Social Psychology-3

Similarity

"Birds of a feather flock together" Greater similarity leads to more liking -Includes similarity in demographics, attitudes, values, interests, experiences, and even appearance

Controlled processing

"Explicit" thinking that is deliberate, reflecting and cconscious.

Automatic processing

"Implicit" thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness, roughly corresponds to "intuition."

Similar attitudes

"Likeness leads to liking"

outgroup

"Them" - a group that people perceive as distinctively different from or apart from their ingroup

Outgroup

"Them"—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.

ingroup

"Us" - a group of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity.

ingroup

"Us" - people with whom one shares a common identity

Ingroup

"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity.

Halo effect

"What's beautiful is good" A cognitive bias by which we tend to assume that an individual with one positive characteristic also possesses other (even unrelated) positive characteristics, such as being sociable, extraverted, popular, sexual, happy, assertive

relationship costs

"emotional turmoil" the relationship has more problems than it gives in terms of validation or praise-causing the relationship not to last.

similarity

"likeness-leads-to-liking"

outgroup

"them"- a group that people perceive as distinctively different from or apart from their ingroup

outgroup

"them"—those perceived as different or apart from one's ingroup. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 746)

ingroup

"us"- a group of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity

Physical attractiveness

"what is beautiful is good" stereotype -assume attractiveness is associated with other desirable traits

Competence

(#1 most desired trait across cultures) good at what you do

racism

(1) An individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given race

sexism

(1) An individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given sex.

Discrimination

(Social) unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.

Cathexis

(psychoanalysis) the libidinal energy invested in some idea or person or object

effort justification

(sorority hazing): severe initiations result in a higher rating of the sorority by those who were hazed to resolve their dissonance (weight loss): high effort group lost more weight within a year than the low effort group because the high effort group unconsciously took more steps in daily life to lose the weight because high effort+no results=uncomfortable tension!

Where do attitudes come from?

*Cognitive sources (Salient goals) *Affective sources -Evaluative conditioning (Association with positive/negative events) -Mere exposure (Repeated contact increases liking) *Behavioral Sources

How people deal with rejection

*chronic rejection increases negative affect and decreases positive affect *Some research suggest that many emtions's evolved to deal w/ threat of rejection

"beer goggles" effect

- "girls get prettier at closing time" - member of the opposite sex becomes more attractive as the night in the bar goes on

cultural differences in love styles

- Chinese = more emphasis on pragma and agape - Americans = emphasis on eros (seen as negative in China) - commitment more important in collectivist cultures

Correll et al. 2002

- Error of shooting un-armed targets per 20 trials: • African American target = 3.29 • European American target = 2.40 - Thus, more likely to shoot African American when target was actually un-armed. - Error of not shooting armed targets per 20 trials: • African American target = 1.48 • European American target = 2.46 - Thus, more likely to not shoot European American

gateways to attraction

- Proximity - Similarity - Physical attractiveness - Willingness - Reciprocity - Absence of exclusion criteria • Are there people with whom you cannot be friends? • What characterizes those people?

Companionate love

- a milder, more stable form of love than passionate love the is marked be feelings of mutual trust, dependability and warmth

companionate love

- a milder, more stable form of love than passionate love the is marked be feelings of mutual trust, dependability and warmth

reciprocity

- a mutual exchange between two people - a strong predictor of attraction is believing the other person likes us

6 love styles

- describes individual differences in what people are attracted to in a relationship & how people behave in relationships 1. EROS: passionate love (being in love) 2. STORGE: friendship love; affection 3. LUDUS: uncommitted love; love as a game 4. MANIA: obsessive love; possessive and jealous 5. PRAGMA: practical love (e.g. more likely in arranged marriages) 6. AGAPE: selfless love; altruistic love; motherly love - m>f in ludus - f>m in pragma, storge - teenagers = mania

passion

- euphoria and sexual excitement

social exchange theory

- if benefits > costs, we experience satisfaction with the relationship - expectations matter, CLalt - "overhead costs" = higher investment (e.g. time) associated with more tolerance for costs - equity theory: ratio of costs and benefits needs to be equal for the partners

the matching hypothesis

- the hypothesis that people tend to seek and find partners who are roughly our own level of physical atractiveness - we end up with partners that are about equal in physical attractiveness to us (and other characteristics, e.g. intelligence)

Sternberg's model types of love

- three components: passion, intimacy, commitment - 8 kinds: 1. liking: just intimacy 2. infatuation: just passion 3. empty love: just commitment 4. companionate: commitment + intimacy 5. romantic: intimacy + passion 6. fatuous: passion + commitment 7. consummate love: passion + commitment + intimacy 8. no love

Alternative perspective on sex differences

Differences are due to culture Gender differences are status differences -Women often have less power and wealth Difficult to disentangle "nature" from "nurture" -"Evolved" gender differences are due to dating paradigms where men approach and women are approached

Social Role theory

Different argument besides evolutionary that explains why men and women have these ideas about opposite genders. Social role influences these ideas too. (the media and situations)

dual attitudes

Differing implicit (automatic) and explicit (consciously controlled) attitudes toward the same object. Verbalized explicit attitudes may change the education and persuasion; implicit attitudes change slowly, with practice that forms new habits.

c

Eliza trips, falls, and begins to cry. When Mariah sees Eliza crying in pain, she starts to cry too. Mariah's response is called ___. a) altruism b) egoism c) empathy d) reactance

catharsis

Emotional release. The view of aggression is that aggressive drive is reduced when one "releases" aggressive energy, either by acting aggressively or by fantasizing aggression.

Equity theory

Equitable relationships are the happiest and most stable Rewards and costs are roughly equal Inequity is more important to a person who is under-benefited

Social Comparison

Evalutating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others.

Evolution and Love: Choosing a Mate

Evolutionary psychology explain love in terms of genetic factors that evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection. Men and women are attracted to different characteristics in each other because this maximizes their reproductive success.

Types of relationships

Exchange Relationships -Participants expect and desire strict reciprocity in their interactions Communal Relationships -Participants expect and desire mutual responsiveness to each other's needs

Milgram Teacher/Student Experiment

Experiment conducted by Stanley Milgram on obedience in which a teacher is told to administer an electric shock every time the learner makes a mistake, increasing the level of shock each time. Conclusion was that ordinary people are likely to follow orders given by an authority figure, even to the extent of killing an innocent human being

Group-serving bias

Explaning away outgroup members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one's own group).

Langlois et al (1994)

Faces were morphed (combined digitally) to create composite that was the mathematical average of features of multiple faces, Composite photographs were judged as more attractive than were all the separate faces that were created (men and women). The "average" composite faces were more attractive because it had kist some atypical it asymmetrical variation that was present in the individual faces. This doesnt mean we think average faces are more attractive b/c famous ppl are considered to have looks "above average" Researchres found that composites of highly attractive faces were rated significantly more attractive than average faces. Japanese and british participants also judged the faces all similarly-reinforcing the similar perceptions facial attractiveness has cross-culturally.

Cultural standards

Facial attractiveness perceived similarly across cultures -Symmetry is preferred (Size, shape, and location of the features on one side match the other side of face) -"Averaged" composite faces are preferred (Lost atypical or asymmetrical variation)

Mere Exposure

Familiarity breeds liking. Stronger effect when people are unaware of. Exposure.

b

Females are more aggressive than males when it comes to ___. a) direct aggression b) indirect aggression c) physical aggression d) verbal aggression

Under-benefited

Few rewards, high costs, devote a lot of time and energy

Effect of mobile devices on real life interactions

Field experiments of 100 real-life interactions Pairs with mobile devices present rated connectedness and empathy lower than pairs without devices

self-fulfilling prophecy

A belief that leads to its own fulfillment.

Reversibility

A child's ability to reverse operations and therefore recognize that the qualities of an object remain the same despite changes in appearance. Occurs in Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development (e.g., 1+2=3 to 3-2=1).

Availability heuristic

A cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind we persume it to be commonplace.

Equity

A condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it.

14-15: How do social traps and mirror-image perceptions fuel social conflict?

A conflict is a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. Social traps are situations in which people in conflict pursue their own individual self-interest, harming the collective well-being. Individuals and cultures in conflict also tend to form mirror-image perceptions: Each party views the opponent as untrustworthy and evil-intentioned, and itself as an ethical, peaceful victim.

Attitude

A favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone (often rooted in one's beliefs, and exhibited in one's feelings and intended behavior).

The Agony of Loneliness

A feeling of deprivation about social relations (Most likely to occur during times of transition or disruption)

Self-serving attributions

A form of self-serving bias; the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to other factors.

d

A hockey coach orders a player to injure an opposing team's star player. Although the player is personally opposed to intentionally injuring other players, he follows the coach's order. This illustrates ___. a) conformity b) compliance c) cooperation d) obedience

prejudice

A hostile or negative attitude toward a distinguishable group of people, based solely on their membership in that group. _____ refers to beliefs without sound knowledge of the facts concerned with the belief.

Method of Loci

A mnemonic device that involves taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations.

Need to Belong

A motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions.

egoism

A motive (supposedly underlying all behavior) to increase one's own welfare. The opposite of altruism, which aims to increase another's welfare.

Snap judgments, Payne (2006)

A peripheral route, whereby an individual needs to respond immediately to a situation. The person's level of cognitive control will dictate whether they respond via their Automatic Impulse, or by an Intentional response. The greater the control, the more likely it is that they will respond Intentionally. Automatic impulse favors prejudiced reactions, based on Implicit attitudes and thoughts

Affective Sources

-evaluative conditioning: association with positive/negative events (ex. grandma: mothballs associated with feelings of warmth) -mere exposure repeated contact increases liking (ex this song sucks, 10 mins later you like it) ex. dentist: makes me anxious (associating w fear) (i dont like the dentist) and I like my dentist! (see him fairly often)

D

A person who believes in a just world would likely believe that a date-rape victim should A) take counseling at a crisis center, B) not date, C) press charges against the alleged rapist, D) have known her date better.

Self- concept

A person's ansers to the question, " Who am I?"

attributions

A person's explanations of his or her behaviors, particularly successes and failures. In prejudice we attribute actions and outcomes for an individual based on their group membership.

Self-esteem

A person's overall self- evaluation or sense of self-worth.

The Experience of Breaking Up

A powerful variable that predicts how a person will weather the breakup is the role he or she plays in the decision to terminate the relationship

Relationship Issues: Breaking Up

A relationship is likely to be long-lasting when the couple: Has incorporated each other into one's self Has become interdependent and have invested much into the relationship But these factors also intensify stress and make coping more difficult after the relationship ends.

Self- awareness

A self-conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself. It makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispostions.

Self-efficacy

A sense that one is competent and effective, distinguished from self-esteem, which is one's sense of self worth. A bombardier might feel high self-efficacy and low self-esteem.

Role

A set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave.

intimacy

A state of being or feeling in which each person in a relationship is willing to self-disclose and to express important feelings and information to the other person.

passionate love

A state of intense longing for union with another. Passionate lovers are absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner's love, and are disconsolate on losing it.

Passionate Love

A state of intense longing for union with another. absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partners love, and are disconsolate on losing it.

Shaky bridge study

A study done to show that when under intense emotions people misinterpret these emotions as love. When people crossed a shaky bridge then met an attractive person, tended to report more feelings of arousal and love

Zimbardo/Stanford Experiment

A study of the psychological effects of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. Conclusion of the experiment was that people will readily conform to the social roles they are expected to play, especially if the roles are as strongly stereotyped as those of the prison guards

Confirmation bias

A tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions.

Hypothesis

A testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between events.

Evolutionary Approach to Love

A theory derived from evolutionary biology that holds that men and women are attracted to different characteristics in each other (men are attracted by women's appearance; women are attracted by men's resources) because this maximizes their chances of reproductive success.

Self-Affirmation theory

A theory that (a) people often experience a self-image threat, after engaging in an undesirable behavior; and (b) they can compensate by affirming another aspect of the self. Threaten people's self-concept in one domain, and they will compensate either by refocusing or by doing good deeds in some other domain.

Type A Personality

A theory used to describe a person with a significant number of traits focused on urgency, impatience, success, and excessive competition.

random assignment

-experimental group: receives manipulation -control group: does not receive manipulation

Heuristic

A thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgments.

Behavioral confimation

A type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expecations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations.

How do "sunk costs" influence relationships?

-invested resources you can't get back -don't want those investments to be for not -might not invest in someone if you think it's not worth it

Who is more likely to engage in casual sex? Why? What were the method and findings of the FSU casual sex study (Clark & Hatfield, 1989)?

-men -Men are more likely to engage in casual sex. To test this, they asked students if they would like to go to the interviewers apartment, have sex with them, or go on a date with them. -Answers to the following questions: 1. Would you like to go on a date with me? 2. Would you like to come back to my place? 3. Would you like to have sex? -Men: 1. About half said yes 2. 70% said yes 3. 83%~ said yes -Women: 1. About half said yes 2. 8%~ said yes 3. 4%~ said yes

What is the mere exposure effect? Does is lead to liking or disliking?

-mere-exposure effect - The tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them. -leads to liking

observational method

-nature of phenomenon -observe people and record their behavior

internal validity

-only independent variable can affect the dependent variable -must use random assignment

saying becomes believing effect

-people adapt what they say to please their listeners -people begin to believe what they are saying (if they weren't bribed into doing so) -when there is no compelling external explanation for one's words, saying becomes believing -ex: read personality description of someone -summarize it for someone who likes or dislikes that person -write a more positive summary for someone who already likes the person -having said positive things, they also then liked the person more themselves: asked to recall, they remember the initial description as more positive than it was!

effort justification: group discussion of the psychology of sex

-read stories about sex: control mild initiation: sex related (not embarrassing words) severe initiation: sex related (embarrassing words and paragraphs) *when asked who liked the group discussion more, severe initiations liked it the most! (to resolve their dissonance)

insufficient justification

-reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is "insufficient" behavior: did unpleasant task for unpleasant person: inconsistent with attitudes, with insufficient justification cognitive dissonance... attitude: later rates task more positively (changes to become more consistent with behavior) *also, the $1 is insufficient justification

self-presentation theory

-strategically express attitudes to make them appear consistent with our behavior -we behave a certain way to make a good impression on others, we don't want to seem hypocritical/look bad ex. attitude: says he loves kids behavior: plays with kids other influence: wants to make a good impression on his gf

Hindsight Bias

After an event, people often believe that they knew the outcome of the event before it actually happened

d

After seeing a victim of misfortune, empathy motivates us to ___. a) gain the approval of bystanders b) gain the approval of the victim c) reduce our own discomfort d) reduce the discomfort of the victim

c

After seeing a victim of misfortune, personal distress motivates us to ___. a) gain the approval of bystanders b) gain the approval of the victim c) reduce our own discomfort d) reduce the discomfort of the victim

hostile aggression

Aggression driven by anger and performed as an end in itself

instrumental aggression

Aggression that is a means to some other end

strange situation

Ainsworth's method for assessing infant attachment to the mother, based on a series of brief separations and reunions with the mother in a playoom situation

b

Albert thinks that because he has more job experience than others on his shift, he should make more money than they do. This illustrates the norm of ___. a) equality b) equity c) reciprocity d) social responsibility

romantic love

Also called passionate love; love with strong components of sexuality and infatuation, often dominant in the early part of a love relationship.

Culture and Love

Although love is a universal emotion, culture variations in the definition of love do occur. Love has a somewhat different emphasis in collectivist and individualistic cultures.

14-13: When are people most—and least—likely to help?

Altruism is unselfish regard for the well-being of others. We are most likely to help when we (a) notice an incident, (b) interpret it as an emergency, and (c) assume responsibility for helping. Other factors, including our mood and our similarity to the victim, also affect our willingness to help. We are least likely to help if other bystanders are present (the bystander effect).

Theory

An Integrated set of principles that explain and predict obserced events.

