Sociology 1

How is Direct Phenotypic Benefits used when choosing a mate?

Choosing a mate that looks like they would produce good offspring.

If you see someone run a red light and believe that doing so was a representation of a person's general disregard for the safety of others, what type of Attribution is this?

you have made a dispositional attribution.

What is the Basic Model (Darwin)?

Emotional expression like facial expression is universal across all cultures.

Groupthink symptom: 7) Pressure to Conform

Feeling like you can't disagree with anything.

How is Fisherian Runaway Hypothesis a part of finding a mate?

Females try to find a mate that will produce attractive offspring that will have a high chance of reproducing.

What are Taboos?

Taboos are the most morally significant and even the thought of violation brings about a strong, negative response from members of society. An example of this is having consensual sexual relations rather than forcing another to have sex.

What is Internalization?

Taking on the norms of a group or people as your own norms.

What is Group Polarization?

Tendency of groups to make decisions that are more extreme (on either end of a continuum) than would individual members of that group acting alone.

What are the most common Agents of Socialization?

The Family-most influential Mass Media Peers Workplace Religion School Government

What is Stereotyping?

establishing overgeneralized beliefs and expectations of a given group that may or may not match reality. Racial and gender stereotypes are two prominent examples of this type of thinking.

What is the Symbolic Interactionism theoretical approach?

micro-level approach, which is an individual level approach. Society is viewed as an ongoing, ever changing event or drama. Communication and the exchange of ideas is through symbols.

What determines one's status(hierarchical position in society)?

money, power, achievement, opportunity, social acceptance, etc.

What is the Role of a Culture in Attribution?

ne's culture will impact the kinds of attributions one is most likely to make. For example, if a culture socializes its members to consider a neighboring society as enemies, members of that culture will almost universally attribute behavior observed in their neighbors as negative and dispositional.

What is the Functionalism theoretical approach?

structural-functional theory: All the parts/structures of society have unique functions that are necessary for the whole to function properly.

What are Irving Janis' 8 symptoms of groupthink?

1) Illusion of Invulnerability 2) Illusion of Morality 3) Rationalization 4) Stereotyping 5) Self-Censorship 6) Illusion of Unanimity 7) Pressure to Conform 8) Mindguards

What is a collective?

A collective is not quite a group. It is a group-like entity that lacks stable social structure. It emerges in a spontaneous way. *Collective behavior is neither normative nor deviant* It fits in the gray area of normal and defiant. It is often thought of as a third class of behavior that exists when social norms are absent, unclear, or in conflict with one another. Collectives or collective behavior is defined as an unplanned activity among a large number of people that may result in social change. It is often controversial. Collective behavior occurs in both crowds and masses. Crowds = collections of people who find themselves in the same place and the same time and are temporary. Masses = groups of people that aren't necessarily in each other's physical presence, but share in the same concern or beliefs. Masses are temporary as well. Crowds and masses are loosely affiliated with one another.

What is the Feminist theoretical approach?

A Conflict theory approach to understanding gender inequality

What is a Bureaucracy?

A bureaucracy is a way of administratively organizing large numbers of people who need to work together. Organizations in the public and private sector, including universities and governments, rely on bureaucracies to function.

What is Groupthink?

A group's thinking is blinded by the desire to not offend the group. Can lead to ignoring evidence, ignoring facts, etc.

What is the Conflict theory theoretical approach?

A macro-level approach that focuses on inequality. Society is composed of unequal distribution of desired resources that benefit a minority at the expense of the majority.

What is Game Theory?

A perspective that views social or group behavior as a game with players, winners, losers, prizes and other outcomes. It is assumed that individuals or groups make decisions based on strategy with the ultimate goal being to win.

What is the Zero-Sum Game?

A zero-sum game involves a situation in which one's own gain is exactly balanced by the losses of others.

Q28. Identify the following observations as indicative of secure, ambivalent, avoidant, or disorganized attachment: a) A mother's child cries violently when she leaves the room, but is not consoled when she returns. b) Your boyfriend frequently asks you if you really love him. He says he will never date again if you break up. c) A man has multiple children out of wedlock and reports he does not like their mothers. When asked to share his feelings he says "I don't do that." d) A child can be comforted by a stranger, but gets upset when her mother leaves. e) A child cries when his mother leaves, but avoids her when she returns. Instead, he runs to a stranger. He later returns to his mother seeking comfort.

A) Ambivalent attachment B) Of the options listed, ambivalent attachment is most similar C) Avoidant attachment D) Secure attachment E) Disorganized attachment.

