illegal immigration and harsh polices. Members of the colored races were deemed bereft of a country of origin. Five fallacies about racism: 1) individualistic fallacy - racism is assumed to belong to the realm of ideas and prejudices. Racism is only the collection of nasty thoughts that a racist individual has about another group. Racists and non racists. Ignores more systematic and structural forms of racism within institutions. Racism is often habitual, unintentional, commonplace, polite, implicit and well meaning 2) legalistic fallacy - conflates de jure legal progress with de facto racial progress. Assumes that abolishing racist laws automatically leads to the abolition of racism in practice. School segregation is illegal and yet schools are highly segregated. 3) tokenistic fallacy - assumes the presence of people of color in influential positions is evidence of the eradication of racial obstacles 4) ahistorical fallacy - renders history impotent. US history - namely when US did not extend basic rights to POC - is inconsequential today, Today's society is directed, constructed, and molded by the past. 5) fixed fallacy - assume racism is fixed - immutable, constant across time and space. They say racism does not develop, since they define racism as only violence, they say things have gotten better. Racial domination Institutional racism - systematic White domination of people of color, embedded and operating in corporations, universities, legal systems, political bodies, cultural life, and other social collectives. Word domination reminds us institutional racism encompasses symbolic power (one groups as normal and one abnormal), political power (withhold basic rights, enforce inequality), social power (deny people of color full inclusion or membership in associational life), and economic power (job placement advancement, wealth, and property accumulation). Interpersonal racism - racial domination manifest in everyday interactions and practices. Interpersonal racism can be overtly however, most of the time, interpersonal racism is quite covert: it is found in the habitual, commonsensical, ordinary practices of our lives. Since we are disposed to a world structured by racial domination, we develop racialized dispositions - some conscious, many more unconscious and somatic - that guides our thoughts and behaviors. Informed by institutional racism. Racial essentialism boiled down vastly different human experiences into a single master category of race. Intersectionality looks at how overlapping systems of disadvantage and advantage affect individuals' opportunity structures, lifestyles, and social relationships. if we focus strictly on race and ignore other sources of social inequality (such as class and gender), not only will we be deaf to the unique experiences of certain members of society but we will also fundamentally misunderstand our object of analysis: race itself.

Identify a question or problem

Topic statement - a description of domains of inquiry. Often link more or one things together: the relationship between aspects of the social world.

historical trends with forks and spitting

Towards more complex rules and regulation of the body Stronger distinction between public and private behavior -Stronger rules over time. Used to be simple and undifferentiated (applied to all statuses). Over time as they become more complex they apply more to position and context. Different public and private rules. private rules. Self discipline: internalization of rules We often enforce them on ourselves, we have the disposition to feel embarrassed if we do something different. When they become internalized they do not have to be in books, Why did these changes occur? We often enforce then on ourselves, we have the disposition to feel embarrassed if we do something different.

childcare

Women's domestic labor has declined modestly overall, while simultaneously joining the paid labor force Between 1966 and 1965, women started doing less and men started doing a little more. After 1985, women and men are doing more. Specialized division of labor blurring. More hours per week of childcare. Modest increase in men in domestic work, and sizable decrease in women doing domestic work.

*Literature Review

You are asking what do we know about this problem, what is the body of evidence we already have. When doing this you have to look at research addressing your specific question and research with analogous questions. Allows us to have expectations to the answer of our question Integrate these bodies of research that had previously not been connected Not just a description, but an analysis of what people said.

Research design

You have to select a research design. Your choice of method depends on the type of question and the type of relationship you are talking about. qualitative research best with interviews or observations quantitative best with questionnaires and surveys. has to be experimental if you want to make causal claim.

*gender

a social distinction between roles and expectations linked to sex. the social transformation of a biological difference, sex, into a social difference and ascribed status.

*vertical segregation

a type of gender segregation in which one gender is concentrated at lower levels of occupational hierarchy in terms of status and pay Results from differentials and unequal opportunities in hiring, training, and promotion.