Social Isolation

An actual physical isolation from other people, or the lack of close friends generally

Passionate love

An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

passionate love

An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment Style

An attachment style characterized by a concern that others will not reciprocate one's desire for intimacy, resulting in higher-than-average levels of anxiety

Avoidant Attachment Style

An attachment style characterized by a suppression of attachment needs, because attempts to be intimate have been rebuffed; people with this style find it difficult to develop intimate relationships

Secure Attachment Style

An attachment style characterized by trust, a lack of concern with being abandoned, and the view that one is worthy and well liked

Persuasion

An attempt to change a person's attitude

Spontaneous trait inference

An effortless, automatic interference of a trait after exposure to someone's behavior.

Informed Consent

An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

social-responsibility norm

An expectation that people will help those needing help.

Reciprocity Norm

An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

"lack" of similarity

An important role in romantic relationships. Relationships based on differences rather than similarities are hard to maintain

Secure attachment

An infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver. Postive model of self Positive model of others

Lee Ross

An influential social psychologist who has studied attribution theory, attributional biases, decision making and conflict resolution. He is known for his investigations of the fundamental attribution error, and for identifications and analyses of such psychological phenomena as attitude polarization, reactive devaluation, belief perseverance, the false consensus effect, naive realism, and the hostile media effect.

Social Neuroscience

An integration of biological and social perspectives that explores the neural and psychological bases of social and emotional behaviors.

Passionate love

An intense longing for another person, characterized by the experience of physiological arousal- the feeling of shortness of breathing and thumping heart in ones presence. When our love is reciprocated, we feel great fulfillment and ecstasy nit when it is not, we feel sadness and despair.

Passionate love

An intense longing we feel for a person, accompanied by physiological arousal When our love is reciprocated, we feel great fulfillment and happiness; when it is not, we feel sadness and despair

Passionate Love

An intense longing we feel for a person, accompanied by physiological arousal; when our love is reciprocated, we feel great fulfillment and ecstasy, but when it is not, we feel sadness and despair.

commitment

An intent to maintain a relationship in spite of the difficulties and costs that may arise.

Anticipation of interaction

Anticipating an interaction increases liking of another

Bonding

Anticipation of interaction. How we come to like others.

prosocial behavior

Any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person.

out-group

Any group with which an individual does not identify.

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Arousal X its label =emotion

Mere Exposure Effect, student attending classes - Moreland & Beach (1992)

-the more classes the students attended meant the more they saw the target and the higher they rated her on a scale of likingness

Relationship development

...

Waist to hip ratios

0.9 <men and 0.7 >women

Feeling good leads to helping because,

1) good mood makes us look on the bright side of life, 2) helping others can prolong our good mood, 3) good moods increase self-attention and attendance to our own values.

Theories of prosocial behavior and altruism:

1) negative state relief model (Egoistic perspective) , 2) empathic joy hypothesis, 3) empathic altruism theory, 4) kinship selection, 5) reciprocal altruism

Factors influencing helping behavior:

1) number of people present, 2) time constraints, 3) modelling behavior, 4) location (city vs town), 5) culture

Attributes that define volunteerism:

1) planned action , 2) long-term behavior, 3) involves "non-obligated behavior", 4) occurs within an organizational context

Omoto & Snyder (1995) identified five categories of motivations underlying peoples decisions to become volunteers to help people with AIDS:

1) values (helping people) , 2) for understanding, 3) personal development (experience), 4) community concern, 5) esteem enhancement

When might receiving help be perceived as threatening?

1) when an individual has high self esteem, 2) when being helped by a similar other, 3) When a significant other helps on a task that is highly relevant to self-concept, 4) When the help isn't asked for or expected (e.g. "overhelping")

Physical attractiveness Stereotype

1. Assumption that attractive people possess other positive qualities

3 ways to resist persuasion

1. Attitude inoculation 2. Forewarning 3. stockpiling of resources

Functional distance also matters

1. Festinger: Westgate West finding *Functional distance was very very important in friendship formation -People's who's front door was close to each other become friends

How do people reject others

1. Idiosyncratic preferences 2. Cultural beliefs 3. Desire to avoid certain outcomes 4. Maintain status quo 5. Have enough relationships already

Long-term equity

As people observe their partners being self-giving, their sense of trust grows

a

As the number of witnesses present at an emergency situation increases, the probability of any given individual helping ___. a) decreases b) increases c) increases then levels off d) remains the same

Functional distance/Interaction

Aspects of architectural design that make it more likely that some people will come into contact with each other more often than with others.

What does social conditioning lead us to?

Associate positive events with certain people. Nice surroundings lead to positive feelings towards others

a

At the local soup kitchen, volunteers give everyone one bowl of soup regardless of how much money they have or how hungry they are. This type of helping illustrates the norm of ___. a) equality b) equity c) reciprocity d) social responsibility

b

At which stage do potential helpers weigh the costs of helping versus not helping before making their decisions? a) Assuming responsibility to help b) Providing help c) Interpreting the situation as an emergency d) Noticing the emergency

Key assumption of attachment theory

Attachment style learned in infancy becomes schema for all relationships However, we know that attachment style is not so easily determined Our experiences in relationships can help us learn new and more healthy ways of relating to others People may develop more than one attachment style over time

Anxious Attachment

Attachments marked by anxious or ambivalence -Feel insecure in relationships -Compulsively seek closeness but constantly worry about the relationship -During stress, excessively try to get closer to others

Avoidant attachment

Attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others -Feel insecure in relationships -Feel the need to be completely self-reliant -Prefer distance from others; during stress, become detached and dismissive of others

secure attachment

Attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy

Secure Attachment

Attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy -Feel secure in relationships -Comfortable with intimacy -Desire to be close to others during times of stress

Women are more likely to help than men in situations A) that are dangerous, B) that require long term care, C) in which an authority figure is present, D) in which an audience is present.

B

b

Based on attraction research, which of these proverbs is most accurate? a) "The early bird gets the worm." b) "Birds of a feather flock together." c) "Opposites attract." d) "Out of sight, out of mind."

From a Sliver to a Wedge Theory of Social Penetration

Beginning Relationship -Hi! Isn't the wether terrible? -Topics of conversation are mostly superficial and some intimate Developing Relationship -I didn't do as well on that exam as I'd hoped -Topics of conversation are mostly superficial some intimate and some very intimate Close Relationship -I've been having some really awful fights with my parents lately -Topics of conversation are mostly superficial and some intimate and some very intimate

Self-monitoring

Being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression.

c

Being excluded, rejected, and ignored by others is what social psychologists call ___. a) propinquity b) loneliness c) ostracism d) bad apple effect

The benefits and costs of beauty

Being good-looking does not guarantee health, happiness, or high self-esteem. Attributional problems with being good- looking: Is the attention and praise one receives due to one's talents or just one's good looks? Pressure to maintain one's appearance. In American society, pressures are particularly strong when it comes to the body. Women are more likely than men to suffer from the "modern mania for slenderness." Overall, being beautiful is a mixed blessing. Little relationship between appearance in youth and later happiness.

Self-schema

Beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information

General positive stuff

Benefits of beauty Beauty has been associated with... -Better health outcomes for infants in hospitals -Better earnings -Better teaching evaluations -Winning election

a

Bernard is the class clown. Eberhard is the class genius. Adolf is the class bully. Otto is the class athlete ("jock"). The person most likely to assume that others are provoking him is ___. a) Adolf b) Bernard c) Eberhard d) Otto

Example of Companionate Love

Best friends

Sex Differences

Biological differences between males and females, in organs, hormones, and body type.

Similarity

Birds of a feather flock together (similarity) What about "opposites attract" (complementarity) Research overwhelmingly supports -Similarity -Not complementarity

Internal Attribution

Blaming a factor, agent, or force within one's control for causing an event.

External Attribution

Blaming an outside factor as the cause of an event.

adult attachment styles explained

Bowlby: attachment style begins in infancy but these processes occur from "cradle to the grave" - fairly stable across relationships - secure attachment styles correlated with better relationship outcomes esp. managing conflict - romantic love attachment process correlated with parental attachment (Hazan & Shaver 1987)

Evolutionary perspective on mate selection

Certain physical traits = positive survival related traits Men and women are attracted to different characteristics in each other that maximize reproductive success

Secure Attachment

Characterized by trust, no worries about being abandoned & that they are well liked & worthy

Sensorimotor Stage of Development

Children learn about the world through their senses and body movements

Concrete Operational Stage of Development

Children learn to solve more complex problems using basic knowledge.

Avoidant attachment

Children that seek little contact with their mothers and are often not distressed when she leaves. Positve model of self Negative model of others

Sternberg's triarchic theory

Commitment Intimacy Passion

What is oxytocin associated with & known as?

Compainionate love ; the cuddle drug

opposites attract

Complementary Needs Theory

reciprocal altruism

Concept: altruistic behavior that increases the likelihood that this other person will help you when you need it.

Anxious/ambivalent attachment

Concert that others will not reciprocate one's desire for intimacy Want closeness, but worry partner will not return affection

explicit attitudes

Consciously accessible attitudes that are controllable and easy to report.

interdepedent self

Constructing one's identity in relation to others.

Proximity

1. Nearness to people 2. Geographical nearness 3. Functional distance also matters

Five Hurdles one might "get over" in order to be persuasive

1. Pay attention to the message 2. Comprehend the message Believe it 3. Remember it 4. Behave accordingly

What do people do when they are actually rejected?

1. People who have been rejected are: *Less pro-social *make anti-social *Decrease in self-regulation (less likely to control themselves)

which types of problems are linked to social rejection

1. Physical 2. Psychological 3. Social

Two reasons why we like people

1. Proximity 2. Physical attractiveness

2 Requirements to "the need to belong"

1. Regular social context within framework of ongoing relationships 2. Positive social contact

Three types of Rejection

1. Rejection 2. Ostracism 3. Threat of rejection

what happens physically and emotionally after someone is rejected?

1. Rejection stunts, creates temporary numbness in both pain and emotions 2. Social exclusion impairs emotional system, thereby effecting manner in which it registers physical and social pain.

Three Theories Explaining how Behavior Determines Attitudes

1. Self-perception theory 2. Self-presentation theory 3. Cognitive Dissonance

How Emotions are linked to rejection

1. Serve as warning system to: Change behavior (self-regulating) 2. Many emotions function to deal w/ threat of rejection *Guide cognition and behavior

How Anxiety is linked to rejection

1. Social anxiety results from desire to avoid rejection:

4. Elements of persuasion

1. The Source 2. The Message 3. The audience 4. The channel

Three things we need to know to predict whether people will stay in an intimate relationship

1. Their level of satisfaction in the relationship 2. What they think of the alternatives 3. The degree of their investment in the relationship

racism

1. an individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race, or 2. institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given race

sexism

1. an individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex, or 2. institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given sex

why does proximity influence friendship formation

1. cognitive consistency-distressing not to like those near us 2. familiarity breads content

characteristics of close relationshipds

1. emotional attachment 2. need fulfillment 3. interdependence

The mere exposure effect

Contrary to folk wisdom familiarity does not breed contempt The more often we are exposed to a stimulus the more we come to like that stimulus Familiarity can influence our self evaluations

The "Four Horsemen of Apocalypse"

Criticism, Defensiveness, Stonewalling, Contempt

Demand Characteristics

Cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected.

In which situation will the victim most likely get help? a) lying unconscious in a crowded street, b) lying unconscious on a street and only 1 or 2 people present, c) yelling for help on a crowded street, d) Yelling for help on a street with only 1 or 2 people

D

In the study of helping behavior, what percentage of people in the city helped?

15

How do we define close relationships?

-A close relationship is one of strong, frequent, and diverse interdependence that lasts over a considerable period of time. -Romantic relationships, friendships, family

The agony of loneliness

-A feeling of deprivation about social relations -Most likely to occur during times of transition or disruption -Loneliest group in American society are those 18-30 years old -We employ various strategies to combat loneliness

What does your book say about what enables close relationships?

-Attachment Styles, Equity, and Self-Disclosure

What do we know about the biology of love and how does this relate to changes in passion over time?

-Compassionate love affects different parts of the brain than passionate love does which releases dopamine. Love is like a drug it becomes more tolerant over time but it doesn't lose its appeal.

Dissonance and the Pill Study

-Dissonance manipulation: write counter attitudinal essay under low choice or high choice -DV: Agreement with counter-attitudinal position (adoption of a ban against inflammatory speakers on campus) -They were also given a placebo; they were told the placebo would induce either tension, relaxation, or exert no effect. -Under low choice, all participants exhibited no attitude change, which would be predicted by both cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory. -Interestingly, under high choice, participants who were told the placebo would produce tension exhibited no attitude change, and participants who were told the placebo would produce relaxation demonstrated larger attitude change These results are not explainable by self-perception theory, as arousal should have nothing to do with the mechanism underlying attitude change. Cognitive dissonance theory, however, was readily able to explain these results: if the participants could attribute their state of unpleasant arousal to the placebo, they wouldn't have to alter their attitude.

What does your book say about how relationships end?

-Divorce -The Detachment Process

Four Dimensions of Affiliation Motivation

-Emotional support -Attention -Positive stimulation -Social comparison

self-presentation theory: traditional vs. modern woman

-Female participants were told that they were going to meet a man More desirable vs less desirable Prefer traditional women vs. modern Hypothesis: When they expect to meet a desirable man, women will report attitudes (traditional vs modern) that will make a good impression -When men are of higher desirability women present their attitudes as much more modern (which is what the guy liked) (were equal with low desirability man)

What factors make people (in general) more attractive? What factors make men specifically attractive?

-In general, behavior, personality, and physical characteristics.Along with faces with equal symmetry and a composite face that incorporates many traits. Factors that make men attractive are masculine features like thin lips, square jaw, thick eyebrows,and prominent jaw.

What are the 3 components of love and what do they represent? How does Sternberg depict different types of love through these 3 components? What happens over time?

-Intimacy, passion, and decision/ commitment are the three components.The different types of love are different combinations of these different traits but all three traits is the best kind of love.

What factors can alter some of the sex differences in attraction?

-Ovulation -According to studies, men value attractiveness while women value intelligence and wealth. Although, when a woman is on her period, she will be more attracted to men who have masculine features.

What are the 4 things discussed in class that lead to attraction and how do they do so?

-Propinquity - Mere closeness can make someone like the other person more. Unless, they already dislike the person which can just increase the disliking. -Similarity- people who have common interests have more to talk about. -Attractiveness- people gravitate to more attractive people. -Time of the month

What is parental investment theory and which sexual strategy does it predict for each gender?

-Refers to what each sex has to invest - in terms of time, energy, survival risk, and forgone opportunities - to produce and nurture offspring. Sex with smaller investment will be more vigorous in mating opportunities. Sex with larger investment will be more conservative in mating opportunities.Men are more promiscuous and women more conservative.

What are the three factors of the investment model?

-Satisfaction, Available Alternatives, Investment

What are the 4 types of attachment styles and how are they categorized?

-Secure (positive attitude toward self and others) -Dismissing Avoidant (positive toward self and negative towards others) -Fearful Avoidant (negative attitude toward self and negative attitude toward others) -Preoccupied (negative towards self and positive toward others) -Categorized by: Anxiety (attitude towards self) and Avoidance (attitude toward others)

Wrap Up Summary

-Self-presentation: I look like a cool smoker -Self-perception: Here I am smoking again. I must like it -Cognitive Dissonance: I know smoking is bad for me...oh well...the statistics aren't as awful as they say. I'm healthy, I won't get sick

What are the two factors that are frequently used to consider successful romantic relationships? How successful are romantic relationships?

-Stability and satisfaction -50% of all first marriages end in divorce or permanent separation, 75% of all second marriages end in divorce

cognitive dissonance

-Tension experienced when holding two conflicting cognitions Feels uncomfortable -Leads to the motivation to reduce the tension -When we can't change or take back the behavior, we'll change the cognitions *Add consonant cognitions *Reduce dissonant cognitions ex. I value my health: but I smoke Infidelity is wrong, but I cheat

Who is a better predictor of relationship length? Why?

-The man, because he is more likely to be promiscuous.

What did the study on alternatives find about good relationship partners and how did they study this?

