Socio 100- Chapter 10 - Gender Inequality

Radical Feminism

the form of feminist theory that posits that gender inequality is the result of male domination in all aspects of social and economic life - belief that men are responsible for and benefit from the exploitation of women (patriarchy)-- appropriation of women's bodies and sexuality - identify family as one of the primary sources of women's oppression --> men exploit women by relying on their unpaid domestic labor and then as a group deny women access to positions of power and influence in society - argue that gender equality can only be attained by overthrowing the patriarchal order critique: conception of patriarchy as universal phenomenon doesn't follow with cultural/historical variations - fails to realize that not all men have equal power to act as opressors (not realizing race, class, ethnicity etc)

gender inequality

the inequality between men and women in terms of wealth, income, and status

gender role socialization

the learning of gender roles through social factors such as schooling, the media, and family

social construction of gender

the learning of gender roles through socialization and interaction with others - reject biological bases for gender diffferences eg. culture values strength ==> men have muscles (specific body image and set of mannerisms)

sexual harassment in the workplace

the making of unwanted sexual advances by one individual toward another, in which the first person persists even though it is clear that the other party is resistant ** interferes with job performance ** power facilities harassment - more common for men to harass women despite women also having done this - because men usually positions of authority

biological essentialism

the view that differences between men and women are natural and inevitable consequences of the intrinsic biological natures of men and women

what about boys is often mislabelled in school?

their behavioural problem are mislabelled as learning disabilities --> punishment, poor grades, low graduation rates, poor prospect for gainful employment

when are bio differences exacerbated?

there may be slight biological differences between men and women but these differences can be exacerbated by social contexts that promote behaviours consistent with gendered stereotypes/behaviours

the more local a political office, the more likely to be occupied by ...

woman

gendering of college majors

women = focus on nurturing and caring (low earning after grad) eg. education/nursing men = focus on logic and analysis (high economic return) eg. engineering

gender typing

women holding occupations of lower status and pay, such as secretarial and retail positions, and men holding jobs of higher status and pay, such as managerial and professional positions

most recent sexual harassment case

- FOX news chairman Roger Ailes and Bill O'Reilly -charged for harassing women reporters and producers

!Kung of Kalahari Desert

- M,F help in child care - oppose violent confrontation and psychical behaviour, kids learn that aggressive beahaviour will not be tolerated by M/F - women feed tribes (gathering), male do some hunting

Sarah Lipsitz Bem - "The Lenses of Gender" book

- argues that biological essentialism rationalizes and legitimizes gender differences as the natural and inevitable consequences of biological natures within M, F - this perspective minimizes and neglects social influences eg. level of aggressiveness in men varies across culture and women are expected to be more passive/ gentle in some cultures than in others - others argue that women are aggressive like men but in ways consistent with gender role socialization == indirect aggression (gossip etc)

why do women spend more time doing housework?

- because M,F specialize in different chores - women chores = more time consuming and happen daily, more time on child rearing responsibilities - men's household jobs are more discretionary, whereas women are bound to a fixed schedule

inequality of housework explained by economic forces

- because women earn less than men they are more likely to remain economically dependent on their husbands and thus perform the bulk of the housework BUT ironically because they have to do more housework, this contributes to the women's inferior economic position

Bacha Posh in Afganistan

- boys valued, girls, shamed some parents transform 1 young daughter --> son ( short hair, boy name, boy games) - bacha posh = dressed up as boy - return to womanhood at puberty --> choice made by parents

gender inequality in the classroom

- clothing regulations ( often make it hard for girls to play "rough") - story books show girls being passive and boys being independent - story books with girl adventures close to home and boy adventures far fetched - frequency of interactions between teachers and students varies between gender

why do gender stereotypes persist?

- college educated white males in professional jobs identify potential leaders as people who are similar to them - women who deviate from this norm, are thus assessed negatively

Socialist Feminism

- developed in 1970's - argues that capitalist society is oppressive toward ethnic minorities the working class and poor - recognizes fundamental oppression of women in patriarchal societies - believe that gendered systems of stratification should be eradicated not just the capitalist hierarchal system

Kelley Voelker- Deutsche Bank VP lawsuit

- good employee - never promoted, demoted - claimed company of "mommy tracking" employees

where are women's labor force participation rates high?