1) A group is most likely to make an inaccurate decision under which set of conditions? A) low consensus, high conflict B) high consensus, low conflict C) low consensus, low conflict D) high consensus, high conflict

A) low consensus, high conflict This was really hard for me. I need to go over this a couple of times. Groups work best under uniform consensus and low conflict.

What is Achieved Status?

Achieved = Status earned through personal effort or achievement.

How do Triads compare to Dyads?

Adding the third member to the group makes them more stable. Disputes can be mediated by the third member, which makes them more stable, even if that means one person leaves and it becomes a dyad.

What emotions trigger aggression?

Aggression is more likely if person is experiencing heightened negative emotions

What is ALTRUISM?

Altruism = behavior by an individual or group that benefits another individual or group at its own expense. • not necessarily selfless, because the individual expects a reward like prestige, or an evolutionary advantage in the long run.

What is altruism?

Altruism is the practice of selflessness out of the concern for others.

What is Prejudice?

An Attitude A preconceived belief or judgment about a person or group developed prior to, or not based upon, actual experience or knowledge.

What is a Stigma?

An extreme dislike or negativity toward a person or group (or some characteristic of that person or group) based on perceived deviance from social norms. For example, psychologists frequently discuss "the stigma of mental illness."

What is institutional descrimination?

An institutes discrimination against an individual. Example:Jim Crow Laws, Poll taxes, widespread laws or policies.

What is Anomie?

Anomie is social anarchy. A lack of norms, or standards or values. Not good -->leads to individuals not having clear direction of what is acceptable.

Groupthink symptom: 5) Self-Censorship

Anyone who disagrees is afraid to say anything.

What is Ascribed Status?

Ascribed = Status assigned at birth or assumed involuntarily based on race, ethnicity, lineage, or other factors outside of one's control.

What is the Just-World Hypothesis?

Assuming that you get what you deserve in life. The just-world hypothesis is the tendency to believe that people get what they deserve. We might use the just-world hypothesis to assume that people who live below the poverty line have not made any efforts to improve their conditions and therefore deserve their lot in life. Alternatively, we might assume that someone who is incredibly successful is reaping the rewards of a lifetime's hard work.

What is Attribute Substitution?

Attribute Substitution = When faced with a complex mental task or judgment, we tend to substitute the actual scenario or problem with a more simple scenario or problem—usually unaware that we have done so. This includes mental substitutions our brain makes automatically—such as the visual shortcuts that cause us to misinterpret an optical illusion.

Q8. Imagine a trial jury deliberating a case. The initial consensus is that the defendant is innocent. Three days later, however, the jury returns a unanimous guilty verdict. Explain how each of the eight symptoms of Groupthink could have played a role in such a deliberation and decision.

Being among the group of jurors might create a feeling that the jury is doing important work. In a just world, perpetrators of crime should be brought to justice and so the group may be willing to make more significant leaps in judgment (illusion of invulnerability) to arrive at a guilty verdict in order to ensure that justice is served and they do not question the soundness of those decisions (rationalization). Because they believe that they are ultimately pursuing justice, they become convinced that imprisoning a potentially innocent person is ethically sound (inherent morality of the group), and may begin to view the defendant in ways that are consistent with stereotypes that we hold about criminals (out-group stereotyping). As the group continues to deliberate and it is clear that the consensus has shifted to a guilty verdict, any members holding doubts may keep their doubts to themselves (self-censorship) or be chastised by the group for voicing their dissent (suppression of dissension). Because no one is successfully expressing dissension, there is a sense that all jurors hold the same opinion (illusion of unanimity) and any evidence that might not have received much discussion which would exonerate the defendant is suppressed (mindguards).

What is Identification?

Being just like Dad or Kevin Durant We tend to act and dress like people we identify with the most, especially parents.

What is Social Loafing?

Being lazy when you are working with a group, because you know someone else will pick up your slack.

What is Compliance?

Changing because we were told to explicitly or implicitly. Does not necessarily require changes in thought or attitudes about the behavior.

What is Conformity?

Changing in order to "fit in" socially

What role does cognition play on prejudice?

Cognitive prejudice refers to what a person actually thinks or believes about the target of the prejudice; opposed to what they feel (emotion) or do (behavior). Stereotypes are an example of cognition applied to prejudice. Its the therefore of prejudice. like- I think black men are criminals, so I will assume every black person to be dangerous. Stereotypes are a result of prejudice.

Do Fads, Mass Hysteria, and Riots fit under collectives or groups?

Collectives, and specifically they are examples of collective behavior

What are the 2 main types of cultures?

Collectivist vs. Individualistic Cultures

What is Role Conflict?