-They showed the partners ads with people they would find attractive and then saw if the relationship was still going on two months later. Good relationship partners ignored the alternatives.

Attraction

-We are attracted to others with whom a relationship is directly or indirectly rewarding -All humans exhibit patterns of attraction and mate selection that favor the conception birth and survival of their offspring (Evolutionary perspective)

What are the common sex differences in attractiveness and how are they explained?

-Women: Waist-to-hip ratio, youth -Men: Masculinity - square jaw, prominent chin, heavier eyebrows, thinner lips -In women, men look for a hip to waist ratio and youth which would have to do with childbearing because younger women with wider hips would be more likely to birth more children. In men, a man who is masculine will help to protect them and give them the strongest genes for their children.

Cognitive Sources

-active goals goal-relevant objects are evaluated more positively than goal-irrelevant objects ex. dentist: maintain oral hygiene (i like the dentist) pay a lot of money (i don't like the dentist)

self-discrepancy theory

-actual self: the person we are right now -ought self: the person we feel we should be -ideal self: person we aspire or hope to be

In Darley & Batson's (1973) "Good Samaritan" study, what percentage of participants who were on time offered to help?

43

In the study of helping behavior, what percentage of people in the small town helped?

50

In Darley & Batson's (1973) "Good Samaritan" study, what percentage of participants that were ahead of schedule, offered to help?

60

Example of Passionate Love

Damon & Elena from the Vampire Diaries

Experimental realism

Degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves its participants.

Mundance realism

Degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations.

Mundane Realism

Degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations.

similarities that lead to friendship and attraction

Demographic Attitude Attractiveness Subjective Experience

Fearful-avoidant style

Desire closeness with others but feel unworthy of others affection and so do not seek out intimacy

Behavior in troubled relationships

Destructive and constructive behaviors

Attachment style

Development of internal working model • Blueprint for adult relationships • Assignments based on responses in 'strange situation'

Secure 56%

Development of internal working model • Blueprint for adult relationships • Assignments based on responses in 'strange situation'

Evolutionary Psychological Perspective

Buss (1989) asked more than 9k adults in 37 countries how desirable various characteristics were in a marriage partner. In general, women valued ambition, industriousness, and earning capacity in a potential mate more than men did. The men valued physical attractiveness in a mate more than women did. The top characteristics however for both genders were the same-involving honesty, trustworthiness, and pleasant personality. Other surveys indicated that men preferred spouses who are younger than they are while women preferred spouses around their own age if not older.

Companionate Love: The self disclosure in it

Form of affection found between close friends as well as lovers Less intense than passionate love. But in some respects it is deeper and more enduring. Characterized by high levels of self- disclosure.

Oral Stage

Freud's first stage of personality development, from birth to about age 2, during which the instincts of infants are focused on the mouth as the primary pleasure center. (eating)

14-10: What psychological and social-cultural factors may trigger aggressive behavior?

Frustration (frustration-aggression principle), previous reinforcement for aggressive behavior, and observing an aggressive role model can all contribute to aggression. Media portrayals of violence provide social scripts that children learn to follow. Viewing sexual violence contributes to greater aggression toward women. Playing violent video games increases aggressive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

Familiarity on propinquity

Gain familiarity through mere exposure

Non-Zero-Sum Games

Games in which outcomes need not sum to zero. With cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose. (Also called mixed-motive situations.)

Physical attractiveness

Gender differences -Men rate physical attractiveness as slightly more important than women do

Assumptions about attractive people

General positive stuff Halo effect General role of culture Self fulfilling prophecy

Proximity

Geographical nearness. This (more precisely, "functional distance") powerfully predicts liking.

Proximity

Geographically close to people predicts liking

Collectivism

Giving priority to the goals of one's groups and definging one's identity accordingly.

Is the physical attractiveness stereotype accurate?

Good-looking people do have more friends, better social skills, and a more active sex life. But beauty is not related to objective measures of intelligence, personality, adjustment, or self-esteem. The specific nature of the stereotype also depends on cultural conceptions of what is "good."

GRIT

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction-a strategy designed to decrease international tensions

Opinions and personality

Greater similarity leads to more liking Newcomb (1961) College men became friends with those who were similar in Demographics attitudes and values

Sherif Robbers Cave

Group of boys taken to camp. 2 groups but at first didn't know about other group. Then told would be in 5day long tournament against other group. Showed intergroup hostility. Competitive nature immediately. Acted rude toward other group Superordinate goals bring people together, that were once separate, this goal was pushing a car, happened in the third phase and everyone became friends.

Solomon Ash.

He became famous in the 1950s, following experiments which showed that social pressure can make a person say something that is obviously incorrect.

William McDougal

He was particularly important in the development of the theory of instinct and of social psychology in the English-speaking world.

b

Henrietta helped Maurille when her first child was born. When Henrietta has her first child, Maurille thinks she ought to help Henrietta. This type of helping illustrates the norm of ___? a) equity b) reciprocity c) social justice d) social responsibility

Do people stay friends after break up?

Heterosexual men are typically not interested in friendship, regardless of role in breakup Women are most interest in remaining friends, especially if they are the "breakee" More interested in remaining friends if satisfaction and investment in the relationship were high

Attractive people and the self fulfilling prophecy

High attractive people... -Do develop good social interaction skills -Report having more satisfying interactions with others Self-fulfilling prophecy: The beautiful receive a great deal of social attention, which helps them develop good social skills People's behaviors change because of how others respond to / treat them

Breakers

High level of responsibility Least painful, upsetting, stressful

Functional distance

How often people's paths cross

Self-esteem and attraction

How we feel about ourselves influences how we feel about our relationships

Bertrand and Mullainathan 2004

Identical resumes sent to employers, white names interviewed 9.6%, black names 6%

b

If people are seated according to their last names using a seating chart, those with last names that start with the same letter often end up becoming good friends. This finding can be explained by ___. a) ingratiation b) propinquity c) intelligence d) similarity

Familiarity on similarity

If similar will also seem familiar

Catharsis Hypothesis

If you buy a punching bag, or release your aggression by playing Quake, or by screaming, then you will be less violent and aggressive in day-to-day life, having "released" your aggression

c

If you live next to someone, what outcome is most likely? a) You will become friends with that person. b) You will become enemies with that person. c) Both (a) and (b) d) Neither (a) nor (b)

Possible Selves

Images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future.

Possible selves

Images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future.

The Person Next Door: The Propinquity Effect

In the first part of this chapter, we discussed the variable that cause initial attraction between two people. One such variable is the physical proximity, or the propinquity effect: People who you come into contact with the most are the most likely to become your friends and lovers. This occurs because of the mere exposure effect: Exposure to any stimulus produces liking for it

b

In the reality TV show Average Joe, Melana based her choice of partners on ___. a) personality b) physical attractiveness c) wealth d) all of the above

c

In their 1990 book A General Theory of Crime, criminologists Gottfredson and Hirschi identified ___ as the major cause of violence. a) frustration b) genetic factors c) poor self-control d) poverty

pluralistic ignorance

In uncertain situations, people look to the actions of others (but others aren't doing anything)

d

In what part of the United States is the culture of honor most prevalent? a) Midwest b) Northeast c) Northwest d) South

C

In which of the following cases would stereotype threat NOT be likely to occur? A) a black male taking a difficult and presumably diagnostic test of intellectual ability, B) a white female taking a difficult and presumably diagnostic test of mathematical ability, C) a white male taking a difficult and presumably diagnostic test of verbal ability, D) a white male taking a difficult and presumably diagnostic test of mathematical ability in competition with a group of Asian Americans.

Misinformation effect

Incorporating " misinformation" into one's memory of the event, after witnessing an event and recieving misleading information.

Misinformation Effect

Incorporating "misinformation" into one's memory of the event, after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it.

Ostracism

Indirect exclusion of individual ex: Silent treatment

d

Interference with the attainment of a goal first results in ___. a) aggression b) catharsis c) violence d) frustration

14-12: How does romantic love typically change as time passes?

Intimate love relationships start with passionate love—an intensely aroused state. Over time, the strong affection of companionate love may develop, especially if enhanced by an equitable relationship and by intimate self-disclosure.

Emotional Isolation

Involves emotional withdrawal from other people, meaning we keep our feelings to ourselves completely

How powerful is reciprocal liking

It is powerful enough to neutralize our basic tendency to pay more attention to attractive faces

Cross cultural research comparing love in different cultures

Individualistic cultures (U.S) value passionate love more than collectivistic cultures (China) do. Chinese cultures tend to value companionate love more than American couples do.

Cognitive Dissonance boring task study

Induced compliance paradigm Boring task Negative attitude Behavior Lie: "task is interesting" Inconsistent behavior Justification $1 (insufficient justification) $20 (sufficient justification) *People are more likely to change their attitude when paid only $1 because it isn't enough to be worth it so to reduce tension they change their attitude

process for developing attachment style

Infant attachment > Peer competence > Security at age 16> A.Romatic attachment B. Negative affect C. Emotional lana d. competence index

Secure attachment style

Infants who had caregivers that were responsive to their needs, and who showed positive emotions when interacting with them. These infants trust their caregivers, are not worried about abandonment, and come to view themselves as worthy and well liked These people have most enduring romantic relationships and experience the highest level of commitment to relationships as well as the highest satisfaction level

Anxious attachment style

Infants who had caregivers who are inconsistent and overbearing in their affection. These infants are unusually anxious because they can never predict when and how their caregivers would respond to their needs These individuals have the most short-lived romantic relationships. Enter in relationships the most quickly, often before they know their partner very well.

Avoidant attachment style

Infants who had caregivers who were distant, rebuffing attempts to establish intimacy. These infants desired to be close to their caregivers but learned to suppress their needs, as they know that their attempts will be rejected. These individuals are the least likely to enter in relationship and the most likely to report never being in love. They maintain their emotional distance and have the lowest level of commitment to their relationships of the 3 types. They are the most upset and angriest of the 3 types when their love is not reciprocated.

self-perception theory

Inferring our attitudes and feelings based on observations of our behavior -Initial ambiguity of attitude/feeling -Behavior freely chosen *self-perception is most likely to affect attitudes when attitudes are weak

Why are we blinded by beauty

Inherently rewarding to be in the company of people who are aesthetically appealing. Possible intrinsic and extrinsic rewards Tendency to associate physical attractiveness with other desirable qualities. What-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype

Physical attractiveness

It may be that men are more likely to say that this is important to them but when it comes to actual behavior, the sexes are fairly similar in how they respond to it. Across multiple studies, both genders rated this as the single more important characteristic that triggers sexual desire- Regan & Berscheid (1997)

Similarity

Likeness increases liking: • More similar we see another, more we like them (think about your best friend) - Dissimilarity increases dislike: • More dissimilar we see another, more we dislike them (think about someone you don't like) - Opposites attract? • Complementarity: when one partner completes what is missing from the other

Technology and social connections on familiarity

Liking decreased after meeting (compared to liking based on online profile) -Inaccuracy of online information

Reciprocal liking: Gold et al (1948)

Liking someone who nonverbally displayed liking, even though they verbally disagreed. A study was conducted and a women expressed interest in ,ale research participants simply by maintaining eye contact, leaning toward them, and listening attentively. The men expressed liking for her despite the fact they knew she disagreed with them on important issues. Whether the clues are nonverbal or verbal, perhaps the most crucial determinant of whether we like person A is to the extent to which we believe person A likes us.

a

Loneliness is primarily determined by the ___ of relationships. a) quality b) quantity c) Both (a) and (b) d) Neither (a) nor (b)

Contempt

Looking down on one's partner

Over-benefited

Lots of rewards, few costs, devote little time or energy to the relationships

Breakees

Low level of responsibility Miserable- lonely, depressed, angry

c

Low levels of ___ are associated with high levels of aggression. a) adrenaline b) alcohol c) serotonin d) testosterone

Familiarity

May be a crucial variable for interpersonal attraction People prefer faces that most resemble their own Plays a part in the other variables associated with liking

Media

Media tells us what is beautiful, telling us that beauty is associated with goodness. ie: heroines- as well as princes who woo them and win look alike. Heroines all have similar features: small nose, big eyes, blemish free, shaped lips etc. We are bombarded with media depictions of attractiveness. High attractive ratings for people with small nose, large eyes, big smile, prominent cheekbones.

self-perception theory, students hearing about tuition increase

Participants told they were testing headphone sets while listening to a radio broadcast about tuition increases IV: -Vertical head movement condition (nodding yes) -Horizontal head movement condition (shaking no) -No head movement condition *Counter-attitudinal message DV: What do you feel would be an appropriate dollar amount for undergraduate full-time tuition per year? *Results: vertical head movement is higher agreement! none is second, and horizontal is least!

Proximity

Nearness

The thrill of affiliation

Need for affiliation: the desire to establish social contact with others We are motivated to establish and maintain an optimum balance of social contact

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness.

Symmetry

One aspect of beauty that is preferred in both men and women is ___________. Where the size, shape and location of the features on one side match the other side of the face. They serve as markers of good health and reproductive fitness- "good genes".

Defining Love

One definition of love makes a distinction between companionate love-feelings of intimacy that are not accompanied by intense longing and arousal-and passionate love-feelings of intimacy that are accompanied by intense longing and arousal

What does attribution of others praise effect?

Our feelings towards them

Impact Bias

Overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events.

Arranged Marriage

Parents set it up. The 2 people usually dont meet before. Usually they end up loving each other

Investment model

The theory that ones commitment to a relationship depends on not only their satisfaction with the relationship in terms of rewards, costs and comparison level and their comparison level for alternatives, but also on how much they have invested in the relationship that would be lost by leaving it

urban overload hypothesis

The theory that people living in cities are constantly being bombarded with stimulation and that they keep to themselves to avoid being overwhelmed by it.

Investment Model

The theory that people's commitment to a relationship depends not only on their satisfaction wit the relationship in terms of rewards, costs, and comparison level and their comparison level for alternatives, but also on how much they have invested in the relationship that would be lost by leaving it.

Reward Theory of Attraction

The theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events

Self-perception theory

The theory that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us, by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs.

Phallic Stage

The third stage in a child's development when awareness of and manipulation of the genitals is supposed to be a primary source of pleasure

a

The trait that produces helping across a wide variety of settings is called the ___ personality. a) altruistic b) egoistic c) narcissistic d) overbenefited

Ingratiation

The use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another's favor

Dependent Variable

The variable being measured, so called because it may depend on manipulations of the independent variable.

Framing

The way a question or an issue is posed; framing can influence people's decisions and expressed opinions.

d

The wide variation in homicide rates across different countries illustrates the effect of ___ on violence and aggression. a) aggressive cues b) frustration c) nature d) nurture

egoistic perspective

Theories of prosocial behavior and altruism which say that people help others to reduce their own distress that is caused by the other's distress.

Evolutionary approach to mate selection

Theory derived from evolutionary biology that holds that men and women are attracted to different characteristics in each other (men are attracted to women's physical appearance; women are attracted to mens resources) because this maximizes their chances of reproductive success. Reproductive success for the two sexes translates into two very different behavior patters. Males reproductive success is measured by quantity of their offspring, females lies in successfully raising their offspring.

Empathy-Altruism Theory

Theory of altruistic behavior that states that it is the nature of the helper's motives that counts, not whether or not the helper receives benefits or costs for the helping.

Empathic Joy Hypothesis

Theory that altruism makes people feel better about themselves (raises self-esteem). That is, we receive (vicarious) pleasure from other people's happiness through empathy.

empathy-altruism hypothesis

Theory that says if you have high enough empathy, you're more likely to help.

social exchange theory

Theory that says you evaluate the costs and benefits of acting, like a pregnant woman evaluating whether to go into a burning building to save someone.

c

There is ___ relationship between alcohol and aggression. a) a negative b) no c) a positive d) None of the above

c

There is ___ relationship between hot temperatures and aggression. a) a negative b) no c) a positive d) None of the above

The beautiful

These people are thought to be more sociable, extroverted and popular than the less attractive. They are also seen as more sexual, happier and more assertive.

