Social Psych Test #3

Reciprocity:

We are generally more willing to comply with a request from someone who has previously provided a favor or concession to us than to someone who has not. In other words, we feel obligated to pay people back in some way for what they have done for us.

Groups:

read google doc.

Solomon Asch's experiment with line comparisons:

1.)Asch's classic research on impression formation indicates that impressions of others involve more than simple summaries of their traits. Some traits (central traits) can influence the interpretation of other traits. 2.)At the time Asch conducted his research, social psychologists were heavily influenced by the work of Gestalt psychologists, specialists in the field of perception. 3.)Asch applied these ideas to understanding impression formation, suggesting that we do not form impressions simply by adding together all of the traits we observe in other persons. Rather, we perceive these traits in relation to one another, so that the traits cease to exist individually and become, instead, part of an integrated, dynamic whole. To test these ideas, Asch came up with an ingenious approach. He gave individuals lists of traits supposedly possessed by a stranger, and then asked them to indicate their overall impressions of this person. For example, in one study, participants read one of the following two lists: intelligent—skillful—industrious—warm—determined—practical—cautious intelligent—skillful—industrious—cold—determined—practical—cautious

Explicit and implicit social norms and examples:

1.)Attitudes can be explicit—conscious and easy to report—or implicit—which implies they are potentially not consciously accessible. The Implicit Association Test is often used to assess whether the associations people have between a group or object are positive or negative. 2.)Regardless of whether social norms are explicit or implicit, formal or informal, though, one fact is clear: Most people follow them most of the time. For instance, virtually everyone regardless of personal political beliefs stands when the national anthem of their country is played at sports events or other public gatherings. Similarly, few people visit restaurants without leaving a tip for the server. In fact, so powerful is this informal social norm that most people leave a tip of around 15 percent or more regardless of the quality of the service they have received

What we know about persuasive communicators:

1.)Communicators who are credible—who seem to know what they are talking about or who are expert with respect to the topics or issues they are presenting—are more persuasive than those who are seen as lacking expertise 2.)Communicators who are physically attractive are more persuasive than communicators who are not attractive 3.)Communicators who we feel we know already—that is, those in our own social networks—are also likely to be persuasive.

Zajonc's explanation for the impact of audiences on performance.

1.)Drive model of learning 2.)Suggest that the presence of others is a source of general arousal or drive. 3.)Arousal occurs because people can be unpredictable, thus causing a feeling of uncertainty in the individual 4.)In the case of responses that are well learned (or dominant), this drive results increased levels of performance. 5.)In contrast, responses that are not well learned suffer from increased arousal, since well-learned responses interfere with their performances.

Hovland's Communication Research Program:

1.)He developed a model of attitude change that uses learning principles 2.)Attention: not all message stimuli are noticed; need to be able to grab people's attention 3.)Comprehension: some messages may be too complex for people to understand 4.)Acceptance: a person must decide to accept communication before any change takes place

Prosocial behavior, empathy, self-interest, altruism and examples:

1.)One explanation of prosocial behavior involves empathy—the capacity to be able to experience others' emotional states, feel sympathetic toward them, and take their perspective 2.)Reflecting these basic observations, Batson, Duncan, Ackerman, Buckley, and Birch offered the empathy-altruism hypothesis, which suggests that at least some prosocial acts are motivated solely by the desire to help someone in need. Such motivation can be sufficiently strong that the helper is willing to engage in unpleasant, dangerous, and even life-threatening activities. Compassion for other people may outweigh all other considerations (Goetz, Keltner, & Simon-Thomas, 2010). 3.)One way to do this would be to increase the sanctions given in a social dilemma for noncooperative choices. But doing so might change how people perceive such situations—from one involving trust in others to one based on economic self-interest. When seen as based in trust, cooperation should be higher than when the dilemma is seen as a situation in which people act on their own self-interest.

Examples of individual and institutional racism:

1.)Prejudice is an intolerable, unfair, or unfavorable, attitude towards another group of people 2.)Discrimination involves specific behaviors towards members of that group that are unfair in comparison with behaviors towards members of other groups 3.)Racism includes both of these listed above hositly , discrimination, segregation, and other negative actions, expressed toward an ethnic group 4.) institutional racism: Apartheid in south africa, interment of 110,000 Japanese Americans, Settlers from india to Pakistan Institutional racism (also known as systemic racism) is a form of racism expressed in the practice of social and political institutions. Institutional racism is also racism by individuals or informal social groups, governed by behavioral norms that support racist thinking and foment active racism.