Conflict that comes from having multiple statuses. Role conflict occurs when there is a clash between the roles associated with two or more statuses. For example, a married student with children and a full-time job may experience role conflict particularly around midterms and final exams. The demands of each of the statuses may cause conflict.

What is Deindividuation?

Deindividuation involves a loss of one's sense of themselves and personal responsibility when someone is a part of a larger group. This is often associated with a "mob mentality" and can result in situations that involve violence and destruction of property (e.g. riots that occurred in Ferguson, MO after the shooting death of Michael Brown). However, deindividuation can also lead to more prosocial behavior (e.g. making large contributions to a charitable organization at an event to raise money for the cause).

What is the functional theorist perspective on deviance?

Deviance functions to provide society with an example of what not to do, which increases order. It also functions to initiate change.

What is deviance?

Deviance is the recognized violation of cultural norms

What is Ethnocentrism?

Ethnocentrism = judging another culture based solely on the values of one's own culture. ethnocentrism is a natural response to living in a particular culture. Some amount of ethnocentrism is needed for members to be attached to their way of life.

What is a Fad?

Fads are unconventional social patterns that are embraced briefly and enthusiastically by a large number of people. Tattoos and body piercings are two contemporary examples of fads.

What are folkways?

Folkways are rules for casual social interaction. We all have an understanding that we face the front of an elevator. Someone violating this folkway would face the opposite direction and look at the other passengers.

How do gender differences, and culture differences influence the expression and detection of emotion?

Gender shapes almost every aspect of our lives, and emotional expression and detection are no exceptions to this rule. There is a long held belief that women tend to be more emotional than are men, and certainly, there is a host of research that supports this claim. Women tend to be more emotionally expressive in both face-to-face and in online interactions, and there is some evidence to suggest that women are superior in detecting and in distinguishing among various emotions. We also see significant cultural differences in the way in which people express and detect emotions. For examples, individuals from more collectivist cultures are much more likely to mask their negative emotions than are people from more individualistic cultures. Similarly, there is some evidence that suggests that people are better able to understand how someone else is feeling if that person is from a similar cultural background and that individuals from different cultures might focus on different cues in a given situation to interpret the relevant emotion.

What is a hidden curriculum?

Hidden Curriculum = An unofficial curriculum of social norms taught to students at school.

Groupthink symptom: 6) Illusion of Unanimity

Group members believe that the view of the majority is held by everyone in the group.

Groupthink Irving Janis' symptom: 3) Rationalization

Group members do not question assumptions that are being made and ignore any warnings that might deter them from the present course of action.

Groupthink symptom: 8) Mindguards

Group members shield the group from any dissenting information.

What is a group?

Groups are defined as two or more people interacting and identifying with one another.

Under what conditions do groups work best?

Groups work best under uniform consensus and low conflict. When dissention arises and conflict occurs, groups make bad decisions.

What is polyandry?

Having more than one husband.

What is polygyny?

Having more than one wife.

What are Social Perceptions?

How we perceive other individuals or groups, form impressions of them, and make judgments about them. Our social perceptions are often inaccurate due to various forms of bias.

How are Indicator Traits used in finding a mate?

If a male has a unique characteristics that make him less fit for survival, but he is successful, females view this handicap as an indicator of all his others strengths.

Q2. Person A is self-conscious about their intellect and has anxiety about performing in front of other people. Person B has a positive self-image, but generally prefers not to perform in front of a crowd. Person C loves to be the center of attention and thrives under pressure. Using the Yerkes-Dodson Law, draw a graph in which you predict the performance of Persons A, B and C on BOTH a *simple and a complex task*, under the following conditions: 1) performing the task in front of a friend 2) performing the task in front of an authority figure 3) performing the task in front of a large crowd when one's performance will dramatically impact one's life goals

Im not sure how this graph shows both complex and simple, but the general trend is what is important.

What is the Sequential Move Game?

In sequential games, moves are made in sequence with later players having some knowledge of the previous player's actions. Both the prisoner dilemma and hawk dove games represent simultaneous, non-zero sum games.

What is the Simultaneous Move Game?

In simultaneous games, players either act at the same time or in ways that make it impossible to know how the other player acted.

What is an In-Group?

In-Groups are those social groups that members feel an affinity for, a loyalty to and a respect for. an exclusive, typically small, group of people with a shared interest or identity. Examples: political parties, religious affiliations, fraternal organizations, and alumni associations.

What is Individual descrimination?

Individual= One person discriminating against another Example: A manager not hiring a black person

What is impression management?

Its the concept of "presenting oneself". It implies that the representation of ourselves to others is not always genuine. We try to shape, manipulate and manage how perceived us.

What is the Iron Law of Oligarchy?