Low comparison level for alternatives

These people will be more likely to stay in a costly relationship because in their mind, what they have may not be great, but its better than their expectation of what they could find elsewhere

Festinger, Schachter, and Back (1950)

These researchers tracked friendship formation among couples in various apartment buildings. They asked residents to name their 3 closest fiends in the complex. Just as the propinquity effect would predict, 65% of the friends mentioned lived in their same building, even if the other buildings were not far away. There was a pattern of friendships within a building. These researchers demonstrated that attraction and propinquity rely not only on actual physical distance but also "functional distance"- aspects of architectural design that determine which people you cross paths with more often

How propinquity works

This works because of the familiarity or the mere exposure effect

Need to Belong

Those with a close network of social ties tend to be happier, healthier and more satisfied with life than those who are more isolated

General role of culture

Traits central to culture are ascribed to attractive people The physical attractive are seen as having more of the characteristics that are valued in that culture than do the less physically attractive

b

Treating everyone as a member of your ingroup is known as ___. a) diffusion of responsibility b) moral inclusion c) kin selection d) pluralistic ignorance

Secure attachment

Trusting, a lack of concert with being abandoned; view that one is worthy and well-liked Most likely to develop mature, lasting relationships

Technology and social connections

Twitter, Snapchat, Instragram, Tinder

amadou diallo

Unarmed and shot/killed by NYPD

Dual attitude system

Verbalized explicit attitudes may change with education and persuasion; implicit attitudes change slowly, with practice that forms new habit.

d

Volunteerism is to other forms of helping as ___ is to ___. a) altruistic; egoistic b) egoistic; altruistic c) impulsive; nonimpulsive d) nonimpulsive; impulsive

Stanly Milgram

Was influenced by the events of the Nazi Holocaust to carry out an experiment that would demonstrate the relationship between obedience and authority. Prior to the obedience experiment, He conducted the small-world experiment (the source of the six degrees of separation concept) as part of his dissertation while at Harvard.

If someone likes us.....

We are more likely to return those feelings

Reciprocal Liking

We like people who like us

Reciprocal liking

We like people who like us In initial attractions, reciprocal liking can overcome... -Dissimilarity in attitudes -Attentional biases to attractive faces

Reward theory

We like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events.

hard-to-get effect

We prefer people who are moderately selective to those who are nonselective or too selective.

Physical Attractiveness Getting drawn in

We react more favorably to others who are physically attractive than to those who are not Bias for beauty is pervasive Is physical beauty an objective or subjective quality

d

What hormone has been linked with masculine traits such as aggressiveness and dominance? a) Cortisol b) Estrogen c) Progesterone d) Testosterone

c

What is the impact of the Internet on school cheating? a) The Internet has decreased school cheating. b) The Internet has not affected school teaching. c) The Internet has increased school cheating d) More research is needed to determine the impact of the Internet on school cheating.

c

What is the leading cause of injuries to women ages 15-44 years old? a) Auto accidents b) Home accidents c) Domestic violence d) Muggings

b

What is the main difference between lonely and nonlonely people? a) Loney people are less attractive b) Lonely people are less emotionally sensitive c) Lonely people are less intelligent d) Lonely people are less socially skilled

c

What personality trait is formed as a result of repeated rejection? a) Extraversion b) Introversion c) Rejection sensitivity d) Self-monitoring

a

What personality trait is most strongly linked to violence and aggression? a) Narcissism b) Low self-esteem c) Both (a) and (b) d) Neither (a) nor (b)

c

What theory of aggression posits that people use aggression to restore justice? a) Frustration-aggression theory b) Instinct theory c) Social influence theory d) Social learning theory

a

What type of norm is most effective at reducing litter? a) Injunctive b) Descriptive c) both (a) and (b) d) Neither (a) nor (b)

a

When Dick sees a neighbor's house on fire with a crowd of people standing around it, he doesn't call the fire department. He assumes that other neighbors who also saw the fire have already called the fire department. Dick's thoughts illustrate ___. a) diffusion of responsibility b) the discounting principle c) normative social influence d) pluralistic ignorance

D

When it comes to group attitudes the affective component is _______, the behavioral component is _______, and the cognitive component is _______. A) stereotyping; prejudice; discrimination, B) stereotyping; discrimination, prejudice, C) prejudice; stereotyping; discrimination, D) prejudice; discrimination; stereotyping.

a

When it comes to receiving help, males are more likely to help ___ and females are more likely to help ___. a) females; females b) females; males c) males; females d) males; males

Threat of rejection

When relationships start to dissolve; "are they going to leave?"

How does reciprocity works in attraction

When someone likes you, it is harder to resist liking them in return

When do we like people more?

When their opinion of us started out low and gets higher

Radiating effects of Beauty:

When you are with a beautiful person you in tern look more beautiful

Social Exchange in Long-Term Relationships

Whether a couple will stay together depends on each person's level of investment in and satisfaction with the relationship, as well as each person's comparison level and comparison level for alternatives

Empathy-Altruism Theory

Which altruism theory says that if empathy is high enough, we'll help out because of true altruism?

d

Which group of people is especially at risk for domestic violence? a) Men in committed relationships b) Men in noncommitted relationships c) Women in committed relationships d) Women in noncommitted relationships

a

Which group of people resorts to aggression most often? a) Toddlers b) Teenagers c) Young adults d) Adults

C

Which is NOT a reason discussed in lecture about why the media perpetuates stereotypes? A) Illusory correlations linking black people and poverty, B) face-ism in print ads, C) Black people being more likely to be heard using statements in their own defense on the news, D) All of the above were discussed.

b

Which of the following can increase self-awareness? a) Alcohol b) Audience c) Darkness d) All of the above

c

Which of the following is the best predictor of violent crimes in all cultures? a) Genetics b) Violence on television c) Poor self-control d) Poverty

d

Which of the following statements is false? a) Women attack their relationship partners more often than men do. b) In an attack, men cause more damage than women do. c) The average husband is taller, stronger, and heavier than his wife. d) All of the above are true.

b

Which of the following would be considered aggression? a) A baseball batter's line drive accidentally hits the pitcher in the knee. b) A girl attempts to punch her little brother, but misses. c) A depressed man commits suicide. d) All of the above

d

Which of the following would not be considered aggression? a) A dentist giving a patient a shot of Novocain b) A depressed man committing suicide c) A sadomasochistic interaction d) All of the above

Familiarity Being there

Who are we most likely to become attracted to? Two basic and necessary factors in the attraction process: Proximity and exposure

A

Why would something as apparently innocuous as a defendant's name influence the inferences and decisions of mock jurors in the experiment by Galen Bodenhausen (1988)? A) Negative out-group stereotypes were activated, and they biased information processing, B) Group polarization during deliberations made stereotypes more extreme, C) Groups were more likely than individuals to commit the ultimate attribution error, D) Names are often a criterion used to establish minimal in-groups and out-groups.

Men v. women

Women are attracted by men's resources -Reproductive success: Raising offspring to maturity -Greater resources increases chances of survival Men are attracted by women's appearance -Reproductive success: Maximize number of offspring -Symmetrical faces indicate positive health and "good genes"

Example of Propinquity Effect

You become closer friends with swimmers in your lane than the swimmers in the lanes across the pool

A

_____ can be defined as an action intended to hurt another person without any other goal, and is usually accompanied by feelings of anger: A) Hostile aggression, B) instinctive aggression, C) instrumental aggression, D) Displaced aggression.

police officers

______ are better than community at "ignoring" ethnicity.

C

_______ refers to our tendency to view members of ________ as more similar to one another than they really are. A) in-group bias; our in-group, B) in-group heterogeneity; our in-group, C) out-group homogeneity; an out-group, D) out-group heterogeneity; an out-group.

Excitation transfer theory __________ A) states that misattribution of residual arousal will increase one's tendency towards aggression, B) supports a catharsis explanation of aggressive behavior, C) states that residual arousal will reduce aggression, D) works only when people are aware of their residual arousal.

a

Juanita sees a crowd of people gathered around a man lying on the ground. She thinks about whether to call an ambulance, but then reasons that somebody else has probably already done so. this is an example of A) diffusion of responsibility, B) pluralistic ignorance, C) the empathy-altruism hypothesis, D) social exchange theory.

a

What are the three components of Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love? A) intimacy, pasion, commitment, B) comfort, intimacy, passion, C) similarity, compatability, commitment, D) ecstasy, intimacy, similarity.

a

_________ concerns being motivated by the desire to increase one's own welfare. ___________ concerns being motivated by the desire to increase another's welfare. A) egoistic, altruistic, B) altruistic, egoistic, C) kinship, egoistic, D) none of the above fit here.

a

stereotype

a belief about the personal attributes of a group of people. stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information

stereotype

a belief about the personal attributes of a group of people; are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information (and sometimes accurate). _____ is due o the fact it is =too difficult to take all the complexities of other people as individuals.

Attitude

a belief and feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

availability heuristic

a cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. if instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

equity

a condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to that they contribute to it. Note: equitable outcomes needn't always be equal outcomes.

equity

a condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it. Note: equitable outcomes needn't always be equal outcomes

equity

a condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it. note: equitable contributions needn't always be equal outcomes

romantic love

a deep, affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

Differentiation

a discrimination between things as different and distinct

stereotype threat

a disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one's reputation into one's self- concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects

attitude

a favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone (often rooted in one's beliefs, and exhibited in one's feelings and intended behavior) -evaluations of people, objects, and ideas *an old friend's voice *a roommate's pile of dishes *smell of freshly cut grass -our behavior does not always reflect our attitudes -Why study attitudes? B = ƒ(individual*situation) Stable individual characteristic that can be used to predict behavior Consumer behavior, voting behavior, health behavior

Attachment

a feeling of affection for a person or an institution

Habituation

a general accommodation to unchanging environmental conditions

Stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

stereotype

a generalized belief about a group of people

Adolescent

a juvenile between the onset of puberty and maturity

Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

need to belong

a motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions

need to belong

a motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions.

social dominance orientation

a motivation to have one's group dominate other social groups

altruism

a motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's self-interests

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions or goals

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

stigma consciousness

a person's expectation of being victimized by prejudice or discrimination

authoritarian personality

a personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of outgroups and those lower in status

need to belong

a pervasive drive to form and maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive, and significant interpersonal relationships - social support predicts psychological well-being, physical health, and success

excitation transfer

a phenomenon in which the arousal caused by one stimulus is added to the arousal from a second stimulus and the combined arousal is erroneously attributed o the second stimulus

prejudice

a preconceived negative judgement of a group and its individual members

Meta Analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

Mere exposure

a psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them

Secure Attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

interaction

a relationship in which the effect of one factor (such as biology) depends on another factor (such as environment)

gender role

a set of behavior expectations (norms) for males and females

Role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

role

a set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave

superordinate goal

a shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people's differences from each other

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing its self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. examples include the Prisoner's Dilemma and the Tragedy of the Commons

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Social exchange theory

a social psychological and sociological perspective that explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties

passionate love

a state of intense longing for the union with another. these types of lovers are absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner's love, and are disconsolate on losing it.

passionate love

a state of intense longing for union with another. These kind of lovers are absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner's love, and are disconsolate on losing it.

passionate love

a state of intense longing for union with another. passionate lovers are absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner's love, and are disconsolate on losing it

door-in-the-face technique

a strategy for gaining a concession. after someone first turns down a large request, the same requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request

Cross-Sectional Study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

crowding

a subjective feeling that there is not enough space per person

Low-ball technique

a tactic for getting people to agree to something. People who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante. People who receive only the costly request are less likely to comply with it.

lowball technique

a tactic for getting people to agree to something: people who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante -people who receive only the costly request are less likely to comply with it ex: agree to buy a car because of the low price, salesperson then ups the price because "talking to the boss, it would lose them money" and the buyer will still comply -1st agree to participate in a study, THEN agree to come at 7 am (more likely than just asking people to come at 7 am)

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

Triangular theory of love

a theory of love developed by psychologist Robert Sternberg. In the context of interpersonal relationships, "the three components of love, according to the triangular theory, are an intimacy component, a passion component, and a decision/commitment component.

self-affirmation theory

a theory that people often experience a self-image threat after engaging in an undesirable behavior and they can compensate by affirming another aspect of the self -threaten people's self-concept in one domain and they will compensate either by refocusing or by doing good deeds in some other domain -people with high and secure self-esteem also engage in less self-justification

covariation model

a theory that states that to form an attribution about what caused a person's behavior, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether or not the behavior occurs

Attribution Theory

a theory that supposes that one attempts to understand the behavior of others by attributing feelings, beliefs, and intentions to them

behavioral confirmation

a type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations.

Distress-maintaining attributions

Partners in unsatisfying relationships are more likely to make attributions that cast partner in a negative light

fatuous love

Passion and commitment without intimacy

Passionate Love: The Thrill of It

Passionate love requires: A heightened state of physiological arousal; and The belief that this arousal was triggered by the beloved person Sometimes can misattribute physiological arousal to passionate love. Process known as excitation transfer

Ambivalent attachment

Pattern in which an infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely upset during his or her absence, and both seeks and resists contact on his or her return. Positive model of self positive model of other

14-16: How can we transform feelings of prejudice, aggression, and conflict into attitudes that promote peace?

Peace can result when individuals or groups work together to achieve superordinate (shared) goals. Research indicates that four processes—contact, cooperation, communication, and conciliation—help promote peace.

self-perception: pen in teeth vs. pen in lips study

Pen in teeth vs. pen in lips. How funny are cartoons? Pen in teeth uses smile muscle Pen in lips uses muscles incompatible with smile People find cartoons funnier when holding pen in teeth vs. lips *behavior=smiling attitude=cartoons are funny

d

People are especially inclined to help someone who is ___. a) altruistic b) authoritarian c) low in status d) physically attractive

b

People are especially likely to feel unsympathetic to a victim of misfortune if they ___. a) are in a good mood b) believe in a just world c) feel overbenefited d) feel underbenefited

Equity in communal relationships

People feel distressed if they believe their intimate relationships are inequitable. Equity takes on some form in communal relationships than it does in less intimate ones. In communal relationships, partners are more relaxed about what constitutes equity in a given time, believing things will eventually balance out and some equity will be achieved over the long run. If this doesnt happen, and partners continue to feel an imbalance, the relationship may ultimately end.

The matching phenomenon

People pair up with others who are equally attractive

Love Marriage

People pick their partner because they love them; meet on their own; love may decrease over time

Technology and social connections on similarity

People seek others with similar "popularity" in online dating sites

What is beautiful is good stereotype

People who are physically more attractive have a lot of benefits. Physical attractiveness affects the attributions people make about others. Specifically, we tend to attribute to beautiful people positive qualities that have nothing to do with their looks. Research has shown that physical attractiveness has the largest effect on both mens and womens attributions when they are judging social competence.

High comparison level for alternatives

People who believe the world is filled with fabulous people who are trying to meet them or people who are aware there is one particular fabulous person who is trying to meet them. These people are more likely to take the plunge and hit the market for a new friend or lover

Low comparison level

People who have this would be happy in the same relationship because they expect their relationships to be difficult and costly.

Familiarity on reciprocal liking

People who we like and get to know become familiar

Investment model

People's commitment to a relationship depends not only on satisfaction, but also on their investment and what would be lost by leaving it Looks at investment and potential costs associated with leaving

Comparison Level

People's expectations about the level of rewards and punishments they are likely to receive in a particular relationship

Comparison Level for Alternatives

People's expectations about the level of rewards and punishments they would receive in an alternative relationship.

Social exchange theory

People's feelings about a relationship depend on perceptions of rewards and costs, the kind of relationship they deserve, and their chances for having a better relationship Economic model of costs and benefits

Attachment Styles in Intimate Relationships

People's past relationships with their parents are a significant determinant of the quality of their close relationships as adults; there is evidence that there is a genetic determinant as well. There are three types of attachment relationships: secure, avoidant, and ambivalent/anxious

Comparison level for alternatives

Peoples expectations about the level of rewards and punishments and being aware they can replace it with a better one. "there are plenty of fish in the sea". Could a relationship with someone else give you better rewards and fewer outcomes?