Auguste Comte

invented the term sociology and argued it should be a science. Social structures are enduring and regular social arrangements, such as the family and the state. They change very slowly. Social processes are the dynamic and ever changing aspects of the social world. Mall is a structure and the shopping there is a process.

*Second shift

•"Second shift": unpaid domestic work, such as child care, cooking and cleaning. •Who does the second shift is a result of the interaction of institutions outside the home and gender strategies -results from interaction of resistant institutions and gender strategies.

Gender discrimination

•"Sex" discrimination is illegal •Discrimination continues particularly in contexts where it is difficult to monitor (i.e. in hiring and promotion decisions) •Two ways of detecting private discrimination: (•Audit studies •Statistical controls)

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

•Capitalism -Integration was not the problem for him. Interested in the conflict paradigm o History progresses through power struggles between classes over material resources. •Historical Materialism: a science of history focused on economic relationships: (•Class struggle) -Argues the fundamental motors of historical change are economic relationships. Things like religion or law are epiphenomenal of economic relations. They serve to distract an alienated working class. Prevents them from understanding their role in history. -Industrial factory is the core of modern life. Allows a relatively small class of capitalists to extract the profits out of the labor class. -Rather than seeking new ways of social integration through institutions (Comte and Durkheim), Mark theorizes revolution in the stepping stone of a perfected society. -Contradictions sewn into capitalist society is what breeds revolution. The key contradiction si the logic of capitalism, the pursuit of profit leads to a super elite wealthy class but also a massive industrialized exploited workers with the power to overthrow the system. Society does not function as a harmonious whole, it is possible to fall at any time because of contradictions •Radical social change through informed social action proletariate suffers false consciousness but could get class consciousness

Why evaluate Census categories?

•Census categories influence how others perceive and understand race. •Other social institutions (eg. schools) develop or change in response to official racial categories, making these categories more meaningful for daily life. •Official categories provide indicators of racial formations and how they change over time. A socio political concern for the purity of the white race. Seen by ever finer distinctions FOR what is white and what is not. In the closer period, the growing self awareness of people as mixed race forces a change in the census. A big group of the population defies discrete categorization. 1. with introduction of mulatto, white is maintained as a pure category. 2. 1890: White, black, mulatto, quadroon, octoroon, chinese, japanese, or indian (Initial effort to try to fit categories to a world when there are a lot of interacial children. Want to put them in neat boxes. This preoccupation is related to the political climate in the reconstruction period. There was concern about white purity.) 3. 1930: Black and white are distinct racial categories gotten rid of the idea of multiraciality. One drop rule prevails. 1989: Separates race from ethnicity 4. 2000 and 2010: First time people could indicate they are part of more than one racial or ethnic group.

Trends in Inter-racial marriage

•Changing demographics of marriage and children, as well as recognition of the long history of inter-racial unions, affected census categories •1967: Loving v. West Virginia finds miscegenation laws unconstitutional Share of whites that marry someone of a different race is comparatively low, but increasing over time Interracial marriage is nothing new but just recently reflected in census

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

•Coined "Sociology" •Positivism: scientific knowledge and evidence as basis of true knowledge (A strict positivist would seek to find general rules of society that cross social context and persist over time. Stable, universal rules. Sociological equivalent to laws of gravity.) •An "organicist": viewed society as a biological organism (Central to what is later seen as structural functionalism. A paradigm concerned with how institutions contribute to the operation of society as a whole. Society is an integrated totality, everything that exists within it has a function to perpetuate the existence of society. Then the purpose of society is discerning what those functions are.) •The problem of social integration Concerned about the chaos released by French Revolution Primary theme of early sociology. The problem of integration, what holds society together to have an orderly life not devolving into chaos.