Large organizations tend to develop a system of governance in which many people come under the control of a few. Certainly, bureaucracies would be one such environment in which this iron law of oligarchy might manifest.

What is the difference between macrosociology and microsociology?

Macro focuses on the bigger picture of society and how society is shaped by social forces. Micro sociology focuses on the individual, and how individuals are shaped by social forces.

What type of cultures are western cultures?

More Individualistic = more prone to make the fundamental attribution error (Dispositional Attributional)

What is Mass Hysteria?

Mass hysteria is spontaneous, socially contagious, irrational behavior of a group of people in response to an event. Broadcast nationwide on Halloween 1938, Orson Welles narrated H.G. Wells' novel, "The War of the Worlds". Many people interpreted it to be news broadcast and reacted with panic. Police were sent to control the crowds that gathered. Another situation of mass hysteria was when a woman in Riverside, California was sent to the hospital with symptoms of cervical cancer. Every medical professional that came in contact with the woman fell ill and experienced fainting. Tests on the staff were normal. The woman was dubbed the "Toxic Lady".

What is McDonaldization?

Me: Oversimplification of efficiency Book: McDonaldization is a concept introduced by George Ritzer to describe the tendency of large organizations to standardize operations, even when such standardization may be nonsensical in certain situations, in attempt to achieve consistency and efficiency. Bureaucracies are notorious for doing this.

What is a Dispositional Attribution?

Me: Trying to understand a behavior by assuming someone's personality or feelings. Them: Dispositional attributions deal with explaining behavior as a function of an individual's personality, or disposition.

What is Self-Fulfilling Prophecy?

Me: You are what you think you are. Women aren't really bad drivers, and women aren't really bad at math, but because they think they are, they perform that way. Book: a false, yet strongly held belief or prediction about an individual or group that is accepted as true. The false belief elicits behaviors that match the belief, eventually causing what was originally false to become true (or to be perceived as being true). Letting others drag you down.

What is the Social Constructionism theoretical approach?

Micro The world is what you construct it to be in your mind. We come to construct this by communicating with others. 1. human beings rationalize their experience by creating a model of the social world and how it functions 2. language is the most essential system through which humans construct reality

What is the exchange-rational choice theoretical approach?

Micro theory Individuals only seek to do things that will benefit them. Increasing their pleasure and decreasing pain are the two motivations. Doing good to others can be seen as a way to benefit yourself in the end.

What is monogamy?

Monogamy is the norm in the majority of countries of one spouse per person. In high income countries laws only permit such relationships.

What type of cultures are Non-Western cultures?

More Collectivist = more prone to make situational attributions

What are Mores?

Mores are norms that have great moral significance and are widely observed by members of society. Driving a car while under the influence of alcohol would be an example of a violation of a more.

What is a network?

Networks = An established pattern of social relationships between individuals.

What is Social Control?

Social Control = Societal or political mechanisms used to regulate the behavior of individuals to ensure conformity and compliance to the established rules of that group.

Is the tone of your voice considered verbal communication?

No it is not. It is considered non-verbal even though it is done while talking.

Are Dyads stable?

No, a dyad is the smallest group, with just 2 people. they are emotional and unstable. If one member leaves, it is gone.

Is someone from asia more likely to share their emotions than someone from the united states?

No, collectivist societies, which includes almost every country outside of north america, are less likely to share their personal emotions

What is non-material culture?

Non-material culture is those ideas created by members of society. This is in contrast to material culture which are physical things created by members of society.

What is the Non-Zero-Sum Game?

Non-zero sum games involve situations in which one's gain is not balanced by the losses of others.

What is a Norm?

Norms are the rules and expectations by which members of society are expected to follow. If one chooses not to follow these basic rules, they are subject to sanctions. There are several types of norms and they vary by significance. The sanctions also vary.

What is obedience?

Obedience is a change in behavior as function of a command from some authority figure. Again, the focus here is on the behavior itself, and the underlying attitude may or may not be affected.

Simplified on stage vs off stage

On stage= in public Off stage= in private

What is an organization?

Organizations = Group entities organized and defined by a specific purpose (e.g., companies, non-profit groups, sports teams, political activism groups, etc.)

What is inclusive fitness?

Our character traits are not just passed on genetically, but they are also passed to other individuals, that can then pass them on to offspring.

What is an Out-Group?

Out-Groups are a social group with which an individual is not apart of. Like i am not pakistan, or black, or jewish.

Groupthink symptom: 4) Stereotyping

Out-group stereotyping: Group members view those outside of the group as biased,ignorant, and/or morally inferior. (south mission ha)

What is Front Stage Self vs. Back stage Self of impression management?