Comparison level

Peoples expectations about the level of rewards and punishments they are likely to receive in a particular relationship. The history of various relationship leads you to have certain expectations as to what your future and current relationships should be like.

Cultural standards of beauty

Peoples perception of what is beautiful or handsome is similar across cultures. Even if racial and ethnic groups vary in specific facial features, people in different cultures agree on what specific facial features make the human face physically attractive.

Illusory correlation

Perception of a relationship where none exisits, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exisits.

Illusion of control

Perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one's control or as more controllable than they are.

Belief perserverance

Persistence of one's initial conceptions, as when the basis for ones belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives.

Type B Personality

Personality characterized by relatively relaxed, patient, easygoing, amicable behavior.

What is prodeuced in the body that is associated with passionate love?

Phenylethylamine in the brain

Physical Attractiveness and Liking

Physical attractiveness also plays an important role in liking. People from different cultures perceive facial attractiveness quite similarly. The "what is beautiful is good" stereotype indicates that people assume that physical attractiveness is associated with other desirable traits.

aggression

Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone.

Symbolic Function Substage

Piaget's first substage of preoperational thought, in which the child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present (between about 2 and 4 years of age).

Examples of Power of Repetition

Politicians and Advertisers

Shyness

Potential Sources: ~Personality trait ~Learned reaction to failed interactions with others

kinship selection

Preferential helping of genetic relatives, so that genes held in common will survive. Strongest with genetically closer relatives.

14-7: What is prejudice? What are its social and emotional roots?

Prejudice is an unjustifiable, usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice's three components are beliefs (often stereotypes), emotions, and predispositions to action (discrimination). Overt prejudice in North America has decreased over time, but implicit prejudice—an automatic, unthinking attitude—continues. The social roots of prejudice include social inequalities and divisions. Higher-status groups often justify their privileged position with the just-world phenomenon. We tend to favor our own group (ingroup bias) as we divide ourselves into "us" (the ingroup) and "them" (the outgroup). Prejudice can also be a tool for protecting our emotional well-being, as when we focus our anger by blaming events on a scapegoat.

Physical attractiveness stereotype

Presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well

diffusion of responsibility

Principle acting behind the bystander effect

Similarity

Propinquity increases familiarity, which leads to liking but what else is needed to fuel a growing friendship or romantic relationship? A match between our interests, attitudes, values, background, or personality and those of another person.

Similarity

Propinquity increases familiarity, which leads to liking, but something more is needed to "fuel" a growing relationship = similarity

Self-handicapping

Protecting one's self-image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure.

What predicts attraction

Proximity Similarity Reciprocal liking Familiarity

14-11: Why do we befriend or fall in love with some people but not with others?

Proximity (geographical nearness) increases liking, in part because of the mere exposure effect—exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of those stimuli. Physical attractiveness increases social opportunities and improves the way we are perceived. Similarity of attitudes and interests greatly increases liking, especially as relationships develop. We also like those who like us.

Why is proximity importation to attraction

Proximity breads familiarity. "the mere exposure" effect

d

Psychiatrists predicted that ___ participants would go all the way in Milgram's experiment, giving the maximum shock level (450 volts) to the confederate. a) 1 in 10 b) 1 in 50 c) 1 in 100 d) 1 in 1,000

Mirror-Image Perceptions

Reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive.

Insufficient justification

Reduction of dissonance by interanllu justifying one's behavior when external justification is "insufficient."

Asch Conformity Experiment

Refers to a series of studies directed by Solomon Asch studying if and how individuals yield to or defy a majority group and the effect of such influences on beliefs and opinions. Conclusion was that apparently, people conform for two main reasons: because they want to fit in with the group (normative influence) and because they believe the group is better informed than they are (informational influence).

Define the need to belong

Refers to the fundamental human motivation to form and maintain close, lasting relationships with other individuals

Why do social psychologists study rejection?

Rejection cuases lots of problems

Process of breaking up

Relationship dissolution in not a single event, but a process with many steps 1. Intrapersonal: thinks about dissatisfaction 2. Dyadic: discusses breakup with partner 3. Social: breakup announced to others 4. Intrapersonal: recover by thinking about why and how it happened

Exchange relationships

Relationships governed by the need for equity (for an equal ratio of rewards and costs)

Exchange Relationships

Relationships governed by the need for equity (i.e. for an equal ratio of rewards and costs)

Exchange relationships

Relationships governed by the need of equity (ie: for an equal ratio of rewards and costs). In these relationships, people keep track of who is contributing to what and feel taken advantage of when they feel they are putting in more into the relationship than they are getting out of it.

Communal Relationships

Relationships in which people's primary concern is being responsive to the other person's needs

Communal relationships

Relationships in which people's primary concern is being responsive to the other person's needs

Communal Relationships

Relationships in which people's primary concern is being responsive to the other person's needs.

Communal relationships

Relationships in which people's primary concern is being responsive to the other persons needs regardless of whether they get "paid back". These type of relationships are the hallmark of long term intimate relationships. Same sex couples have found they are equally committed and communal in their relationships. If anything, gay men and lesbians report greater compatibility and less conflict than heterosexual couples do.

Notion of social exchange theory

Relationships operate on an economic model of costs and benefits

Men (1 perspective of evolutionary psych theory)

Reproduction is a low-cost, short term investment Men will look for a woman who appeards capable of reproducing successfully. Men will also respond to a womans physical appearance, mainly age fitness and health

Women (1 perspective of evolutionary psych theory)

Reproduction is costly in terms of time, energy, and effort. They have primary responsibility for caring for the infant until maturity. Theory: They may consider carefully when and with whom to produce. Women may look for a man that has the resources and support she needs to raise a child. Women will also respond to economic and career achievements of men because these variables represent resources they and their offspring need

Field Research

Research done in natural, real-life settings outside the laboratory.

Newcomb (1961)

Research shows that the more similar someones opinions are to yours, the more you will like that person. A study conducted by a researcher that randomly assigned male students to be roomates in a particular dorm at the beginning of the school year. The study showed that men became friends with those who were demographically similar (shared rural background) as well as with those who were similar in attitudes and values (major or politics).

b

Research suggests that the mere sight of a weapon can ___. a) elicit frustration b) increase aggression c) prevent violence d) produce catharsis

The experience of breaking up

Responsibility is an important factor Gender: women report more negative reactions than men

Leon Festinger

Responsible for the development of the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Social comparison theory, and the discovery of the role of propinquity in the formation of social ties as well as other contributions to the study of social networks. He was also responsible for Social Comparison Theory, which examines how people evaluate their own opinions and desires by comparing themselves with others, and how groups exert pressures on individuals to conform with group norms and goals

Self Disclosure

Reveal intimate things to person to become closer (hopes, dreams, goals)

Self-disclosure

Reveling intimate aspects of oneself to others

Basic concepts

Rewards -Positive, gratifying aspects of relationship Costs -Negative aspects of relationship Outcome -Comparison of rewards versus costs Comparison level -Expectations vs. reality Comparison level of alternatives -People's expectations about the level of rewards and punishments they would receive in an alternative relationship -Relationship satisfaction also depends on your perception of the likelihood that you could replace it with a better one

Relational Building Blocks

Rewards-Costs-Comparison Level=Satisfaction Satisfaction-Comparison level for alternatives_ Investments=Commitment

Mutuals

Same level of responsibility Not as upset as "breakees" but more stressed than "breakers"

Benefits of association

Same sex vs opposite sex both believed that physical attractiveness is the strongest predictor of liking.

c

Sander becomes so angry at his roommate for stealing the keg of beer he bought for a party, that Sander starts kicking and hitting him repeatedly. Sander's actions are ___. a) aggressive b) violent c) aggressive and violent d) neither aggressive nor violent

Investment model of commitment (rusbult)

Satisfaction increases commitment, Alternatives of high quality decrease commitment, Investments in a relationship increase commitment to it i.e. they're happy, there's no where else to go and it would cost to much to leave

Preoperational Thought

Second stage of pigat last from 2-8yrs of age stable concepts are formed,mental reasoning are formed and magical beliefs are constructed

Secure process

Secure attachment > peer competence > secure friendships > adult romantic relationships

shaky bridge study

Sexual imagery used in responses to interview questions; Number of phone calls to experimenter Arousal in the amygdala during this study was mistaken for sexual arousal. Supports the Schacter's Cognitive Theory of emotion A study done to show that when under intense emotions people misinterpret these emotions as love.

Superordinate goals

Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

Sean bell

Shot at 50 times by NYPD, killed, no gun, right before got married.

Emperical Evidence

Similar attitudes in others & dissimilarity

What do friends and spouses share?

Similar attitudes, values, and beliefs

Liking and attraction

Similar personality promotes ______ and ______. For example, in a study, gay mens relationship: those who scored high stereotypical male traits wanted a logical partner-stereotypical masculine trait.

Similarity

Similarity between people, whether in attitudes, values, personality traits, or demographic characteristics, is also a powerful cause of attraction and liking. Similarity is a more powerful predictor of attraction than complementarity, the idea that opposites attract

Theories of relationship satisfaction

Social exchange theory Investment model Equity theory

14-14: How do social exchange theory and social norms explain helping behavior?

Social exchange theory is the view that we help others because it is in our own self-interest; in this view, the goal of social behavior is maximizing personal benefits and minimizing costs. Others believe that helping results from socialization, in which we are taught guidelines for expected behaviors in social situations, such as the reciprocity norm and the social-responsibility norm.

Theories of Interpersonal Attraction: Social Exchange and Equity

Social exchange theory states that how people feel about their relationships depends on their perception of the rewards they receive and the costs they incur. In order to determine whether people will stay in a relationship, we also need to know their comparison level-their expectations about the outcomes of their relationship-and their comparison level for alternatives-their expectations about how happy they would be in other relationships. Equity theory states that the most important determinant of satisfaction is the amount of equity in the relationship

14-1: What do social psychologists study? How do we tend to explain others' behavior and our own?

Social psychologists focus on how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. They study the social influences that explain why the same person will act differently in different situations. When explaining others' behavior, we may commit the fundamental attribution error (underestimating the influence of the situation and overestimating the effects of personality). When explaining our own behavior, we more readily attribute it to the influence of the situation.

Social Representations

Social shared beliefs- widely held ideas and values, including our assumptions and cultural ideologies. Our social representations help us make sense of the world.

Social Rejection: Psychological problems

Socially excluded people have high rates of psych problems (depression, suicide, anxiety)

Is beauty an objective quality

Some argue that certain faces are inherently more attractive than others High levels of agreement for facial ratings across ages and cultures Physical features of the face are reliably associated with judgements of attractiveness Babies prefer faces considered attractive by adults People from different cultures enhance their beauty in very different ways Ideal body shape varies across cultures as well as among racial groups within a culture Standards of beauty change over time Situational factors can influence judgements

d

Some people feel bad for having lived through terrible experiences in which many others died. This feeling is called ___. a) overbenefited b) posttraumatic stress disorder c) sensitivity about being the target of a threatening upward comparison d) survivor guilt

Shyness

Sources -inborn personality trait -learned reaction to failed interactions with others Painful consequences -negative self evaluations -expectations of failure in social encounters -self blame for social failures -self imposed isolation

Culture differences and similarities in attractiveness

South Koreans prioritize Honesty and Compassion more than Americans do, and they generally assume an attractive person to have these qualities

Preconventional Level

Stages 1 and 2 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning. Children think about moral questions in terms of external authority; acts are wrong because they are punished or right because they are rewarded.

Self esteem and Atteaction

Temporarily lowering self-esteem leads to greater social approval

Mere Exposure

Tendency for people to be liked more and rated positively after repeatedly being exposed to them

cognitive dissonance

Tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions. For example, dissonance may occur when we realize that we have, with little justification, acted contrary to our attitudes or made a decision favoring one alternative despite reasons favoring another.

bystander effect

Term for when you know there is an emergency occurring but you think someone else has done something.

pluralistic ignorance

Term for you're not sure if there is an emergency or not.

False consensus effect

Th tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors.

Superego

That part of the unconscious mind that acts as a conscience

Transitivity

The ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions.

empathy

The ability to put oneself in the shoes of another person and to experience events and emotions (e.g., joy and sadness) the way that person experiences them.

Self- presentation

The act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impresson that corresponds to one's ideals.

Defense pessimism

The adaptive value of anticipating problems and hardnessing one's anxiety to motivate effectice action.

Compassionate love

The affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined

stereotype threat

The apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype A disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Have effects on performance because he individual is actively trying to not be stereotypical.

Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment

The attachment pattern reflecting the greatest insecurity, characterizing infants who show confused, contradictory responses when reunited with the parent after a separation.

Attachment style combinations: Kirkpatrick & Davis (1994)

The attachment theory is not destiny. People who had unhappy relationships with their parents are not doomed to repeat this same kind of unhappy relationship with everyone they meet. People have changed from one attachment style to another. 25% to 30% of participants have changed. Experiences and relationships can help one learn new and healthier ways of relating to others than what they experienced as children.

Evolutionary Psychology

The attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection

Evolutionary Psychology

The attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection Evolutionary Psychologists argue that men and women have different agendas when it comes to mate selection due to their different roles in producing (and raising) offspring.

Spotlight Effect

The belief that others are paying more attention to one's appearance and behavior than they really are.

The Process of Breaking Up

The breaking up process is composed of stages. Strategies for responding to problems in a romantic relationship include both constructive and destructive behaviors. Fatal attractions occur when the qualities in a person that once were attractive become the very qualities that repel

pluralistic ignorance

The case in which people think that everyone else is interpreting a situation in a certain way when in fact they are not.

14-8: What are the cognitive roots of prejudice?

The cognitive roots of prejudice grow from our natural ways of processing information: forming categories, remembering vivid cases, and believing that the world is just and our own and our culture's ways of doing things are the right ways.

Individualism

The concept of giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.

The power of familiarity

The crucial variable that explains interpersonal attraction may be familiarity. Research shows that participants prefer faces that most resemble their own.

"actual" similarity and "perceived" similiarity

The degree to which one believes they are similar to another person. Feeling similar to a person is whats really important- so much that we will create beliefs about the similarity between ourselves and the other person

altruism

The desire to help another person even if it involves a cost to the helper

Overjustification effect

The effect of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing.

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Equity in Long-Term Relationships

The equity of rewards and costs is different in long-term relationships (typically communal relationships) that in short-term relationships (typically exchange relationships)

norm of reciprocity

The expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future.

Attachment Styles

The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants

Attachment styles

The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that a researcher manipulates.

Locus of control

The extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts or as externally controlled by chance or outside forces.

bystander effect

The finding that the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help

Mere Exposure Effect

The finding that the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more apt we are to like it

Propinquity Effect

The finding that the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends

Propinquity Effect

The finding that the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends and/or lovers. Some of our relationships develop simply because we were "at the right place at the right time."

d

The fire alarm goes off. Nina doesn't move because she's uncertain about what's going on. She assumes that other people don't move because they know it's just a fire drill. Nina's thoughts illustrate ___. a) diffusion of responsibility b) the discounting principle c) normative social influence d) pluralistic ignorance

Germinal Stage

The first phase of prenatal development, encompassing the first two weeks after conception.

in-group

The group with which an individual identifies as a member.

Immune neglect

The human tendency to underestimate the speed and strength of the "psychological immune system," which enables emtional recovery and resilience after bad things happen.

kin selection

The idea that behaviors that help a genetic relative are favoured by natural selection.

Two factor theory of emotion

The idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it. or Arousal + Label = Emotion

Equity theory

The idea that people are happiest with relationships in which rewards and costs experienced and the contributions made by both parties are roughly equal.