Susie Guillory Phipps

•Considered "colored" by the State of Louisiana based on state law defining that category for anyone with 1/32 of Black ancestry .•She sued to be considered white and lost (1983)9

Institution of Female Domesticity and its Decline (The relationship between home and work)

•Decline of traditional marriage (ie. married couples where the woman was restricted to domestic work (Increasingly necessary for women to have human capital. The stability of marriage is not the same, they need to be economically independent. More divorce) •Expansion of paid work opportunities (More viable alternatives from taking on that domestic gender role.) •Decline of the family Wage (Even in households with stable marriages there is economic pressure for both heads of household to work. The median income household has stayed the same because of women entering otherwise it would have declined. affected well to do families more) •Decline of cultural Sexism (It is partial and incomplete, but sexist behavior and attitudes are increasingly called out. Images of women as role models in traditionally male roles have become more common. Less prevalent, but more images of men in female roles. Men as a father is no longer a strange idea.)

french revolution

•Demonstration of the mutability of society and the potential for intended social change •Elimination of traditional social organization, such as the monarchy and traditional aristocratic privilege. •Embrace of liberal philosophy and democratic ideals, but also a diversity of thought Guillotine- a social leveling technology. A force of equality. Under the old regime you could use your wealth to pay off the executioner to use a sharp ax. Represents the values: liberty, equality, fraternity, brotherhood The birth of a democracy and an embrace of reason and science.

*Strengths and Weaknesses of Audit Studies

•Detailed insight in hiring practices in a specific industry, place and time •Does not tell us about economy-wide tendencies (•This requires the use of statistics to "control" for sources of variation in wages for men and women.) (Control for educational attainment, experience on the job, etc. Accounts for how much variation in the outcome is explained by the independent variable.)

*Ethnicity

•Ethnicity: cultural values, norms, and practices that distinguish one group from another •In short: •Ethnicity: cultural practices •Race: perceived biological difference •BUT . . . the difference can be unclear and categorization of groups may, over time, change from one to the other. Tightly coupled for non whites. Ethnic dynamics are treated as racial for non whites. For whites, ethnicities is a way of distinguishing.

Human Capital Theories

•Human capital = skills, knowledge, training, education, experience, etc .•Greater dedication to home than work => lower incentives to invest in human capital => lower returns on the job market BUT: •Even when human capital is the same, men do better women tend to choose jobs that require less human capital because they may stop participation at some time. However, this has diminished more over time. Leads us to expect the wage gap will shrink over time with more participation Does Not provide leverage in understanding the types of jobs available to women, how they are created, how they are paid. Why do men's jobs have higher pay when they have similar human capital. In 2001, women with a doctorate earned 75% of what a man with identical educational attainment earned. (human capital is not the whole picture)

*Summary: What Explains the Gender Pay Gap?

•Human capital differences explain some. Over time, human capital explains less of the gap. •Occupational gender segregation explains more •Discrimination is difficult to detect, but likely explains ~10% of the gap (in 1998)

From Race to Ethnicity

•In Ireland: •Oppression of Catholics •Act of Union (of British and Irish Parliaments) secures British direct rule over Ireland •An alliance between Repeal movement in Ireland and Abolitionist in the US? Both shared a demand for freedom . . . •In the United States: •Economic competition •The politics of slavery and abolition •"The color line" The pressure to assimilate, defined by the color line of racial segregation, alligned the irish with the anti abolitionists. The irony is the irish fighting for their own freedom in Ireland switched up in the US. began with the oppression of catholics in (classic case of racial oppression, relied on a distinction perceived as a central identity). The irish Catholics were an all encompassing social identity. Then they migrate to the US, and the immigrants often settle in areas already inhabited by blacks. They joined at the lowest rung of the class system. At that point, the life of an irish immigrant was similar to the free blacks they lived among. Discussion of intermarriage, equating of irish with blackness. In fact, the irish were considered black in racial terms. Competition with blacks leads them to align themself with anti abolition forces. Peak of irish immigration in mid 19th century, they also face a nativist movement by protestant anglo saxons. They wanted to restrain irish immigration. They got acceptance by proving they were brutal or more brutal in their oppression. The competition was not on a level playing field but bolstered by the color line. This defines american life. WEB Du Bois said the color line (lowliest whites have a higher status than most blacks). The racial segregation in the US is what brought the Irish up. race is a social classification system and is shaped through various racial projects. Their seeking of status, part of this is redefining the meaning of race. They are able to move from being a race to being a white ethnic.