Part of the Dramaturgical Approach. Erving Goffman introduced the concept of dramaturgical analysis, the study of social interaction through theatrical performance. According to Goffman, presentation of self - we are actors on stage performing to an audience trying to create impressions for others. The performance includes props, such as dress, gestures and tone of voice. Front-stage is the region where actors are performing in front of an audience. Back-stage is the region where actors are regrouping, rehearsing, rejuvenating. The audience is prohibited from this region. Illustrations of front-stage include the doctor's office waiting room and the front-of-house in your favorite restaurant. Illustrations of back-stage include the doctor's private office and the kitchen in your favorite restaurant.

What is The Bystander Effect?

People are less likely to help someone in need when others are watching.

From a sociological standpoint, what kind of people do we like?

People that are either similar to us, have complementary differences, nice physical appearance, we see everyday(proximity), and that have reciprocity with us(mutually beneficial relationship).

What is polygamy?

Polygamy is the norm in many lower income countries of two or more spouses per person. Some countries in Africa and southern Asia permit polygamy.

What role does emotion play on prejudice?

Prejudice can be exacerbated by emotion. For the perceiver (the one exhibiting prejudice), a prejudicial notion that "all black people are criminals," may be associated with the appraisal that they are a danger or threat. This can cause the perceiver to feel strong emotions of fear or anger independent of actual facts. For the target (the one experiencing prejudice), recognition of prejudicial treatment can elicit strong emotional feelings of anger and contempt because the circumstance is appraised as being unfair or unjust. For both groups, emotion tends to inhibit reasoned judgment based on facts, and judgments made prior to actual experience or knowledge of facts is the very definition of prejudice.

What are the characteristics of a Primary Group?

Primary Group = long-lasting, close interactions, tight bonds, unlikely to dissolve Examples: Brothers

What is Role Strain?

Problems that come with a status. Role strain refers to stresses among the roles associated with one particular status. For example, a parent may feel closer to one of their children more so than the others. In order to treat each child fairly, however, the parent must put those feelings aside.

What is promiscuity?

Promiscuity is the practice of having frequent, casual sex with different partners.

What is Reliance on Central Traits?

Reliance on central traits describes how our perceptions of others are affected by focusing on characteristics that are of particular interest to us. So for example, we may have more positive perceptions of others that show key characteristics that we view positively and more negative perceptions of people that show key characteristics that we view negatively. This is why I think LeBron James is a dirt bag, and Kevin Durant A.K.A "The Slim Reaper" is the bomb.com

What are riots?

Riots are undirected, highly emotional social eruptions that result in violence. Typically riots are in response to a social injustice that a group finds highly undesirable. Riots have occurred throughout United States history. The Stonewall riots occurred in response to a police raid of the Stonewall Inn in New York City on June 28, 1969. This riot was one of the most important events leading to the gay rights movement. Recently riots have broken out in response to the shooting by police officer Darren Wilson of unarmed black teen Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri.

What is Role Exit?

Role exit refers to the process by which people disengage from important social roles. Like after they retire, or get divorced, etc.

What is a Role?

Role: A set of expectations and norms that define how a person of a given status should behave. Roles are behaviors expected of someone who holds a particular status. The status of student brings the role of studying, attending classes and taking examinations.

What are Sanctions?

Sanctions are consequences, formal or informal, assigned by members of society as a result of norm violation.

What are the characteristics of a Secondary Group?

Secondary Group = short-lived, superficial, weak bonds, dissolve easily Examples:Political Party, Study group, Jury

What are the different attachments types?

Secure Ambivalent Avoidant

What is secure attachment?

Secure Attachment = the most developmentally healthy form of attachment. •A constant caregiver is present who is attentive, and responsive to the child's needs •child prefers caregiver over strangers, but CAN be comforted by strangers •child is visibly upset when caregiver leaves and comforted when caregiver returns •child seeks comfort of caregiver when frightened. In adulthood: Trusting,lasting relationships; high self-esteem; comfortable sharing their feelings; seek social support.

If you see someone run a red light and you wonder whether the person was rushing to the hospital just down the street to get the passenger to the emergency room, what type of Attribution is this?

Situational Attribution

What is a Situational Attribution?

Situational attributions explain an individual's behavior as a function of the context and circumstances in which the behavior occurred.

What is Socialization?

Socialization = A lifelong process, beginning in infancy, by which an individual acquires the habits, norms, and beliefs of society. Socialization also includes the ways in which the society itself disseminates (or passes to new members or generations) those skills, knowledge and behaviors considered acceptable to society, or necessary for inclusion in society.