Equity Theory

The idea that people are happiest with relationships in which the reward and costs experienced and the contributions made by both parties are roughly equal

Social Exchange Theory

The idea that people's feelings about a relationship depend on their perceptions of the rewards and the costs of the relationship, the kind of relationship they deserve, and their chances for having a better relationship with someone else

Social exchange theory

The idea that peoples feelings about a relationship depends on their perception of the rewards and costs of the relationship, the kind of relationship they deserve, and their chances for having a better relationship with someone else. We "buy" the best relationship we can get. Most value for our emotional dollar

empathy-altruism hypothesis

The idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person purely for altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain.

Illustion of transparency

The illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others.

Companionate love

The intimacy and affection we feel when we care deeply for a person Do not experience passion or arousal in the person's presence

Companionate Love

The intimacy and affection we feel when we care deeply for a person but do not experience passion or arousal in the person's presence

mere exposure effect

The more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more apt we are to like it, unless negative qualities appear: then you will have greater dislikes about that stimulus

bystander effect

The more people present at an emergency, the less chance any one person will help.

Long v. short term relationships

The more we get to know someone... -the more reluctant to believe that we are simply exchanging favors -the less inclined to expect immediate compensation for a favor

Propinquity effect

The more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends Occurs due to the mere exposure effect Functional distance matters EX. Neighbor study

Proximity/Geographical nearness

The more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends.

c

The need to belong has two parts, ___ and ___. a) business contacts; pleasure contacts b) female contacts; male contacts c) regular social contacts; an ongoing relationship d) All of the above

The need to belong

The need to belong is a basic human motive We care deeply about what other think of us Those with a network of close social ties tend to be happier healthier and more satisfied with life than those who are more isolated

diffusion of responsibility

The phenomenon whereby each bystander's sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of witnesses increases.

Complementarity

The popularly supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other

Physical-Attractiveness Stereotype

The presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: What is beautiful is good.

Random Assignment

The process assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment such that all persons have the same chance of being in a given condition.

Persuasion

The process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.

Random Assignment

The process of assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment such that all persons have the same chance of being in a given condition.

altruistic personality

The qualities that cause an individual to help others in a wide variety of situations.

displacement

The redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target.

Buss (1989)

The researcher argued that the evolutionary approach explains the different strategies and tendencies of men and women in romantic relationships. -Human beings have been selected through evolution to respond to certain external cues in the opposite sex.

overjustification effect

The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing

d

The results from Milgram's experiments are generally taken to show that ___. a) males are more physically aggressive than females b) people can be sadistic c) people often are resistant to situational pressures d) situational pressures can overwhelm individual differences

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Learned Helplessness

The sense of hepelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal percieves no control over repeated bad events.

Propinquity

The simplest determinants of interpersonal attraction is proximity.

The Proximity Effect

The single best predictor of attraction is physical proximity or nearness Where we live influences the friends we make College students tend to date those who live either nearby or in the same type of housing as they do

Regression Toward the Average

The statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one's average.

regression toward the average

The statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one's average.

Correlational Research

The study of the naturally occuring relationships amoung variables.

Overconfidence

The tendencu to be more confidnet that correct-- to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs.

matching phenomenon

The tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a "good match" in attractiveness and other traits

Matching Phenomenon

The tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a "good match" in attractiveness and other traits.

Matching Phenomenon

The tendency for men and women to choose partners who are a "good match" in attractiveness and other traits

Mere-Exposure Effect

The tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them.

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others' behavior.

Disclosure Reciprocity

The tendency for one persons intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner

b

The tendency for people to go along with the crowd is called ___. a) compliance b) conformity c) cooperation d) obedience

Foot- in- the- door phenomenon

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with larger request.

Overconfidence Phenomenon

The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one's ability to have foreseen how something turned out. Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.

Centration

The tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects.

B

The tendency to make a dispositional attribution about an entire group of people is called the A) fundamental attribution error, B) ultimate attribution error, C) out-group homogeneity bias, D) actor/observer effect.

A

The tendency to perceive a relationship where none exists, or to overestimate how often things go together is called: A) illusory correlation, B) automatic priming correlation, C) out-group homogeneity, D) self-fulfilling prophecy.

Self-serving bias

The tendency to percieve oneself favorably.

Representativeness

The tendency to presume, sometimes despide contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member.

Representativeness Heuristic

The tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member.

Shooter Bias

The tendency to shoot an armed black man faster than an armed white man in addition to decide to not shoot an unarmed white man compared to an unarmed black man. automatic thinking, often occurs to police in high impact situation, have to make fast decision, more likely to shoot black people with items, thinking it is a gun

Planning Fallacy

The tendency to under estimate how long it will take to complete a task.

Planning fallacy

The tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task.

False uniqueness effect

The tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desiable or successful behaviors.

Attribution theory

The theory of how people explain others' behavior- for example, by attributing it either to internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, and attitudes) or to external situations.

Alice Isen and Paul Levin (1972) found that mall shoppers who found dimes were more likely to help a stranger pick up papers he had dropped. These results suggest that A) participants thought the money belonged to the man and wanted to return it. B) finding a dime put people in a good mood and increased their helping, C) finding a dime instead of a quarter disappointed people, and this negative mood increased helping, D) thinking happy thoughts enhances both mood and helping

b

Men become most upset by ________ infidelity. Women become most upset by ________ infidelity. A) emotional; sexual, B) sexual; emotional, C) Both men and women are most upset by sexual infidelity, D) both men and women are most upset by emotional infidelity.

b

Which of the following is NOT one of the three reasons why being in a good mood would make someone more likely to help another person? A) Good moods help us look on the bright side of life, B) Being in a good mood increases empathy, C) Helping others can prolong a good mood, D) Good moods increase self-attention.

b

aggression

behavior intended to harm another, either physically or mentally, and includes both action and inaction

theory of planned behavior

behavioral intentions predict deliberate behavior, which is similar to controlled processing

proximity

being geographically near another, predicts liking this is called _______ has three components: Interaction, Anticipation, and Mere exposure

Criticism

being overly critical toward partner

stereotype

belief that associates a group with a certain trait

perceived control

belief that we can influence our environment

self-concept

beliefs people have about themselves

ethnocentric

believing in the superiority of one's own ethnic and cultural group, and having a corresponding disdain for all other groups

Secure Relationship

better able to develop mature, long lasting relationships as adults

Sexual Indentity

biological sex, gender inequality, and sexual orientation

conceptual operation

broad definition of the concept

Importance of Relationships

absence of relationships makes people feel lonely, worthless, hopeless, helpless

attitude accessibility

accessible attitudes predict spontaneous behavior

subgrouping

accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this subset of the group

subtyping

accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by thinking of them as "exceptions to the rule"

subtyping

accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by thinking of them as "exceptions to the rule."

terror management

according to "terror management theory," people's self-protective emotional and cognitive responses (including adhering more strongly to their cultural world views and prejudices) when confronted with reminders of their mortality

GRIT

acronym for "graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction"- a strategy designed to de-escalate international tensions.

Displacement

act of taking the place of another especially using underhanded tactics

prosocial behavior

act that aims to benefit another person

Conformity

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Conformity

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

tripartite model

affect: emotional response to the object behavior: behavior toward the object cognition: thoughts about the object

self-affirmation

affirming ability on unrelated dimension to maintain self-esteem in the face of threat

Social Rejection: Social problems

aggression among young and old people

culture of honor

aggression can protect honor and status

evolutionary explanation

aggression serves as survival and reproduction

instrumental aggression

aggression that is a means to some other end

proximity and attraction

aka functional distance - mere exposure effect

empathy-altruism hypothesis

altruism occurs when people feel empathy

Temperament

an adjustment of the intervals (as in tuning a keyboard instrument) so that the scale can be used to play in different keys

Fearful avoidant

an adult attachment style that is characterized by the urge to protect oneself and stay away from relationships, while at the same time having an urge to be in a relationship

Passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

Passionate Love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.

mediation

an attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitation communication and offering suggestions

dismissive attachment

an avoidant relationship style marked by distrust of others

fearful attachment

an avoidant relationship style marked by fear of rejection

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social-responsibility norm

an expectations that people will help those needing help

reciprocity norm

an expectations that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

instinctive behavior

an innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species

companionate love

an intimate, non-passionate type of love that is stronger than friendship because of the element of long-term commitment

Alzheimer's Disease

an irreversible, progressive brain disorder, characterized by the deterioration of memory, language, and eventually, physical functioning

Norm

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. They prescribe "proper" behavior.

prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members

Prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. It generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

actor-observer effect

assume dispositional attributions for others and situational attributions for yourself

preoccupied attachment

attachments marked by a sense of one's own unworthiness and anxiety, ambivalence, and possessiveness

insecure attachment

attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence

avoidant attachment

attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others.

secure attachment

attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy

Central Route Persuasion

attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.

Peripheral Route Persuasion

attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness.

specificity principle

attitude measures should match behavior

behavioral intention

attitude toward the behavior

self-serving attributions

attribute our successes to dispositions and blame our failures on external factors -protects our self-esteem and self-image

situational attribution

attribution to external factors

dispositional attribution

attribution to internal factors

biased attribution

attributional biases perpetuate sterotypes and situational attributions are used for inconsistent behaviors

The concept of _________ refers to the idea that when no bystanders to a possible emergency appear to be concerned, other bystanders assume that nothing is wrong. A) the bystander effect, B) diffusion of responsibility, C) pluralistic ignorance, D) evaluation apprehension.

c

Companionate Love

care deeply for a person but do not experience passion or arousal in their presence

Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment

caregivers are inconsistent & overbearing in their affection. Anxious b/c they can never predict when & how caregivers will respond to their needs

conformity

change in a person's attitude or behavior due to real or imagined influence of others

compliance

changes in behavior from direct request

Cognitive Developmental Theory

children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world

Men usually help in a scenario where they have to be___________. Women do more ___________ help

chivalrous or heroic, nurturing style

Secure attachment

classified by children who show some distress when their caregiver leaves but are able to compose themselves and do something knowing that their caregiver will return

interdependent self

closely connected to social context -goal:fit in and maintain harmony

Proximity

closeness, either in terms of physical distance, personal relationship, or length of time

familiarity

combination of proximity and exposure

Chameleon Effect

common phenomenon in which people tend to mimic people around them unconsciously

social comparison

compare to others to learn about ourselves

upward comparison

comparing with someone better to learn about how we can improve

downward comparison

comparing with someone worse to make our situation seem better

CLalt

comparison level for alternatives; expectations about outcomes with other possible partners

realistic conflict theory

competition for resources like, political, social, and economic, can cause hostility

"Door In The Face" Phenomenon

compliance technique in which refusal of a large technique in which refusal of a large unreasonable request is followed by a smaller, more reasonable request

Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment Style

concern that others will not reciprocate ones desire for intimacy, resulting in high anxiety

self-efficacy

confidence in the ability to carry out actions that produce desired outcomes

equal-status contact

contact on an equal basis. just as a relationship between people of unequal status breeds attitudes consistent with their relationship, so do relationships between those of equal status. thus, to reduce prejudice, interracial contact should be between persons equal in status

self-handicapping

create obstacles to one's success so that we have a ready-made excuse for failure -protects self-esteem and the self-image

Protect against shooter bias

create training to teach how to "ignore" irrelevant information (e.g. skin color).

social scripts

culturally provided mental instructions for how to act in various situations

working self-concept

currently activated self-concept -changes from situation to situation

Donald and Max are yelling at each other in a room and are on the verge of a fist fight. What would increase the probability of a fist fight occurring? A) a gun rack on the wall, B) Max taking his shirt off to signal his readiness to fight, C) The heater being on full blast making the room very hot, D) both A and C.

d

Erich Fromm (1955) wrote, "Love is often nothing but a favourable exchange between two people who get the most of what they can expect, considering their value on the personality market." Although a bit cynical, this description of love is most compatible with the ________ theory of attraction. A) comparison level, B) propinquity, C) equity, D) social exchange

d

In the Good Samaritan study involving seminary students who were supposed to record a talk, which of the following factors affected participants' helping behavior: A) mood, B) subject of the talk, C) bystanders, D) time.

d

Research has indicated that although Southerners are not more likely than Northerners to endorse aggression in general, __________. A) the "culture of honor" in the North encourages alternatives to aggression, B) Southerners are less likely to endorse aggression for self-protection, C) the availability of handguns in the South produces more homicides there, D) southerners are more prone to aggress in response to insults.

d

The same act may be considered aggression or not depending on A) whether physical harm was actually done, B) whether physical or psychological harm was done, C) whether the act was due to anger or was a means to an end, D) whether the physical/psychological harm was intended.

d

When it comes to helping behavior: a) men are more helpful than women, b) women are more helpful than men, c) no difference between the genders, d) either gender might be more helpful depending on the help needed

d

The presence of someone that is modelling not-help behavior *[increases/decreases]* helping behavior.

decreases

Matching hypothesis

derived from the discipline of social psychology and was first proposed by Elaine Hatfield and her colleagues in 1966, which suggests why people become attracted to their partner

Need for affiliation

describes a person's need to feel a sense of involvement and "belonging" within a social group

Dismissive

describes the type of relationship between a child and caregiver in which a child avoids the caregiver or may feel emotionally indifferent toward him or her

Self-Expansion

desire to overlap or blend with another person so that you have access to that persons knowledge, insights and experiences to broaden your own

Rejection

direct exclusion of individual ex: "I don't want to play with you"

self-consistency theory

dissonance must be related to the self and the conflict is with one's overly positive self-views

Mood Linkage

efers to the human tendency to absorb and participate in the prevailing mood of the other people around

catharsis

emotional release. the catharsis view of aggression is that aggressive drive is reduced when one "releases" aggressive energy, either by acting aggressively or by fantasizing aggression.

memory processes

encoding more stereotype consistent behaviors, and having stereotypes fill in gaps during retrieval

social comparison

evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others.

dissociation model

everyone knows different group stereotypes, but only some people endorse these stereotypes.

correlation method

examines relationships between two variable

Close relationships

exchange or communal properities

Oxytocin

excites us (produced during orgasm & after child birth)

Attachment Styles

expectations people develop about relationships with others based on the relationship they had with their caregiver

Attachment Styles

expectations people develop about relationships, based on their relationship with primary caregiver when they were infants

Anticipation

expecting to meet another increases liking

Evolutionary Psychology

explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time by natural selection

group-serving bias

explaining away outgroup members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one's own group)

extrinsic motivation

external rewards or pressures

Proximity effect works because of

familiarity: frequency of actual contact

normative influence

fear negative consequences of deviance

stereotype threat

fear of confirming a negative stereotype, so people act in accordance with the stereotype

Companionate Love

feelings of intimacy & affection we have for someone that is not accompanied by passion

Companionate love

feelings of intimacy and affection we have for someone that are not accompanied by passion or psychological arousal. People can experience this kind of love in a nonsexual close friendship or in a sexual relationship in which they experience great feelings or intimacy but not much the heat and passion as they once felt.

Attraction

feelings of liking for others, together with having positive thoughts about them and inclinations to act toward them in positive ways

Attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

Evolutionary factors in helping and altruism emphasize survival of the individual's______ , not the survival of the fittest individual.

genes

Proximity

geographic nearness is a powerful predictor of friendship. Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases their attraction

proximity

geographical nearness, more precisely functional distance powerfully predicts liking.

proximity

geographical nearness. (more precisely, "functional distance") powerfully predicts liking.

proximity

geographical nearness. Proximity (functional distance) powerfully predicts liking

proximity

geographical nearness. This (more precisely, "functional distance") powerfully predicts liking.

cognitive dissonance theory

having two cognitions that contradict each other, which creates an uncomfortable state of arousal.

Fritz Heider

he published The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, which expanded upon his creation of balance theory and marked the starting point of attribution theory.

cooperative group

help ingroup more than outgroup member which increases the chances on one's group surviving

reciprocal altruism

help people so they will return the favor

Proximity

how close you are to someone

social influence

how imagined or implied presence of others affects people

Functional distance

how often people's paths cross

functional distance

how often people's paths cross

Social exchange theory

how people feel (positively or negatively) about their relationships will depend on... -Their perception of the rewards they receive from the relationship -Their perception of the costs they incur -Their perception of what kind of relationship they deserve and the probability that they could have a better relationship with someone else.