- in European nations - M,F gap in labor

gender inequality on men

- less likely to seek medical/ mental help - career choices constrained by need to be breadwinner - spend less time with family in order to provide

Whitney Wolfe- cofounder of Tinder

- subjected to sexist messages by CEO, CMO - was essential in app launch but was never publicized - because it would be bad for company to have female cofounder

gender inequalities in the workplace

- women = 47% of the workforce ( many outside of home) - poor immigrant and ethnic minorities had high rates of employment -

reasons sociologists neglect human capital theory

- women don't " choose " certain careers -- thru childhood socialization, direct obstacles like no promotion - power differences btwn men and women

gender inequalities in entrepreneurship

- women's businesses tend to be smaller than men's - women face greater obstacles than men when trying to secure funding because of unfounded negative perceptions of women business owners by potential funders

Betty Dukes- Walmart

- worked hard, never promoted, demoted - males paid more for same job - lawsuits was thrown out - many other women experienced the same things

Maria do Mar Pereria - 2014 study of 14 year olds

- youth try to adapt their behaviour to the pressures of society boys = dominant girls= likeable, submissive

glass escaltor

-rapid ascent of males -due to "invisible pressures"- mentoring, encouragement from supervisors, sexist clients (who only work with males) -glass escalator more beneficial to white men with stable middle class jobs - only operates in organizations with stable employment, clear cut hierarchies and career ladders

how socialist feminists differ from other types of feminists?

1) challenge liberal fem vision that equality for women in all institutions in society - including government , don't believe in equality in a society whose social and economic structures are flawed 2) socialist feminists believe that we should work with males to fight class oppression , don't believe in sex and that patriarchy are the sole root of oppression

Why do so few women hold leadership positions in business?

1) discrimination - subtle and hard to prove - leadership requires 24/8 workdays and macho behaviour 2) lack of female mentors in upper business places 3) tendency of male decision makers to hold stereotypical and incorrect beliefs about what women are able to do

why are women hesitant to report sexual harassment ?

1) many don't recognize that sexual harassment is an actionable offence 2) victims may be reluctant to make complaints, fearing that they will not be believed that their charge will not be taken seriously or that they will be subject to reprisals 3) it may difficult to differentiate between harassment and joking on the job

two types of sexual harassment

1. Quid Pro Quo - supervisor demands sexual acts from a worker as a job condition or promises work-related benefits in exchange for sexual acts 2. Hostile Environment - a pattern of sexual language, sexual advances or even sexually explicit/ demeaning posters makes a worker so uncomfortable that it is difficult for the workers to do their job

Although they account for 1/2 the total workforce, women hold ----- % of the Fortune 500 CEO slots

5.4 %

Transnational Feminism

A branch of feminist theory that highlights the way that global processes, including colonialism, racism, and imperialism, shape gender relations and hierarchies

the way that gendered stereotypes hurt boys and girls are more harmful for...

African American children (intersectionality) --> treated as troublemakers, the black girls became so

TRUE/ FALSE- biological determinists see gender inequalities as changing

FALSE biological determinists see gender inequalities and differences as inevitable and unchangeable bc they are results of biological necessities NOT social processes

TRUE / FALSE- gender inequalities are fixed and static

FALSE differ across time, culture, political and cultural contexts - degree of male seen as "naturally" dominant over female also varies

patriarchy

The dominance of men over women. All known societies are patriarchal, although there are variations in the degree and nature of the power men exercise, as compared with women.