The principle of reciprocity and examples:

1.)Reciprocity: We are generally more willing to comply with a request from someone who has previously provided a favor or concession to us than to someone who has not. In other words, we feel obligated to pay people back in some way for what they have done for us. 2.)Overall, it appears that the rule of reciprocity—acting toward others in the way they have acted toward us—operates with respect to attraction, too. In general, we tend to like those who express liking toward us, and dislike those who express dislike for us.

Fidel's research on hiring practices concerning men and women in academia:

1.)Sent resumes to the heads of physcology and asked them to evaluate the applicant as a potential professor in that department 2.)Two different applications forms were sent, identical except for the sex of the "applicant", each form going to half of the department of chairs 3.)The results showed that the men were generally offered the higher position that women, despite their quality of backgrounds

Social distance:

1.)Social distance is another aspect of prejudice, referring to a person's acceptable degree of relationship with members of a given group. (measured by friends, neighbors, at a party, marriage, ect.) Understanding social distance is important in understanding prejudice. 2.)Social distance scales Scales measure what should be one single dimension How willing are you to have a Tiwi: Very willing/willing/unwilling/ very unwilling

Social exclusion:

1.)Social exclusion, or social marginalisation, is the social disadvantage and relegation to the fringe of society. ... The outcome of social exclusion is that affected individuals or communities are prevented from participating fully in the economic, social, and political life of the society in which they live. 2.)In addition, social exclusion leads to increased sensitivity to interpersonal information 3.)Unlike earlier views, modern theories of aggression (Anderson & Bushman, 2002; Berkowitz, 1993; Zillmann, 1994) do not focus on a single factor (instincts, drives, and frustration) as the primary cause of aggression. Rather, they draw on advances in many areas of psychology in order to gain added insight into the factors that play a role in the occurrence of such behavior. One such theory, known as the social learning perspective (e.g., Bandura, 1997), begins with a very reasonable idea: Human beings are not born with a large array of aggressive responses at their disposal.

Cognitive dissonance and its reduction:

1.)Social psychologists term my reaction cognitive dissonance—an unpleasant state that occurs when we notice that our attitudes and our behavior are inconsistent. As you will see, when we cannot justify our attitude-inconsistent behavior, we may end up changing our own attitudes. 2.)When individuals are made to confront their own hypocrisy, most choose to reduce their dissonance through direct means (by changing their behavior). However, when individuals are asked to think about reasons why people in general do not act according to their beliefs, many choose to reduce dissonance via an indirect route such as donating to charity. Doing so allows people to feel better about themselves, even though their own behavior does not change.

Stereotypes:

1.)Stereotypes provide us with information about the typical traits possessed by people belonging to these groups and, once activated, these traits seem to come automatically to mind 2.)Stereotypes act as theories, guiding what we attend to, and exerting strong effects on how we process social information 3.)Similarly, stereotypes lead us to pay attention to specific types of information—usually, information consistent with our stereotypes. 4.)Stereotypes are beliefs about what members of a particular group are like. Prejudice is the feelings component of our reactions toward particular groups, and discrimination is differential behavior that is directed toward members of specific groups. 5.)Stereotypes can influence behavior even in the absence of different subjective scale ratings. When objective scale measures are employed, where shifting standards cannot occur and the meaning of the response is constant, the effect of stereotypes can be observed.

Self-regulation:

1.)Such mechanisms are described by the term self-regulation (or self-control), and refer to our capacity to regulate many aspects of own behavior, including aggression. 2.)Unfortunately, such self-regulation often requires lots of cognitive effort, so one reason why this internal system of restraint sometimes fails is that we simply do not have the resources or skills required to do so. In other words, aggression often erupts because we have invested so much cognitive effort in other tasks that we have too little left to perform this important but demanding function.