Physical Attractiveness

how people look

social facilitation

improved performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered

gender

in psychology, the characteristics, whether biological or socially influenced, by which people define male and female

People in interdependent cultures are more likely to help ________ than people in individualistic cultures.

in-group members

experimental method

includes an independent variable (manipulated & cause) and dependent variable (measured & effect)

subtyping

inconsistent outgroup members are seen as exceptions and people make a new subgroup for these subgroups

The presence of someone that is modelling helping behavior *[increases/decreases]* helping behavior.

increases

individualists cultures

independent self-construal (meaning)

attribution

inferences about causes of behavior

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Normative Social Influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

Informational Social Influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality.

Passionate Love

intense longing felt for a person, along with physiological arousal. when love is reciprocated we feel ecstasy, when no we feel sadness and despair

Passionate Love

intense longing for someone characterized by experience of physiological arousal; feeling short of breath & thumping heart

collectivist cultures

interdependent self-construal (meaning)

Peripheral persuasion

involves automatic processing (Heuristic Processing)

Central Persuasion

involves conscious processing (systematic processing)

Attraction

is in the eye of the beholder; what is beautiful to that peron

Reciprocal Liking

knowing someone is attracted to you fuels your attraction to that person, sometimes happens b/c of self-fulfilling prophecy by expecting someone to like us by showing more favorable behavior

social learning theory

learn behavior by observing others and attend to rewards and punishments

Burnstein et al., 1994 found that in life or death situations, the older the target person, the*[less/more] *people tend to help them.

less

In non-emergencies and in a non-valued domain, possibly *[less/ more]* likely to help.

less

there is* [less/more] *likelihood that you will help people with a stigmatized physical condition.

less

Avoidant Relationship

less able to trust others & can't develop close intimate relationships

Rubin's love scale

liking vs. loving

Prepositional Reasoning

logical thinking that involves evaluation a statement or series of statements based on the information in the statement alone

introspection

look inward for thoughts, feelings, and motives

Beer Goggles

makes a person more attractive at 2am after several beers

Evolutionary Approach to Love

men and women are attracted to different characteristics in each other (men attracted to women's appearance, women are attracted to men's resourcefulness b/c it maximizes their reproductive success

Integrity

moral soundness

Burnstein et al., 1994 found that in every day situations, people tend to help the young and the old* [less/more]* than youthful adults.

more

You are *[less/more]* likely to help people of similar race.

more

You are *[less/more]* likely to help someone you've just said hello to

more

Mere Exposure Effect

more exposure to something = more likely to like it

hassles

more minor frequent annoyances of nuisances which better predict well being than major life events

effects

more similar effects are less informative

optimal distinctiveness theory

motives of belongingness and and distinctiveness and we seek groups that balance motivations

When people are in a good mood, they are *[much less/ less/ just as/ more/ much more]* likely to be helpful.

much more

Mirror-Image Perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.

Relationship Expectations

n Comparison Level (CL) n Average expected outcome in relationships. n Comparison Level for Alternatives (CLalt) n Expectations of what would receive in an alternative situation. n Investments in relationship increase commitment.

First encounters: pursuing those who are hard to get

n Does the hard-to-get effect exist? n We prefer people who are moderately selective to those who are nonselective or too selective. n We are turned off by those who reject us. n Psychological reactance can increase or decrease attraction.

First encounters: Liking others who like us

n Heider (1958): People prefer relationships that are psychologically balanced. n A state of balance exists when the relationship is characterized by reciprocity. n Mutual exchange between what one gives and what one receives n Liking is mutual, which is why we tend to like others who indicate that they like us.

Intimate relationships

n Often involve three basic components: n Feelings of attachment, affection, and love n The fulfillment of psychological needs n Interdependence between partners, each of whom has a meaningful influence on the other n How do first encounters evolve into intimate relationships? n By stages or by leaps and bounds?

The intimate marketplace social exchange theory

n People are motivated to maximize benefits and minimize costs in their relationships with others. n Relationships that provide more rewards and fewer costs will be more satisfying and endure longer. n The development of an intimate relationship is associated with the overall level of rewards.

Matching Hypothesis

n People tend to become involved romantically with others who are equivalent in their physical attractiveness. n Matching is predictive of progress in a relationship.

Similarity in appearance

n Seek physical proximity to those similar in appearance n Seek others with similar degree of physical attractiveness

Interests and experiences

n Situations you choose to be in expose you to others with similar interests. n Then, when you discover and create new similarities, they fuel the friendship. n Close friendships are often made in college, in part because of prolonged propinquity.

stress

negative feelings and beliefs which make us feel like we are unable to cope with a situation (depends on the appraisal of the situation)

negative effect

negative feelings like frustration can trigger aggression

prejudice

negative feelings toward a group

Secondary Sex Characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

old-fashioned racism

openly admitting to having racist attitude

Similarity vs complementary debate

opposites don't attract, birds of a feather flock together. Similarity is the common and significant cause of attraction

Example of Mere Exposure Effect

other students in your class; see them everyday

People in interdependent cultures are less likely to help ________ than people in individualistic cultures.

out-group members

Defensiveness

refusing to accept responsibility for conflicts

Displaced

removed from a place

Mere Exposure Effect

repeated being exposed to the stimuli we become familiar with it and will end up liking it (can work the opposite way too)

mere exposure effect

repeated contact increases liking

arbitration

resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement

Women want

resources

Reciprocity

responding to a positive action with another positive action, rewarding kind actions.

external validity

results of study can be generalized to other situations and to other people

self disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

Self-Disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

Social Exchange Theory

reward, cost, outcome, and comparison level 1. perception of rewards received, 2. how much they put in (cost) 3. what kind of relationship they deserve 4. can they have a better relationship with someone else?

Basic concepts of social exchange theory

rewards costs outcome comparison level

Equity Theory

rewards and costs are experienced & contributions are by both parties (people are the happiest)

Three attachment styles

secure, avoidant, and anxious/ambivalent

Attachment style

security style, fear avoidant style, dismissive style, and preoccupied

bargaining

seeking resolution of a conflict through direct negotiation between parties

independent self

separate from social context -goal:to be unique and different

Passionate love

sexual feelings, intense longing for the partner, and euphoric feelings of fulfillment and ecstasy, and want to be close to and have contact with the person

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

Androgyny

showing characteristics of both sexes

Attitude inoculation

similar to vaccination-small doses to build up an immunity to persuasion

similarity vs. complementarity in liking

similarity creates more successful long-term relationships

similarity vs. opposites attract

similarity tends to hold for long term relationships

Underlies of familiarity

similarity: people similar to us will also seem familiar to us propinquity: people we see frequently become familiar through exposure Reciprocal liking: people who like each other get to know and become familiar with each other. All of these attraction variables may be expressions of our "underlying preference for the familiar and safe over the unfamiliar and potentially dangerous"

People in *[small town/ city]* are more likely to help

small town

altruism

special type of prosocial behavior that has no benefit to one's self

operational operation

specific definition of the concept

norms

standards for accepted and expected behavior. norms prescribe "proper" behavior. (in a different sense of the word, norms also describe what most others do- what is normal)

self-fulfilling prophecies

stereotypes act as expectation for behavior and influence how we act towards target. The target then responds by confirming expectations

perception of behavior

stereotypes guide attention and perception and we interpret behaviors as stereotype-consistent

Mere exposure

stimuli liked more after repeated exposure

Social Facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

attitude

summary evaluation of object or event that can be favorable or unfavorable

Avoidant Attachment Style

suppression of attachment needs from attempts to be intimate which were shot down, people with this style find it difficult to develop intimate relationships

Matching Hypothesis

tend to match with someone who is about as physically attractive as us (can also be on religion, political etc)

attractiveness stereotype

tendency to attribute positive qualities and desirable characteristics to attractive people

kinship selection

tendency to help genetic relatives

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships.

social identity

the "we" aspect of out self-concept; the part of our answer to "who am i?" that comes from our group memberships

Decentering

the ability to take multiple aspects of a situation into account

Gender-Typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

companionate love

the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined

Object Permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

frustration

the blocking of goal-directed behavior

Primary Sex Characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Personal Space

the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies.

personal space

the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies. its size depends on our familiarity with whoever is near us.

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

Companionate Love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.

Sex Roles

the different activities expected of males and females

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people that transmitted from one generation to the next

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group

Group Polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.

natural selection

the evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuing generations

Attatchment styles

the expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationships they had with their primacy caregiver when they were infants. KEY ASSUMPTION: particular attachment styles we learn in infancy becomes our working model or schema for what relationships are like. These schemas typically stay with us through life and generalize to adult relationships with other people.

bystander effect

the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders

bystander effect

the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders.

mere exposure effect

the finding that the more exposure we have to a stimulus the more apt we are to like it

Menarche

the first occurrence of menstruation in a woman

Rusbult's investment model

the greater the investment individuals have in a relationship, the less likely they are to leave and even in satisfaction is low and other alternatives look promising.

kin selection

the idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one's close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes

Maturation

the internally programmed growth of a child

physical-attractiveness stereotype

the presumption that physically attractive people posses other socially desirable traits as well: What is beautiful is good.

physical-attractiveness stereotype

the presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: What is beautiful is good

physical-attractiveness stereotype

the presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: what is beautiful is good

physical-attractiveness stereotype

the presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: what is beautiful is good.

Conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

frustration aggression principle

the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression

Frustration-Aggression Principle

the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression.

Gender

the properties that distinguish organisms on the basis of their reproductive roles

displacement

the redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration. generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target

social rewards

the rewarded we feel by spending time together, rewarding to be around someone who likes us, particularly when that person is physically attractive. The more of these-the less costs us person provides us-the more we like the person

Reviewing across many research studies about the likelihood of helping others, people with high scores on personality tests of altruism help *[less/more/the same]* as people with low scores.

the same

Social Psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Social Psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Social Psychology

the scientific study of the way in which individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of others

Assimilation

the social process of absorbing one cultural group into harmony with another

regression toward the average

the statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one's average

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Bystander Effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

matching phenomenon

the tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a "good match" in attractiveness and other traits

mere-exposure effect

the tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeated exposed to them

mere-exposure effect

the tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them

mere-exposure effect

the tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them.

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

disclosure reciprocity

the tendency for one person's intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner

disclosure reciprocity

the tendency for one persons intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Social Loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

Just-World Phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

own-race bias

the tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race (also called the cross-race effect or other-race effect)

own-race bias

the tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race. (also called the cross-race effect or other-race effect)

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request ex. asked to wear a pin for cancer first, then twice as likely to donate after! -ending blood drive calls with "we'll count on seeing you" increases show-up rate -1st: how to look at someone's profile? -2nd: how to work email? can you send me one?

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply with a larger request

just-world phenomenon

the tendency of people to believe that the wold is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

just-world phenomenon

the tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

just-world phenomenon

the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

adaptation-level phenomenon

the tendency to adapt to a given level of stimulation and thus to notice and react to changes from that level

overconfidence phenomenon

the tendency to be more confident that correct- to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor one's own group

Other-Race Effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias

frustration-aggression theory

the theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress

social-exchange theory

the theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs

social=exchange theory

the theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Social Exchange Theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

realistic group conflict theory

the theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

Scapegoat Theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting discomfort by changing our attitudes.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 728)

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished.

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

reward theory of attraction

the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events

Attribution Theory

the theory that we tend to give a casual explanation for someone's behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

Moral Reasoning

the thinking that occurs as we consider right and wrong

Menopause

the time in a woman's life in which the menstrual cycle ends

Puberty

the time of life when sex glands become functional

Adolescence

the time period between the beginning of puberty and adulthood

ingratiation

the use of strategies such as flattery by which people seek to gain another's favor

ingratiation

the use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another's favor

empathy

the vicarious experience of another's feelings; putting oneself in another's shoes

Functional Distance

the way architectural designs affect the likeliness that some people will come in contact each other more often than others

attribution theories

theories about how people explain causes, not how people should explain behavior

complementary needs theory

theory that we either select a partner who has the characteristcs we wish we had ourselves or someone who cna help us be the kind of person we want to be

Intuitive Thought

thinking that reflects preschoolers' use of primitive reasoning and their avid acquisition of knowledge about the world

Levinger's model

this model derived from exchange theory, presents a decision to divorce as involving a calculus of the barriers to divorce (concerns about children), the rewards of the marriage, and the alternatives to the marriage

intrinsic investment

those that are put directly into the relationship, including time, effort, affection, and disclosure.

Interpersonal trust

trust between two people

Secure Attachment Style

trust, lack of concern with being abandoned, view that one is worthy and well liked

overjustification effect

underestimating intrinsic motivation and overestimating extrinsic motivation

expectedness

unexpected behavior is informative

discrimination

unfair treatment of a group member

discrimination

unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

informative influence

use others as a source of information and believe that others are behaving correctly

free choice

voluntary behavior is informative

Anxious/Ambivalent Relationship

want to be close to their partner but worry they won't return the affection

reciprocal liking

we like others who like us

We think....

we think attitudes determine behavior, but actually... attitudes determine behavior, behavior determines attitudes, and other factors influence both!

integrative agreements

win-win agreements that reconcile both parties' interests to their mutual benefit.

Stonewalling

withdrawal from partner, refusal to emotionally interact

Gender Identity

your identity as it is experienced with regard to your individuality as male or female

Interaction

• Crossing paths with another • Can discover similarities with another • Functional distance?

Devine (1995)

• Equal status among participants • Cooperative (rather than competitive) interaction • Institutional support for contact • Contact should involve relatively high levels of intimacy • Outcomes should be positive • Competence levels should be similar • Contact in a variety of situations

Avoidant 25%

• I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I find it difficult to trust them completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on them. I am nervous when anyone gets too close, and often, love partners want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being.

Ambivalent 19%

• I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that my partner doesn't really love me or won't want to stay with me. I want to merge completely with another person, and this desire sometimes scares people away

fundamental attribution error

overestimating impact of dispositional influences and underestimating impact of situational influences

Social Identities

parts of our psychological identity that involve our sense of ourselves as members of particular groups

Sternberg triangle

passion, intimacy, commitment Emphasizes quality of love with 3 components

Theory of Attraction

people are attracted to those who in some way make them feel good, or are attracted to those who remind them of people that they enjoy being around

Similarity- Closed field situations

people are forced to interact with each other

Similarity- Open field situations

people are free to interact or not as they choose

Equity Theory

people are happiest with relationships in which rewards and costs are roughly equal

halo effect

people associate attractiveness with other good qualities, when they are not really related

social exchange

people help when rewards outweigh the costs, which shows that no true altruism may exist

self-perception

people infer their attitudes from their behavior -must be ambiguous attitude and voluntary behavior

The Reward theory of attraction

people like others who benefit them or make them feel good. (compliments, favors, ect)

reciprocal liking

people like others who will like them back in return

self-perception theory

people observe their own behavior and infer their attitudes from their behavior

modern racism

people only act unprejudiced, but prejudice reveals itself indirectly or implicity

balance theory

people prefer psychologically balanced relationships

similarity

people tend to associate with similar others

Mere Exposure Effect

people tend to hold more positive attitudes towards familiar stimuli/people

liking similarity

people think similar others will like them more

High comparison level

people who expect high rewards and few costs in a relationship. If a relationship doesnt match the expectations, the person will quickly grow unhappy and unsatisfied

Social Exchange Theory

people's feeling about a relationship depend on their perceptions of the rewards & costs of the relationship

terror management

people's self-protective emotional and cognitive responses (including adhering more strongly to their cultural worldviews and prejudices) when confronted with reminders of their mortality

illusory correlation

perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists.

outgroup homogeneity effect

perception of out group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members. thus, "they are alike; we are diverse."

outgroup homogeneity effect

perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than are ingroup members. Thus "they are alike; we are diverse"

illusion of control

perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one's control or as more controllable than they are.

intrinsic motivation

personal enjoyment or interest

What are four personal variables that influence helping behavior?

personality, mood, gender, interpersonal factors

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. in severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

two factor theory of emotion

physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal arousal from any source can enhance one emotion depending upon what we interpret or label the arousal

Aggression

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone.

aggression

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone. in laboratory experiments, this might mean delivering electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt another's feelings

Pollyannaish

pleasantly (even unrealistically) optimistic

Phenylethylamine

pleasure oriented; its like an addiction. Also called the honeymoon stage (lasts about 3yrs)

Prosocial Behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful social behavior, the opposite of antisocial behavior.