transgender

a person who identifies with a gender that is different from his or her biological sex

glass ceiling

a promotion barrier that prevents a woman's upward mobility within an organization - this occurs because of lack of sponsorship by seniors who communicate women's value to the organization/profession

feminist theory

a sociological perspective that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world and particularly the uniqueness of the experience of women - explain gender inequalities in society and work to overcome them

intersectionality

a sociological perspective that holds that our multiple group memberships affect our lives in ways that are distinct from single group memberships eg. experience of a black female different from white female/ black male

black feminism

a strand of feminist theory that highlights the multiple disadvantages of gender, class, and race that shape the experiences of nonwhite women -concentrates on issues facing black women - main feminists schools of thought deal with white middle class women issues in industrialized societies - oppression of black women found in different places than in white women (home is safe for black)

intersex

an individual possessing both male and female genitalia

----- are more likely than any other subgroup of students to be physically restrained and even referred to law enforcement for misbehaviour

black boys - black boys are seen as responsible for their actions at an age when white boys still benefit from the assumption that children are essentially innocent

---- manner's were occasionally criticized by teachers

black girls - loudies not ladies

which gender interacts with teachers more?

boys regardless of teacher's gender - more demanding and more likely to -teachers challenge boys to get the answer, just give girls the answer

postmodern feminism

challenges the idea of a unitary basis of identity and experience shared by all women - reject the claim that there is a grand theory that can explain the position of women in society or that there is any universal category of "woman" - emphasis on the positive side of otherness rifts with other types because they believe that other assume that it is possible to make an overarching explanation for women's oppression

how do economists and sociologists differ in explaining wage gap?

economists focus on women's occupational choices sociologists focus on constraints women face

despite these negatives, even some poor paying factory jobs may ...

enable some women to achieve a measure of economic power and independence

what factors shape amount of time put into housework?

gender, marital status and parental status

in the coming decades, experts anticipate that we may see ------ gender equity in housework and childcare

greater gender equity

what increased the reporting of sexual harassment?

increased since the testimony of Anita Hill to the Senate Judiciary Committee during the confirmation hearing for Clarence Thomas 1991 nomination to the US Supreme Court

society expects that once a gender is assigned

individuals act like "F" or "M" 7

cisgender

individuals whose gender identity matches his or her biological sex - most common gender - born female = id as female

different spheres

inequitable distribution of tasks is the implicit understand that M,F are responsible for different spheres men = providers female = caretakers (breadwinners and mothers)

sociobiology and evolutionary biology strongly support the idea that....

innate behavioural difference between the sexes appear in some form in all cultures eg. men = hunt, war because women lack this aggression - they would say women are "wired" to choose jobs that are supportive and nurturing whereas men opt for physical and mechanical - social scientists disagree

why are local offices typically occupied by women?

local politics is part time work ( smaller cities and towns) - good "women's work"-- offering low pay, part time employment, flexible hours and absence of clear career path

countries like Eastern Europe and Russia have a high % of women in senior roles. why?

longstanding policies supporting working mothers

the conditions of female jobs lead to adaptive responses on the part of women such as:

low job commitment few career ambitions high turnover seeking alternative rewards in social relations this fortifies the image of women as suitable for only lower level jobs

----- conditions are an important influence on gender composition of the paid labor force

macroeconomic - men's employment rates drop during recession

why does rape occur?

male socialization - encourages a sexual conquest - insensitive to consensual / nonconsensual sex

radical feminism: male violence & conception of beauty

male violence against women = male supremacy - intimate partner violence, rape and sexual harassment = systematic opression of women - popular conceptions of beauty and sexuality are impoased on women by men to produce a certian type of feminiity --> objectificatino of women thru media, fashion, advertising turns women into sexual objects whose main role is to please and entertain men

radical feminism: Shulamith Firestone

men controls women's roles in child bearing and reproduction making women dependent on men for protection and livelihood - biological inequality that is socially organized by nuclear family - women can be emancipated only thru abolition of the family and the power relations that characterize it

flexibility stigma

men face a stigma if they take parental leave, cut back on their hour or take family friendly work in order to balance child care with paid employment