How the Irish Became White

•Key argument: •"As the people who emigrated out of Ireland became known as "Irish" the racial (but not ethnic) line invented in Ireland was recreated as an ethnic (but not racial) line in America" Shows mutability but also focuses on whiteness as a racial category rather than a natural or default category. It is a social construction like any other Racial and ethnic categories are often defined by opposition to the "Lesser groups." in the US they crossed the color line by showing opposition to blacks, Racial project is defining what are the categories and who fits in them. Has to do with the allocation of resources so it is always political.

Emile Durkeim (1858-1917)

•Mechanical solidarity: collective conscience through undifferentiated roles -By solidarity he means the moral bonds that connect people into social groups. That feeling of belonging you might get in a sports team, family, church community. Being a member and part of a group. -This is the type of solidarity that prevailed in traditional society -Occurs in undifferentiated societies where people tend to have the same roles, little hierarchy, common moral universe (common conscience). •Organic Solidarity: specialized, interdependent roles -The type of solidarity in modern societies. Massive increase in the social division of labor, people have specialized roles in society. -. Creates a problem, the bonds of the collective conscience is weaker. -Society is held together by interdependency and not shared values. •Social Facts: the unique object of study for sociology (•1. external; 2. have "force;" 3. objective) -Argues the social fact is the unique empirical object for the science of sociology. Focus on objective features of human society not subjective features like beliefs or values. -outside of us, not a product or creation of the current generation, offer resistance to individual will, exert power over individuals beliefs, behavior, cannot be modified by individual actions alone They are objective and offer objective data. By studying social facts it can tell us about the moral bonds that hold society together. One cause of suicide was anomic suicide. Anomie is people feeling they do not know what is expected of them in society - feeling adrift in society without any clear or secure moorings. Risk increases when people do not know what is expected of them, when societies regulation over them is low, and when their passions are allowed to run wild. They need more collective consciousness.

*What explains the gender pay gap?

•Occupational Gender segregation (Gender-typed jobs (horizontal)•Glass ceiling (vertical)) •Human Capital •Discrimination

Portrait of Gender Inequality

•Power The degree to which women are in positions with power. This is getting better, but nowhere where it should be. Inertia and horizontal gender segregation (roles and jobs are gendered and segregated) keeps men in power. •Labor Force Participation Women are composing an increasing share of the paid labor force. 65% today are in the paid labor force. The increase in labor force participation in all is driven by increases for married women. The rise of two order households. The median household income has been stagnant for the past 40 years; this is only because of women's income. Male income has actually declined. The new norm is continued labor force participation even after married with short drops for chidbearing. •Occupational Structure and Earnings Women keeping the median household income afloat Percentage of married women who earn more than their husbands is growing. About 30% of women. 82% is the raw wage gap across all occupations. White women make more than black women.

Gender relations today

•Significant improvements in women's autonomy and equality •Yet, this transformation has stagnated •Gender inequality in the workplace is linked to gender strategies in the household • Most men and women would choose egalitarian households, but are blocked by resistant social institutions.

Racial categories over time

•The historical and continuing importance of skin color, usually dichotomized into white and non-white, in defining race and counting racial groups •A belief in 'pure' races that is reflected in a preoccupation with categorizing people into a single or 'pure' race. : •Proliferation of categories for non-white population to maintain the "color line" between white and other •The ambiguity of the distinction between race and ethnicity in census racial classifications (The belief in pure races has largely been accepted, the one drop rule has largely been taken for granted. In the recent acknowledgement of multinationality is a break from the past.)