Warmth

postive attitude, happy; make you feel good

social facilitation

presence of others enhances performance when completing easy tasks, but makes hard task more difficult

bystander effect

presence of others inhibits helping

social loafing

presence of others leads to relaxation and improves performance on difficult tasks, but not hard tasks

false confessions

pressure can lead to compliance and people may internalize accusations

Men want

pretty

learned helplessness

prolonged experience with uncontrollable event which leads to passive behavior in controllable events

attributional ambiguity

protects the self from negative feedback and vreats doubt about positive feedback

equity theory

ratio of costs and benefits needs to be equal for the partners

mirror-image perceptions

reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive.

Behavioral Sources

-we pay attention to other's attitudes to predict their behavior ex. dentist: I don't return my dentist's calls (i don't like the dentist), I am a cooperative patient/I go (i like the dentist)

In Darley & Batson's (1973) "Good Samaritan" study, what percentage of participants who were running late offered to help?

10

universally attractive features

1. good skin: clear of diseases; in women good skin and hairlessness signals high estrogen and fertility 2. average 3. symmetry: good immune system in women: signs of fertility; youth, signs of arousal (red) in men: signals of resources; taller, masculine body, social dominance

Friends we make are influenced by where we:

1. live 2. work 3. Sit in class

passionate vs. companionate love

1. passionate love - often described as being "in love" - emotionally intense & high arousal (often highly erotic) - includes thoughts, emotions, behaviors - involves DA (dopamine receptors)-rich brain areas/rewards areas (e.g. caudate) - often emotionally volatile and not lasting 2. companionate love - secure, trusting, comfortable affection for those whose lives we feel are a part of ours - lower key, "deep" emotions and attachment - stable and dependable - grows over time

subtle influences on liking

1. positive affect, association and conditioning, nodding, push/pull lever 2. red 3. how we treat others

major antecedents of attraction

1. proximity 2. anxiety and desire or affiliation 3. time 4. physical attractiveness

3 situational factors of attraction

1. proximity 2. physiological arousal 3. contrast effect (comparing potential dating partner to others)

3 big influences on attraction

1. proximity and familiarity 2. physical appearance 3. similarity and reciprocal liking

four category

1. secure 2. dismissive 3. fearful 4. preoccupied

3 adult attachment styles

1. secure: happy, committed, less conflict, tolerant of partner's flaws, stable relationships but willing to leave bad ones 2. anxious/avoidant: less intimacy and satisfaction, poor commitment and communication, more shorter relationships, less distressed when relationship ends 3. anxious/ambivalent: more jealousy, less trust, less satisfaction, more conflict, extreme desire for closeness; insecure, feel unappreciated; stable relationships but stay in bad ones

3 relationship factors of attraction

1. similarity 2. complementarity 3. reciprocity

Drawbacks to Physical attractiveness

1. unwelcome sexual advances 2. Don't know if people are responding to looks or something else 3. May lead to less motivation in other areas

general adaptive syndrome

1.alarm reaction (fight or flight response) 2. resistance - search for coping strategies 3. exhaustion

correction model

1.behavior identification 2.dispostitional attribution 3.correction for situation

five-step model

1.notice event 2.recognize emergency 3.assume responsibility 4. how to help 5. decide to help

d

Abdul believes that children are aggressive because they imitate what they see family members and media characters do. Abdul's beliefs are consistent with ___ theory. a) Freudian b) frustration c) instinct d) social learning

Psychosexual Stages of Development

According to Freudian theory, there are five stages of psychosexual development, each characterized by a dominant mode of achieving sexual pleasure: the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stage, the latency stage, and the genital stage.

c

According to the FBI, which of the following would be considered violence? a) Arson b) Motor vehicle theft c) Robbery d) All of the above

b

According to the what is beautiful is good effect, attractive people have a number of other desirable traits. Which of the following is not one of these traits, at least in Western cultures? a) Happiness b) Honesty c) Intelligence d) Popularity

Obedience

Acting in accord with a direct order.

Priming

Activating particular associations in memory.

Destructive behaviors

Actively harming the relationship -Abusing the partner -Threatening to break up -Actually leaving Passively allowing the relationship to deteriorate -Refusing to deal with problems -Ignoring the partner or spending less time together -Putting no energy into the relationship

Constructive behaviors

Actively trying to improve the relationship -Discussing problems, trying to change -Going to a therapist Passively remaining loyal to the relationship -Waiting and hoping that the situation will improve -Being supportive rather than fighting -Remaining optimistic

ABC's

Affect, Behavior, Cognition

Duncan 1976

African American man shoving White guy, was intrepetred as violent. While the white guy shoving the black guy was interpreted as playful.

14-2: Does what we think affect what we do, or does what we do affect what we think?

Attitudes are feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in certain ways. Peripheral route persuasion uses incidental cues (such as celebrity endorsement) to try to produce fast but relatively thoughtless changes in attitudes. Central route persuasion offers evidence and arguments to trigger thoughtful responses. When other influences are minimal, attitudes that are stable, specific, and easily recalled can affect our actions. Actions can modify attitudes, as in the foot-in-the-door phenomenon (complying with a large request after having agreed to a small request) and role playing (acting a social part by following guidelines for expected behavior). When our attitudes don't fit with our actions, cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we will reduce tension by changing our attitudes to match our actions.

Implicit attitudes

Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious

implicit attitudes

Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious

Situational attribution

Attributing behavior to the environment.

Dispositional attribution

Attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits.

14-3: What is automatic mimicry, and how do conformity experiments reveal the power of social influence?

Automatic mimicry (the chameleon effect), our tendency to unconsciously imitate others' expressions, postures, and voice tones, is a form of conformity. Solomon Asch and others have found that we are most likely to adjust our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard when (a) we feel incompetent or insecure, (b) our group has at least three people, (c) everyone else agrees, (d) we admire the group's status and attractiveness, (e) we have not already committed to another response, (f) we know we are being observed, and (g) our culture encourages respect for social standards. We may conform to gain approval (normative social influence) or because we are willing to accept others' opinions as new information (informational social influence).

Biggest effect on decision to break up

Availability of others

Bystander effect refers to: a) bystanders will be more likely to help when they feel they are competent, b) The greater the number of bystanders, the less likely that any one of them will help.

B

Outcome of a relationship

Direct comparison of its costs and rewards.

Dissimilarity

Dislike. Opposites do not attract. Complementarity has not been confirmed

Love

Distinguished between companionate and compassionate

Countefactual thinking

Imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't.

Generativity

In Erikson's theory, a process of making a commitment beyond oneself ex:to family, work, or future generations

Intimacy

In Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

a

In Freud's theory, life-giving instinct is to death instinct as ___ is to ___. a) eros; thanatos b) thanatos; eros c) id; superego d) superego; id

Technology and social connections on propinquity

In Internet world, not that many degrees of separation

Egocentrism

In Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

Preoperational Stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Formal Operational Stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Anxious-Avoidant Insecure Attachment

In general, a child with an anxious-avoidant attachment style will avoid or ignore the parent when he or she returns (in the Strange Situation) - showing little overt indications of an emotional response. Often, the stranger will not be treated much differently from the parent.

Anxious-Resistant Insecure Attachment

In general, a child with an anxious-resistant attachment style will typically explore little (in the Strange Situation) and is often wary of strangers, even when the parent is present. When the mother departs, the child is often highly distressed. The child is generally ambivalent when she returns.

Reciprocal Liking

In general, we like others who behave as if they like us

14-6: What are group polarization and groupthink, and how much power do we have as individuals?

In group polarization, group discussions with like-minded others strengthens members' prevailing beliefs and attitudes. Internet communication magnifies this effect, for better and for worse. Groupthink is driven by a desire for harmony within a decision-making group, overriding realistic appraisal of alternatives. The power of the individual and the power of the situation interact. A small minority that consistently expresses its views may sway the majority.

14-9: How does psychology's definition of aggression differ from everyday usage? What biological factors make us more prone to hurt one another?

In psychology, aggression is any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy. Biology influences our threshold for aggressive behaviors at three levels: genetic (inherited traits), neural (activity in key brain areas), and biochemical (such as alcohol or excess testosterone in the bloodstream). Aggression is a complex behavior resulting from the interaction of biology and experience.

Deception

In research, an effect by which participants are misinformed or misled about the study's methods and purposes.

14-5: How is our behavior affected by the presence of others?

In social facilitation, the mere presence of others arouses us, improving our performance on easy or well-learned tasks but decreasing it on difficult ones. In social loafing, participating in a group project makes us feel less responsible, and we may free-ride on others' efforts. When the presence of others both arouses us and makes us feel anonymous, we may experience deindividuation—loss of self-awareness and self-restraint.

Debreifing

In social psychology, the postexperimental explanation of a study to its participants. Debriefing usually discloses any deception and often requires participants regarding their understandings and feelings.

a

In the Good Samaritan study (Darley & Batson, 1973), participants varied in the amount of help that they offered to an (apparently) unconscious man as a function of their ___. a) free time b) gender c) major d) religiosity

D

In the US, when times are hard economically and jobs are scarce, realistic conflict theory would predict that, A) there will be less prejudice against minorities, B) There will be more cooperation among minorities and the majority group, C) minorities will benefit more from affirmative action than is really fair, D) there will be more prejudice against minorities.

a

Jean Luc's house is on fire. His grandparents, wife, children, and cousins are in the house. Based on kin selection theory, whom should he save first? a) his children b) his cousins c) his grandparents d) his wife

Anticipation of interaction

Knowing that we will interact with someone in the future tends to facilitate liking that person more

Postconventional Level

Kohlberg's highest level of moral development, in which moral actions are judged on the basis of personal codes of ethics that are general and abstract and that may not agree with societal norms

Social Rejection: Physical problems

Lack of social disconnectedness impairs immune system functioning, poor quality sleep, increased likelihood of death

Unfamiliarity

Leads to fear which then leads to prejudice

a

Learning is to instinct as ___ is to ___. a) external forces; internal forces b) internal forces; external forces c) Sigmund Freud; Konrad Lorenz d) Konrad Lorenz; Sigmund Freud

Misattribution

Mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong source.

Negative State Relief Model

Model that explains altruistic behavior in terms of reducing negative arousal associated with witnessing another's suffering

Do attitudes predict behavior? Moral Hypocrsisy Study

Moral hypocrisy (Batson et al., 1997, 1999) 5% believed assigning appealing task to self and dull task to other participant was the most moral thing to do 80% assigned appealing task to self Told to flip coin to make assignment 90% assigned appealing task to self

The intimate marketplace: Equity Theory

Most content with a relationship when the ratio between the benefits and contributions is similar for both partners Your benefits/your contributions=Partners benefits/Partners contributions Balance is what counts

b

Most people seem to think that having about ___ close relationships is enough. a) 1 to 3 b) 4 to 6 c) 7 to 9 d) 10 to 12

Reciprocity

Mutual exchange between what one gives and what one receives

14-4: What did Milgram's obedience experiments teach us about the power of social influence?

Stanley Milgram's experiments—in which people obeyed orders even when they thought they were harming another person—demonstrated that strong social influences can make ordinary people conform to falsehoods or give in to cruelty. Obedience was highest when (a) the person giving orders was nearby and was perceived as a legitimate authority figure; (b) the research was supported by a prestigious institution; (c) the victim was depersonalized or at a distance; and (d) there were no role models for defiance.

Murstein's (1986) Stimulus Value Role Theory

Stimulus Stage n Attraction is sparked by external attributes such as physical appearance. n Value Stage n Attachment is based on similarity of values and beliefs. n Role Stage n Commitment is based on the performance of such roles as husband and wife.

Attraction

Stress of ostracism. Bonding, proximity, functional distance

Experimental research

Studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors (independent variables) while controlling others (holding them constant).

Avoidant attachment

Suppression of attachment needs, because attempts to be intimate have been rebuffed Less able to trust others and find it difficult to develop close, intimate relationships

Random Sample

Survey procedure in which every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion.

Random Sampling

Survey procedure in which every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion.

Elements of physical attractiveness

Symmetry Waist to hip ratio (Singh 1993) Scent of symmetry (Gangestad et al) Role of culture (ie: bust to waist ratio)

b

TV programs such as Barney, Lassie, and Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood have been shown to ___ helpful behavior in children. a) decrease b) increase c) have no effect on d) Not enough research has been conducted to answer this question.

b

Tamika attends a football game, and her team wins. The fans rush the field and tear down a goal post. Tamika happily joins them, and tears down a goal post with her fellow students. Taika is probably experiencing ___. a) cognitive dissonance b) deindividuation c) psychological reactance d) self-awareness

extrinsic investment

associated with relationship, don't directly define it, ex. children, material possessions, social networks (friends)

Teratogen

any agent that interferes with normal embryonic development: alcohol or thalidomide or X-rays or rubella are examples

Factor Analysis

any of several methods for reducing correlational data to a smaller number of dimensions or factors

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

Contempt

apitonmy of this is rolling your eyes

two-factor theory of emotion

arousal * its label = emotion (example: the physical arousal from crossing a high bridge)

two-factor theory of emotion

arousal X its label = emotion

two-factor theory of emotion

arousal x its label= emotion

Physical attractiveness

asset!! - Dating: • Initially, it is often the most important factor - Matching principle: • We choose partners who match us in attractiveness and other traits - But...Donald Trump and Melania??? - Stereotype: • Beautiful = good

correspondent inferences

focus on when people will infer dispositions

Equity theory

focuses on determining whether the distribution of resources is fair to both relational partners

self-awareness

focusing attention on the self, causing comparison to internal standards making self-discrepancies more accessible

propinquity effect

form relationships with people we see often

non-zero-sum games

games in which outcomes need not sum to zero. with cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose (also called mixed-motive situations)

mismatched couples

greater dissatisfaction and high divorce rates. Compensatory factors

deindividuation

group members lose personal identity, causing a greater adherence to group norms and less personal responsibility

social identity theory

group membership impacts the self-esteem and people want to be part of the best group

Moral Development

growth in the ability to tell right from wrong, control impulses, and act ethically

"beautiful is good stereotype"

halo effect - attractive people are considered to be more intelligent, competent, social, kind, etc - self-fulfilling prophecy - more likely to be hired, spend less time in prison

Destructive Behaviors

harming relationship (abusing the partner, threatening to break up passively letting relationship deteriorate (refusing to deal with problems, spending less time together

Avoidant Attachment

have caregivers who are aloof & distant. Desire to be close to caregiver but learn to suppress the need

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon by which the greater exposure we have to a given stimulus, the more we like it - misattribution of arousal

Mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking for them

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

Mere Exposure Effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.

complementarity

the popularly supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other

complementarity

the popularly supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other.

naturalistic method

observation in a natural setting -used for behaviors that we cannot manipulate

de-individuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Similarity

the more similar a person is to you the more you will like them

Propinquity Effect

the more we see & interact with people the more likely we will become friends with them

Propinquity Effect

the more we see and interact with people the more likely they are to become our friends

Familiarity

the more we see someone the more likely we are going to be attracted

social capital

the mutual support and cooperation enabled by a social network

Gender Role

the overt expression of attitudes that indicate to others the degree of your maleness or femaleness

moral exclusion

the perception of certain individuals or groups as outside the boundary within which one applies moral values and rules of fairness. Moral inclusion is regarding others as within one's circle of moral concern.

relative deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

Maturity

the period of time in your life after your physical growth has stopped and you are fully developed