How does Strain Theory explain deviance?

Society actually promotes deviant behavior, by putting so much pressure on people to achieve societal goals, that people take alternative means to reach those goals, or reject those goals all together. Four types of deviance may emerge as individuals attempt (or not) to achieve the American Dream. The type labeled "innovation" is where individuals reject conventional means in order to achieve a culturally approved goal. An example of this is dealing drugs in order to buy a house or car. Another type, "ritualism" results from the overall rejection of a cultural goal, but rigidly adhering to the rules regardless. A third type is known as "retreatism". This occurs when an individual rejects both societies' goals as well as the conventional means to achieve those goals. Often times we refer to these individuals as societal dropouts. The fourth type "rebellion", rejects both the goals and means, as does the third type, but goes one step further by forming a counterculture to support their actions. An example of these types is tea party activists who voted in favor of shutting down the U.S. Government because they disagreed with a budget proposed.

What is The Hawk Dove game?

The Hawk Dove game describes a situation in which individuals competing for resources take on different strategies. The "hawk" will open competition aggressively, and this aggression will escalate into a fight until either the hawk wins or becomes injured. The "dove" on the other hand may display aggression initially, but will run away from actual conflict, and will share the resource if there is no escalation in aggression. So if a hawk meets a dove, the hawk will win the resource. However, if the hawk meets another hawk, then he will only win the resource half the time. If a dove meets a hawk, he will lose the resource. If a dove meets a dove then the resource will be shared. Ultimately, the winning strategy is determined by the relative proportions of hawks and doves in the population and that shifts as a function of all previous competitions for resources. Overtime, it is expected that this proportion would stabilize as a function of the costs of losing fights and the value of the resource in question.

What is Stereotype Threat?

The anxiety you feel when you are stereotyped. leads to self fulfilling prophecy. Stereotype Threat = Anxiety experienced by the target of a negative stereotype that they will behave in accordance with, or that their behavior will be interpreted as a confirmation of, the negative stereotype placed upon them.

Groupthink Irving Janis' symptom: 1) Illusion of Invulnerability

The group setting creates unrealistic optimism, leading to riskier behavior. Me at ACN meeting.

Groupthink Irving Janis' symptom: 2) Illusion of Morality

The group setting fosters a belief that the group's actions are above moral reproach.

What is the One-Shot Game?

The play of the game occurs only once. Here, the players are likely to not know much about each other. For example, tipping a waiter on your vacation.

What is The Prisoner Dilemma?

The prisoner's dilemma is an example of a game in which two individuals might not cooperate even if doing so would serve both of their interests. This classical example involves two prisoners who are isolated from one another. The authorities do not have sufficient evidence to convict the pair on the most serious charge, and they plan to charge each with lesser charges. Each prisoner is given the opportunity to betray the other by offering testimony or by cooperating with each other by remaining silent. If the two betray each other, each of them will be charged with the more serious crime and will spend more time in jail. If one prisoner betrays the other, then s/he will be set free while the other will serve even more time in jail. If both cooperate, both will be charged with the lesser crime and both will spend significantly less time in jail. While betrayal might lead to reward for one individual, it could also lead to a more severe punishment if both individuals betrayed the other, and each individual would likely betray the other in pursuit of their own self-interest. Ultimately, the interests of both would be best served by remaining united in their silence.

What is Attribution?

The tendency to infer that the behavior we observe in others can be attributed to specific causes. Generally, these are assumptions and generalizations that we create ourselves without actual knowledge of root causes—therefore, our attributions are often inaccurate.

What is The Halo Effect?

Thinking your child is an angel, so they couldn't do anything wrong. The halo effect is a bias by which a positive appraisal in one area will automatically generate positive appraisals in other areas. Apple products are generally regarded in high esteem and are often seen as status symbols. Even if Apple produced a product that is objectively inferior, it's quite likely that the product would be viewed favorably because of the Halo effect. Similarly, an admired celebrity's questionable behavior would be much more likely to be viewed positively.

How do power, prestige, and class contribute to prejudice?

Those who are powerful, holding prestige and are in the majority have stereotypical views of minorities. Minorities can also hold stereotypes of those more powerful, more prestigious who are in the majority. We tend to be negatively prejudiced against those different from us and positively exaggerate the virtues of those similar to us.

What is the differential Association theory on deviance?

Through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, and techniques for deviant behavior, especially criminal behavior.

What fits under Informal Social Control?

Unwritten influences like: Socialization, or any means used to encourage adherence to societal norms and values for acceptable behavior. This includes verbal, non-verbal, or written expressions of disapproval such as shame, ridicule, sarcasm, or criticism.