Reference groups functions:

1.)Supply basic information and experiences of secondary socialization 2.)Defined as those person in social world whom as an individual uses as standards for making sense of his or her own actions 3.)Even if they don't have face to face contact with others, they may still be an important influence on self

The foot-in-the-door technique and examples:

1.)This is the basic idea behind an approach for gaining compliance known as the foot-in-the-door technique. Basically, it involves presenting target people with a small request—something so trivial that it is hard for them to refuse ("Accept this free sample") and then following up with a larger request—the one desired all along. The results of many studies indicate that this tactic works—it succeeds in inducing increased compliance (Beaman, Cole, Preston, Klentz, & Steblay, 1983; Freedman & Fraser, 1966). The foot-in-the-door technique rests on the principle of consistency: Once we have said "yes" to the small request, we are more likely to say "yes" to subsequent and larger ones because refusing these would be inconsistent with our previous behavior. 2.)The foot-in-the-door technique is not the only tactic based on the consistency/commitment principle, however. Another is the lowball procedure. In this technique, which is often used by automobile salespersons, a very good deal is offered to a customer. After the customer accepts, however, something happens that makes it necessary for the salesperson to change the deal and make it less advantageous for the customer—for example, the sales manager rejects the deal. The totally rational response for customers, of course, is to walk away. Yet, often they agree to the changes and accept the less desirable arrangement.

Social loafing, cooperation and distributive justice and examples:

1.)This pattern is quite common in situations where groups perform what are known as additive tasks—ones in which the contributions of each member are combined into a single group output. On such tasks, some people will work hard, while others goof off and do less than they would if working alone. Social psychologists refer to such effects as social loafing—reductions in effort when individuals work collectively compared to when they work individually (Karau & Williams, 1993). 2.)social loafing can explain patterns of student participation, as a function of the size of the class; students participate less in larger classes. Likewise, social loafing occurs among students working on team projects.

Alcohol and aggression:

1.)While aggression is often strongly influenced by social factors and is sometimes predicted by personal traits, it is also affected by the situation or context in which it occurs. Here, we will examine three of the many situational factors that can influence aggression: uncomfortably high temperatures, alcohol, and the availability of weapons. 2.)It is widely assumed that people become more aggressive when they consume alcohol. This idea is supported by the fact that bars and nightclubs are often the scene of violence. However, while alcohol is certainly consumed in these settings, other factors might be responsible for the fights—or worse—that often erupt: competition for desirable partners, crowding, and even cigarette smoke which irritates many people (Zillmann, Baron, & Tamborini, 1981). What does systematic research reveal about a possible link between alcohol and aggression? Interestingly, it tends to confirm the existence of such a link.

the frustration-aggression hypothesis:

1.)a principle stating that animals aggress only when their goals are thwarted 2.)Aggression is the intentional infliction of harm on others. Research findings indicate that it derives from many different sources, including biological factors in interaction with environmental stressors and status-seeking

Reference groups:

1.)people to whom an individual looks as a basis for self-appraisal or as a source of personal standards 2.)Having acquired language and a sense of self, the person matures into a discriminating adult, picking and choosing groups toward which he or she compares his or her behavior.

secondary socialization:

1.)process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society 2.) Secondary, continuing, adult: internalization of specific norms

Primary socialization:

1.)the process of learning that begins at birth and occurs in the home and family 2.)Is a lifelong process Initial, primary childhood socialization How an individual adapts and conforms to role expectations, opinion of others and norms and values of society Confronts or passes through stages Deals with pressure from society

Tokenism:

1.)where only a few members of a previously excluded group are admitted—can be a highly effective strategy for deterring collective protest in disadvantaged groups 2.)There are other negative consequences of tokenism, especially when the subsequent performance and well-being of the people occupying those positions are considered 3.)In whatever form it occurs, research indicates that tokenism can have at least two negative effects. First, it lets prejudiced people off the hook; they can point to the token as public proof that they are not really bigoted, and the presence of a token helps to maintain perceptions that the existing system is fair—even among members of the disadvantaged group. Second, it can be damaging to the self-esteem and confidence of the targets of prejudice, including those few people who are selected as tokens.

LaPiere's research with the Chinese couple:

Do attitudes predict behavior? This question was first addressed more than 70 years ago in a classic study by LaPiere (1934). To determine whether people with negative attitudes toward a specific social group would in fact act in line with their attitudes, he spent 2 years traveling around the United States with a young Chinese couple. Along the way, they stopped at 184 restaurants and 66 hotels and motels. In the majority of the cases, they were treated courteously; in fact, they were refused service only once. After their travels were completed, LaPiere wrote to all the businesses where he and the Chinese couple had stayed or dined, asking whether they would or would not offer service to Chinese visitors. The results were startling: 92 percent of the restaurants and 91 percent of the hotels that responded said "No to Chinese customers!"