John Bowlby: Functionalist: attachment theory

mother is crucial to primary socialization of children - if separated from kid at young age, inadequate socialization --> social and psychological difficulties - child's well bing and mental health = close, persona and continuous relationship with mother/ female figure

mother vs nonmother

mothers will have a lower starting pay and are less likely to be offered a job because of the conception that parenting cannot be shared on an equal basis by both M,F

do men who work in female dominated professions face a "glass ceiling"?

no in contrast, they boost up the corporate ladder - it's a glass escalator (rapid ascent)

is the pay gap only in the US?

no , it's across the globe that men outpace women in most workplaces

feminists: bio basis for sex division of labour

nothing natural or inevitable about the allocation of tasks in society - humans are socialized into roles that are culturally expected, not women's biology prevents them from doing a certain job - kids development enhanced when both parents work and are at home - do not deny distinct bio differences but argue that these alone don't explain difference in social and economic roles

Margaret Mead, "Sex & Temperament in Three Primitive Societies"

observed wide variability among gender role prescriptions and stark differences from US and New Guinea Arapresh society- M,F exhibited USA F behaviour (passive, gentle, unaggressive, emotionally aware) - MF expected to act alike Mungugmumor- M,F aggressive, suspicious, cruel - MF expected to act alike Tchambuli- M were USA F, F were USA M-- reversed from USA

George Murdock

practical and convenient for women to work on domestic and family things while men work outside home - sexual division in society is not due to biology, but because it's the most efficient way to organize society

when do racial differences in how girls are treated emerge?

preschool

war rape

rape that is committed by soldiers, combatants, or civilians during times of war, armed conflict, or military occupation. Used to destabilize, displace, and terrorize a targeted community

Tallcott Parsons

roles in family assigned to gender to ensure that tasks are carried out women = expressive roles - care and security for kids men = instrumental role - breadwinner complementary division of labour springs from bio and ensures solidarity and stability of family critique: expressive female = subordination of women, more so for male convenience

why does the wage gap persist?

sex segregation- jobs pay less if they contain more females

gender

social expectations about behaviour regarded as appropriate for the members of each sex - not physical attributes but socially formed traits of masculinity and femininity * culturally produced - product of individual choices, preferences + social influence + biological influence + contextual influence

hegemonic masculinity

social norms dictating that men should be strong, self-reliant and unemotional - men who fail to follow this - will be subtly sanctioned for not enacting in socially accepted gender norms

functional perspective of gender socialization

socializing agents help maintain the smooth continuation of the existing social order by overseeing the smooth gender socialization of new generations

Functionalist Apporoach: gender inequality

society = system of interlinked parts that when in balance operates smoothly to produce social solidarity - gender differences (and gender specialization of tasks) contribute to social stability and integration - criticized for neglecting social tensions at the expense of consensus

what do banks (Goldman Sachs, Wells Fargo, Deutsche Bank, Citigroup) have in common?

targests of sex discrimination lawsuits

human capital theory

the argument that individuals make investments in their own "human capital" (education, on job training and work experience) in order to increase their productivity and earnings - those who invest more in their skills = more productive

sex

the biological distinction between females and males

sex segregation

the concentration of men and women in different occupations

women politicians are mostly affiliated with ...

the democratic party (right)

second shift

the double burden- work outside the home followed by child care and housework- that many women face and few men share equitably

motherhood penalty

the earning gap between mothers and childless women

the feminization of the workforce has brought with it...

the exploitation of young, uneducated, largely rural women around the world - labor under conditions that are unsafe and unhealthy at low pay and with nonexistent job security

rape

the forcing of nonconsensual vaginal, oral or anal intercourse - committed to wield power and control over its victim

liberal feminism

the form of feminist theory that posits that gender inequality is produced by unequal access to civil rights and certain social resources, such as education and employment, based on sex - tend to seek solutions thru changes in legislation that ensure that the rights of individuals are protected (more moderate in aims and methods than radical feminists - who call for overthrowing of system) - gender inequality founded in social and cultural attitudes (eg. sexism and discrimination in workplace, media ) critique: only focusing on independent deprivations women suffer- only a partial picture is drawn - this encourages women to accept an unequal society and its competitive character