What is the strongest predictor of Political Party Affiliation?

What your parents were affiliated with.

What is a Social Group?

Two or more persons who interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and feel a sense of unity.

Are males of females more aggressive?

Usually males because they have testosterone, which positively correlates with aggression in both sexes

How can you typically know if someone is going to be aggressive towards you?

Usually they will warn you, just like animals do.

How does Labeling Theory explain deviance?

We act the way we do because we want to get certain labels from society. If I want to be labeled as a rebel, I will be rebellious. Says that Deviance and conformity result from how others respond to another person's actions. symbolic interactionists approach

What is the Appraisal Model?

We feel a certain way about situation based on what we think about it. The appraisal model of emotional expression is very similar to the basic model in that both suggest a biologically programmed emotional response; however, the appraisal model suggests that there are cognitive appraisals of a given event that then result in emotional response.

What is Self-Serving Bias?

We focus on everything that makes us feel better about ourselves, gloating in our own pride, but we blame all of our problems on others.

What is Confirmation Bias?

We ignore things that challenge what we think to be true, and we seek out things that confirm our beliefs.

What is The Primacy Effect?

We remember things at the beginning best, why first impressions can be biased.

What is the Fundamental Attribution Error?

We tend to assume the bad We are more likely to make Dispositional Attributions over Situational attributions about someone's undesirable behavior.

What are webers 6 characteristics of a bureaucracy + Parkinsons 1 characteristic?

Weber suggested six characteristics; Parkinson suggested a seventh 1. Formal Hierarchical Structure 2. Management by Rules 3. Organization by Functional Specialty 4. Either an "Up-Focused" or "in-Focused" Mission up-focused=serve stockholders, the board, or whatever agency empowered it. in-focused=produce high profits, to gain market share, or to produce a cash stream 5. Purposely Impersonal=treat employees and customers the exact same, no personal connections 6. Employment Based on Technical Qualifications 7. Number of Management/Professional Staff is Always Increasing (Parkinson)

What is social Facilitation?

When being observed, people perform better on easy tasks and worse on difficult tasks (unfamiliar)

Q27. Which brain region or structure is most closely associated with aggression?

While no one area of the brain is solely responsible for aggression, the hypothalamus and related structures of the limbic system [e.g. the amygdala] are most closely associated with aggression.

What fits under Formal Social Control?

Written rules or laws

What is Yerkes-Dodson Law of Social Facilitation?

Yerkes-Dodson law suggests that optimal performance is associated with an intermediate level of arousal. If arousal is too low or too high, then performance will suffer. Possible explanation for social facilitation

Are women better at detecting emotions than men are?

Yes

Are women more likely to express their emotions during communication?

Yes

Is sign language and braille considered verbal?

Yes it is

If you are from the same culture as someone else, is it easier to understand that persons emotions than someone that is not from the same culture?

Yes it is.

Is there an evolutionary advantage to high aggression?

Yes. Competition for limited food and resources is often necessary for survival, and reproduction often involves competition for females. Both lead to aggression being evolutionarily favored.

Q24. Compare and contrast the following theories of emotional expression:

a) Basic Model (Darwin) b) Appraisal Model c) Psychological Construction Model d) Social Construction Model

Primary or Secondary? a) A young child receives positive reinforcement when she smiles, and develops a belief that having a happy disposition is good. b) A man takes a new job. At his old job he always had snacks at his desk. He observes a co-worker being corrected for eating and decides not to eat at his desk. c) A girl observes her older sisters and develops a sense that personal modesty is important. d) A boy's parents are both members of the Democratic Party. He develops positive ideas about Democrats and negative ideas about Republicans. He decides he is a Democrat. e) A girl is scolded for speaking loudly with her friends at church and decides that it is improper to speak loudly at church. f) An man chooses not to buy his groceries from the market across the street because it is operated by an Asian family. He recalls that he often heard his parents describe Asian-Americans in derogatory terms.

a) Secondary socialization b) Secondary socialization c) Primary socialization d) Primary socialization e) Secondary socialization f) Primary socialization

Q11. With which sociological perspective, or perspectives, of deviance do the following most clearly align? a) The man had very limited options. His family was starving and he needed food, so he did the only thing he could. b) Internal locus of control. c) External locus of control. d) White abolitionists during the civil war era may have been breaking the law by helping slaves escape to the North, but they should be commended for their role in resisting the awful practice of slavery. e) In first grade one teacher told Steven he was too dumb to do math. Steven decided he would prove his teacher wrong and went on to become a world- renowned economists and mathematician. f) Michelle decided to begin selling nude pictures of herself as a college student because she could not find a regular job that would pay her enough to cover her tuition.