Friendship/liking:

In general, we are more willing to comply with requests from friends or from people we like than with requests from strangers or people we don't like.

Authority:

In general, we are more willing to comply with requests from someone who holds legitimate authority—or simply appears to do so.

Scarcity:

In general, we value, and try to secure, outcomes or objects that are scarce or decreasing in availability. As a result, we are more likely to comply with requests that focus on scarcity than ones that make no reference to this issue.

The diffusion of responsibility:

In other words, all the people who saw or heard what was happening believed that it was OK for them to do nothing because others would take care of the situation. Darley and Latané referred to this as diffusion of responsibility and suggested that according to this principle, the greater the number of strangers who witness an emergency, the less likely are the victims to receive help. After all, the greater the number of potential helpers, the less responsible any one individual will feel, and the more each will assume that "someone else will do it." We should add, however, that if the person needing help appears to be a member of one's own ingroup, they are more likely to get help.

the social learning perspective:

In short, the social learning perspective suggests that whether a specific person will aggress in a given situation depends on many factors, including the person's past experience, the current rewards associated with past or present aggression, and attitudes and values that shape this person's thoughts concerning the appropriateness and potential effects of such behavior.

Gender-based discrimination:

Likewise, when we examine the nature of stereotyping—beliefs about what members of a social group are like—and consider how it is related to discrimination, we will need to address the role of the perceiver's group membership. In the section on stereotyping, we will particularly emphasize gender stereotyping, in part because its role in our own lives is easy to recognize—we all have a stake in gender relations. Although there is a high degree of interpersonal contact between men and women, which tends to be absent in many other cases including racial and religious groups (Jackman, 1994), gender-based discrimination continues to affect a substantial proportion of the population, particularly in the workplace. We will next turn to perspectives on the origins and nature of prejudice, and address why it so persistent across time and social groups. Lastly, we will explore various strategies that have been used to successfully change stereotypes and reduce prejudice.

Moe's research on racial attitudes of white and black junior high school students:

Moe studied Junior High School student in 1966 to 1979. He found that the race effect was less in the later sample than it was formerly. He also found that blacks were less negative towards whites than vice versa, and that black appear less likely to have internalized negative norms concerning the other group that are whites.

Commitment/consistency:

Once we have committed ourselves to a position or action, we are more willing to comply with requests for behaviors that are consistent with this position or action than with requests that are inconsistent with it.

What we learn from the film, Wild Child about normal childhood development and the behavior of researchers:

Parents kept her away from the world by locking her in a room She was nonverbal high amount of sleep spindles—abnormal wave pattern Was she special needs from birth or from what her parents did to her? It would help her if she could from relationships She started to talk Could time go back for her—can a teenager learn how to talk? Language is in our genes/ we have it not only because of nurture but because of nature too Emotional development In & out of different fosters homes Showed different emotions by using hand movements Was finally using language to describe past events She learned sign language Caregiver/ doctor/ foster parent—his research was never clear Major finding: she learned words/ she could express them/ but did not have a grammatical sentence Susan Curtis was the only way to accomplish something scientific: by teaching her words Frame the research & structure it: didn't define what they were going to research/ how they were going to do it (you won't be able to gain funding if it is/ what to make of your findings) There should be distinct roles when caring for her: caregiver/ teacher/ researcher; and in her case there was not

Reference groups:

People often adjust their attitudes so as to hold views closer to those of others who they value and identify with—their reference groups

The contact hypothesis:

The contact hypothesis suggests that bringing previously segregated groups into contact can reduce prejudice, especially when the contact is with outgroup members who are seen as typical of their group, the contact is seen as important, it results in cross-group friendships, and anxiety about interacting with outgroup members is reduced.

Social validation:

We are generally more willing to comply with a request for some action if this action is consistent with what we believe people similar to ourselves are doing (or thinking). We want to be correct, and one way to do so is to act and think like others.

Attitudes:

racism / sexism How to change an attitude Does not necessarily mean behavior