a) Strain theory - this is an example of "innovation" - where one accepts cultural goals but rejects acceptable means of accomplishing those goals. b) Internal locus of control (a psychological concept) is when someone believes the outcome of one's life is caused by controllable factors. In this instance, the man made the conscious choice to steal to feed his family. c) External locus of control (another psychological concept) is when someone believes the outcome of one's life is caused by uncontrollable factors. In this instance, the man has to resort to stealing because he had no other means to feed them. d) The functionalist approach to deviance explains that deviance brings people together in a sense of moral outrage. In this instance, white abolitionists coming together to help the slaves escape to the North. Also, the functionalists explain that deviance encourages social change by pushing society's boundaries. By taking the action they did, the abolitionists challenged the status quo and eventually made slavery unlawful. e) Labeling theory suggests deviance and conformity results from how others respond to another's actions, rather than how the other actually behaves. In this instance, the teacher attaches the label of being dumb to the student. The student rejects the label in spite of the teacher's label and goes on to succeed. f) This is another example of strain theory. In this instance, the college student needed to pay tuition, but couldn't find a regular job so she resorted to illegitimate means to do so. According to strain theory, this is an example of "innovation" - where one accepts cultural goals but rejects acceptable means of accomplishing those goals.

How Does a large group compare to a triad or a diad?

as group size increases, stability and longevity also increase, but intimacy, loyalty, bonding, sense of responsibility, level of individual contribution, and consensus all decline. Most stable group size.

How is Sensory Bias used when choosing a mate?

an animal becomes shifts a food preference like color to mating preference. Example: Orange food shifted to orange feathers

What is the connection between stereotype, anxiety, and self fulfilling prophesy?

being stereotyped -> anxiety -> a self-fulfilling prophecy

What is Cultural Relativism?

cultural relativism is judging another's culture by its own standards. cultural relativism encourages openness and inclusion. Basically the opposite of ethnocentrism

What is the Social Construction Model?

emotional responses are not biologically predetermined and that all emotional expression is based entirely on experience and the context in which the emotion takes place.

What is the Psychological Construction Model?

psychological factors like previous experience, mood, and language account for the wide array of emotional expressions that we exhibit on a regular basis.

What is The Recency Effect?

remembering the last few names or words in a list would or using the most recent interactions to form an impression of a person would serve as examples.

What was the Asch's conformity study.

we may be willing to question our own beliefs and judgments in the face of disagreement with others. This was the line study test with the group of actors and one participant. The lines where drawn in Ash=how i remember it

What is a primary group?

• small group of members who share an intense, intimate bond that is long lasting and influential. •One's family is the most primary of groups. No other group has more influence than our parents, siblings, spouse, and children.

What is Avoidant Attachment?

•Caregiver is absent or unresponsive to child's needs •child shows no preference for caregiver over strangers •avoids caregiver •especially after a period of absence; does not seek attention or comfort from caregiver. In adulthood: Problems with intimate relationships; do not invest emotionally in relationships; unwilling to share their feelings; promiscuous sexual relations common.

What is Ambivalent Attachment?

•Caregiver is inconsistent in response to the child's needs, or is inconsistent in availability to the child •child is visibly upset when caregiver leaves, but is NOT comforted when caregiver returns; may avoid or refuse comfort from parent. In adulthood: Reluctant to form relationships; worry their partner does not reciprocate their love; devastated by breakups.

What is Disorganized Attachment?

•Caregiver is inconsistent, erratic, or may be abusive •child displays a mix of unclear attachment behaviors •child often appears confused or dazed in presence of caregiver •child may assume a caregiver role themselves at an early age. In adulthood: Various negative social outcomes similar to adults who experienced avoidant attachment as a child; in late childhood or early adolescence child often assumes a caregiver role themselves over their erratic parent.

How do Dispositional vs. Situational Attributions and Internal vs. External Locus of Control relate?

•Dispositional attributions tend to be more consistent with the concept of an internal locus of control •Situational attributions are more consistent with the concept of an external locus of control.

What is Secondary Socialization??

•includes a wide variety of agents. •not nearly as influential as primary socialization •peer groups, education, mass media and religion.

What is a secondary group?

•large •impersonal group of members and exist for a short period of time. •Students enrolled in the same large introductory course at a university are an example of a secondary group. Chances are high that after the course is over, these students won't maintain a relationship or be influenced by one another.

What is Primary Socialization??

•most influential type of socialization. •Intense longest-term effects •family considered the agent of primary socialization. -In a child's life, parents and siblings influence a child's values, beliefs and behaviors. In an adult's life, the same is true for spouse and children.